Relationship Between Reactive Agility and Change of Direction Speed in Amateur Soccer Players

Abstract

The aim of the study was to assess the relationship between reactive agility and change of direction speed among amateur soccer players using running tests with four directional changes. Sixteen amateur soccer players (24.1 ± 3.3 years; 72.4 ± 7.3 kg; 178.7 ± 6 cm) completed change of direction speed (CODS) and reactive agility tests with four changes of direction using the SpeedCourt™ system (Globalspeed GmbH, Hemsbach, Germany). Counter-movement jump height and maximal foot tapping count (completed in 3 seconds) were also measured with the same device. In the reactive agility test, participants had to react to a series of light stimuli projected onto a screen. Total time was shorter in the CODS test than in the reactive agility test (p<0.001). Nonsignificant correlations were found among variables measured in the CODS, reactive agility, and counter-movement jump tests. Low common variance (r = 0.03 - 0.18) was found between CODS and reactive agility test variables. The results of this study underscore the importance of cognitive factors in reactive agility performance and suggest that specific methods may be required for training and testing reactive agility and change of direction speed.

Full text

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN REACTIVE AGILITY AND
CHANGE OF DIRECTION SPEED IN AMATEUR
SOCCER PLAYERS
JA
´NOS MATLA
´K,JO
´ZSEF TIHANYI,AND LEVENTE RA
´CZ
University of Physical Education, School of Ph.D. Studies, Budapest, Hungary
ABSTRACT
Matla
´k, J, Tihanyi, J, and Ra
´cz, L. Relationship between reactive
agility and change of direction speed in amateur soccer play-
ers. J Strength Cond Res 30(6): 1547–1552, 2016—The aim
of the study was to assess the relationship between reactive
agility and change of direction speed (CODS) among amateur
soccer players using running tests with four directional
changes. Sixteen amateur soccer players (24.1 63.3 years;
72.4 67.3 kg; 178.7 66 cm) completed CODS and reactive
agility tests with four changes of direction using the
SpeedCourtÔsystem (Globalspeed GmbH, Hemsbach,
Germany). Countermovement jump (CMJ) height and maximal
foot tapping count (completed in 3 seconds) were also mea-
sured with the same device. In the reactive agility test, partic-
ipants had to react to a series of light stimuli projected onto
a screen. Total time was shorter in the CODS test than in the
reactive agility test (p,0.001). Nonsignificant correlations
were found among variables measured in the CODS, reactive
agility, and CMJ tests. Low common variance (r
2
= 0.03–0.18)
was found between CODS and reactive agility test variables.
The results of this study underscore the importance of cogni-
tive factors in reactive agility performance and suggest that
specific methods may be required for training and testing reac-
tive agility and CODS.
KEY WORDS field sports, testing, conditioning, cognitive
abilities
INTRODUCTION
Players in soccer and other field sports perform
numerous turns, runs with directional changes,
accelerations, and decelerations during games.
These high-speed actions occur when attackers
attempt to evade opponents or defenders follow the move-
ment of opposing attackers to enter the appropriate position
to tackle them. The ability to efficiently perform these
activities is described as agility. The following definition of
agility was proposed: “a rapid whole body movement with
change of speed or direction in response to a stimulus” (22).
According to the model of Young et al. (26), agility consists
of two main components: change of direction speed
(CODS) and perceptual and decision-making factors.
Change of direction speed is required when a task is pre-
planned and players do not have to react to any stimulus.
This type of movement is rare in team sports because players
need to react to the movements of opponents, teammates,
and the ball itself. Perceptual and decision-making factors
include visual scanning, knowledge of situations, pattern rec-
ognition, and anticipation. However, traditional agility tests
are preplanned running tests with one or more directional
change(s) around cones or other obstacles (5,6,8,20). Studies
using these tests suggest that agility and sprinting speed
(straight) are not equivalent abilities (5,16,25), and specific
training methods are required for development (27).
Studies in the last decade have attempted to develop more
specific agility tests that include the cognitive components
(perceptual and decision-making factors). In these “reactive
agility” tests, participants have to react to visual stimuli such
as flashing lights or movements of a live or (on a life-size
screen) projected “opponent” (3,4,9–11,17,23,28,29).
Reactive agility tests are known to be more effective for
discriminating between higher and lower standard rugby
players than are CODS tests (10,21). One of the variables
measured in the aforementioned studies is “decision time,”
which is the interval between the occlusion of a visual stim-
ulus and a participant’s “first definitive foot strike initiating
change of direction” (21). Decision time was found to be
shorter in highly skilled than in less skilled players (9,10,21).
These results underscore the importance of the cognitive
component in training and testing this complex ability.
However, significant relationships between reactive agility
and CODS test times have been previously reported
(9–11,23). This result is in contrast to the notion that per-
ceptual and decision-making factors play a definitive role in
agility performance (9,12). One of the possible reasons for
this relationship is the number of directional change(s) in the
reactive agility and CODS tests. These reactive agility and
Address correspondence to Ja
´nos Matla
´k, matlakjanos@gmail.com.
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CODS tests contain only one change of direction in response
to the movement of a live “tester” or a projected opposite. In
contrast, players in field sports have to perform in more com-
plex game situations, where they react to a series of stimuli
and change the speed and direction of their movement several
times in a row. Investigation of CODS and reactive agility
tests with more directional changes and directional alterna-
tives may more accurately represent the demands of game
play and increase our understanding of the nature of agility.
The aim of this study was to assess the relationship
between reactive agility and CODS in soccer players using
reactive agility and CODS running tests that involve four
directional changes.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
To investigate the relationship between reactive agility and
CODS, we analyzed the results of preplanned and reactive
running tests with four changes of direction. In the reactive
agility test used in this study, participants had to react to
a series of visual stimuli while they ran forward, backward,
and/or sideways. Vertical jump and foot tapping tests were
also used to assess the relationship between leg power,
movement frequency, CODS, and reactive agility.
Subjects
Sixteen amateur male outfield soccer players (24.1 63.3
years; range: 20.0–32.6 years, 72.4 67.3 k g; 178 .7 66cm)
participated in the study. Players were members of Hungarian
third and fourth division soccer teams. All participants had
at least 10 years of playing experience in soccer and were
free of injury. Participants received a verbal explanation of
the experimental procedures and signed informed consent
documents before testing. The study was approved by the
University Ethics Committee and was conducted in accor-
dance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The study conforms
to the Code of Ethics of the World Medical Association
(approved by the ethics advisory board of Swansea Univer-
sity) and required players to provide informed consent
before participation.
Procedures
All tests were conducted indoors on the SpeedCourt system
(Globalspeed GmbH, Hemsbach, Germany). This device
consists of a TV screen, a square court (4 34 m) with nine
pressure sensors, and a personal computer (Figure 1). The
pressure sensors are arranged in 40 340-cm squares on the
court. The whole court and the nine pressure sensors are
represented on the screen. After a visual start signal, one of
the squares (sensors) turned yellow on the screen. Partici-
pants had to view the screen and follow the yellow squares
while both running on the court and touching the appropri-
ate square with one of their feet. As soon as a square was
touched, another square would be illuminated.
A standardized warm-up, consisting of 10 minutes of
treadmill running (8 km$h
21
), 5 minutes of dynamic and static
stretching exercises and submaximal CODS, and reactive agil-
ity test trials on the SpeedCourt, was conducted before testing.
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of the SpeedCourt system. Figure 2. Running pattern of the CODS test. CODS = change of
direction speed.
Reactive Agility and CODS in Soccer Players
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After warm-up, tests were completed in the following order:
CODS, vertical jumping, tapping, and reactive agility.
Change of Direction Speed Test
The CODS test was a 14.5-m long running test on the
SpeedCourt with 4 directional changes (Figure 2). Partici-
pants performed as many submaximal trials to practice the
running pattern as required to memorize it correctly. In this
test, participants did not have to view the screen while com-
pleting the running pattern. The participant stood on the
starting square with one of his feet and waited for the visual
start signal on the screen. After the signal, he ran the given
pattern and changed direction on the squares (sensors) while
touching them in the given order with one of his feet. The
CODS test was completed four times with a 1-minute rest
between trials, and the best attempt was used for statistical
analysis. Total time (ToC), average turn time (ATuC), and
average split time (ASC) were measured during the test.
Total time refers to the time interval from the start signal
to the moment the participant’s foot touched the fifth
square. Turn time refers to the time interval from the
moment the participant’s foot touched the pressure sensor
to the moment the participant’s foot left the sensor while
changing direction. The average of the four turn times
(ATuC) was used for statistical analyses. Split time refers to
the interval between the moment the participant’s foot left
one pressure sensor and the moment the participant’s foot
touched the next sensor. The average of the 5 split times
(ASC) was used for statistical analyses.
Reactive Agility Test
In the reactive agility test, the participant stood on the
starting square until the visual start signal appeared on the
screen. After the signal, one of the 9 squares turned yellow
on the screen. The participant had to run to the square and
change direction on it while touching it with one of his feet.
The moment he stepped on the appropriate square, another
square was illuminated. The participant completed the
reactive test subsequent to touching 5 squares in a row;
thus, he completed a running test with 4 directional changes.
This type of reactive agility test (running with 4 unexpected
directional changes) was repeated 5 times with a 1-minute
rest between trials. The 5 running patterns differed from one
another and were unknown to the participants, although
every participant completed the same 5 patterns in the same
order. The distance of the 5 reactive agility tests ranged
between 9.3 and 15.9 m (9.3, 11.1, 11.4, 12.9, and 15.9 m).
Athletes were not able to watch one another while being
tested. Participants were instructed to not only touch the
squares (sensors) but to make a change of direction on
the squares. The average of five total time agility (AToA), the
average turn time agility (ATuA), and the average split time
agility (ASA) values were used for statistical analyses.
Vertical Jump
Countermovement vertical jump height was measured using
the SpeedCourt system. Participants were instructed to keep
their hands on their hips for the entire movement to
eliminate any influence of arm swing. Countermovement
jumps (CMJs) were completed three times with a 1-minute
rest between trials, and the jumping height of the best
attempt was used for statistical analyses.
Foot Tapping
Movement frequency was tested with foot tapping on the
SpeedCourt. The pressure sensor in the middle of the court
has 2 separate parts that count the number of alternating
footsteps in a given time interval. The participant stood on the
TABLE 1. Reactive agility and change of direction speed test results.*†
Reactive Agility test CODS test
Avg. total time agility (s) 5.42 60.44 Total time CODS (s) 4.18 60.32z
Avg. turn time agility (s) 0.33 60.08 Avg. turn time CODS (s) 0.31 60.06
Avg. split time agility (s) 0.79 60.09 Avg. split time CODS (s) 0.59 60.06z
*CODS = change of direction speed.
†Data are presented as mean 6SD.
zSignificantly (p,0.001) shorter than reactive agility times.
TABLE 2. Pearson correlation coefficients
between reactive agility and change of direction
speed variables.*†
ToC ATuC ASC
AToA 0.245 0.201 0.127
ATuA 20.125 0.333 20.327
ASA 0.275 0.061 0.307
*ToC = total time change of direction speed; ATuC =
average turn time change of direction speed; ASC = aver-
age split time change of direction speed; AToA = average
total time agility; ATuA = average turn time agility; ASA =
average split time agility.
†All relationships are nonsignificant.
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pressure sensor (with separate feet on the 2 parts). After the
visual start signal, he made as many alternating foot contacts
on the sensors as possible within 3 seconds. The tapping test
was completed 3 times with a 1-minute rest between trials,
and the best attempt (i.e., that in which most foot contacts
were made in 3 seconds) was used for statistical analyses.
Statistical Analyses
Data were analyzed using the Statistica software, version 12.0
(StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA). Pearson correlation analysis
was used to determine relationships between variables. The
alpha level of significance was set at p#0.05. Paired T-tests
were used to assess differences between mean values. Bonfer-
roni adjustment was used to eliminate the problem of
enhanced risk of type I error. Adjusted alpha level of signifi-
cance (p#0.017) was used for pairwise comparisons.
RESULTS
Differences Between Reactive Agility and CODS Times
Average total time in the reactive agility test was longer than
total time in the CODS test (p,0.0001). No difference was
observed between ATuA and ATuC; however, the ASA was
longer than ASC (p,0.0001) (Table 1).
Relationships Between Reactive Agility and CODS Times
Nonsignificant correlations were observed between AToA
and ToC, ATuA and ATuC, and ASA and ASC (Table 2).
Relationships Among Vertical Jumping, Tapping, CODS, and
Reactive Agility Test Results
Nonsignificant correlations were observed between CMJ
height and the variables measured in reactive agility and
CODS tests (ToC, ATuC, ASC, AToA, ATuA, and ASA).
However, significant negative correlation was found
between tapping count and ASA (r=20.51; p= 0.042)
and significant positive correlation was found between tap-
ping count and ATuA (r= 0.52; p= 0.035) (Table 3).
DISCUSSION
In this study, a nonsignificant correlation was found between
reactive agility and CODS in contrast to previous studies, in
which a significant relationship was found between total
times in reactive agility and CODS tests (9–11,23). This may
be because the reactive agility test in our study contained
four directional changes in a row, whereas participants in
other studies had to react and change direction only once
while sprinting. Furthermore, participants in the cited studies
completed a reactive agility test with 2 possible alternatives
(running to the left or right). However, participants in our
study completed a reactive agility test with 8 possible alter-
natives in every directional change. This resulted in partic-
ipants having to make cutting maneuvers at various angles
while running forwards, backwards, or side-stepping.
The nonsignificant correlations between AToA and ToC,
ATuA and ATuC, ASA and ASC suggest that the increased
number of directional changes and possible directional
alternatives may have increased the role of perceptual and
decision-making factors in the performance of the reactive
agility test. This conclusion is supported by results showing
that the number of possible alternatives increases the
difficulty of reacting, which increases reaction times (1).
The low common variance (r
2
= 0.03–0.18) between reactive
agility and CODS times suggests that reactive agility and
CODS are not the same physical qualities.
In most field sports, the game consists of longer periods of
play and complex game situations in which players have to
react to stimuli several times in a row. The reactive agility
test used in this study contains four visual stimuli in a row,
each of which has eight possible directional alternatives.
This type of reactive agility test is more complex than those
used previously and may better represent the demands of
game play. The results of the study also underscore the
importance of cognitive processes in the performance,
training, and testing of field sport players.
The significantly longer total time in the reactive agility
compared with that in the CODS test is consistent with
previous reports (9,11,17). Reacting to a visual stimulus
makes the running test more difficult. Participants in reactive
tests have to process the visual stimulus, decide on running
direction, and then modify their subsequent movement. This
takes longer than running a planned route.
The total time of the reactive agility and CODS tests in
this study consists of the sum of split times (time intervals
TABLE 3. Pearson correlation coefficients between jump height, tapping count, and running test results.*
AToA ATuA ASA TOC ATuC ASC
CMJ 20.308 20.322 20.108 0.242 0.242 0.102
Tapping 0.254 0.529†20.513†20.380 0.187 20.134
*AToA = average total time agility; ATuA = average turn time agility; ASA = average split time agility; ToC = total time change of
direction speed; ATuC = average turn time change of direction speed; ASC = average split time change of direction speed; CMJ =
countermovement jump.
†Significant relationship (p#0.05).
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between pressure sensors) and turn times (time intervals on
the sensors). The difference between reactive agility and
CODS total times in our study was caused by the longer
average split time in the reactive agility test compared with
that in the CODS test, as no difference was found between the
average turn time in the reactive agility and CODS tests
(Table 2). The similarity in the average turn times in the 2
types of running tests may suggest that participants made
a change of direction before completely processing the visual
stimulus in the reactive agility test. They made the cutting
maneuver and started their first step in an anticipated direc-
tion and then (after completely processing the visual stimulus
and making a decision) changed the running direction toward
the appropriate pressure sensor. This is supported by the find-
ing that the average turn time in the reactive agility test (0.33
seconds) was shorter than the choice reaction time with 8
possible alternatives (;0.60 seconds) (1).
The nonsignificant relationship between vertical jump
height and CODS test results is in contrast with previous
studies, which reported significant correlations (r=20.713 to
0.440) between CMJ height and various CODS test results
(2,13,14,18,19). One possible reason for this contradiction
may be that participants had to change direction with cutting
maneuvers on marked areas (pressure sensors) in our CODS
test. In previous reports, participants had to run around cones
or other obstacles and did not have to touch a marked area
with their feet while changing direction. However, partici-
pants in our CODS test had to modify the length and fre-
quency of their strides to touch the pressure sensor and
change direction on it. This may have increased the role of
coordination, thereby reducing the importance of leg strength.
The nonsignificant relationship between CMJ height and
total time in the reactive agility test found in this study is
consistent with the results of Henry et al. (12) who also
found a nonsignificant relationship between unilateral jump-
ing and reactive agility. These results underscore the com-
plexity of reactive agility and the role of cognitive factors
(perception and decision making).
Foot tapping tests have been described as reliable methods
for measuring movement frequency, which is related to
intramuscular and intermuscular coordination (15,24). Dam-
erow (7) observed a significant relationship between foot
tapping and the results of 10-, 20-, and 30-m sprint tests.
This suggests that movement frequency may be related to
(straight) running speed. However, no study has assessed the
relationship between movement frequency and CODS or
reactive agility. Our results suggest that the role of move-
ment frequency in the performance of a CODS test is lim-
ited. Tapping count was significantly related (r=20.513) to
average split time in the reactive agility test, indicating that
movement frequency may contribute to the effective change
of running direction after reacting to a visual stimulus. High
movement frequency may help participants perform more
strides while changing direction, resulting in a faster change
of direction maneuver and a shorter split time to the next
sensor. However, the correlation between tapping count and
total time in the reactive agility test was small. Further as-
sessments of relationships among movement frequency,
reactive agility, and CODS are required.
The nonsignificant relationship and the low common
variance (r
2
= 0.03–0.18) between reactive agility and CODS
found in this study suggest that different abilities are needed
when completing a preplanned versus a reactive running
task with directional changes. These results underscore the
importance of perceptual and decision-making factors in
agility performance.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Players in soccer and other field sports perform in complex
game situations where they have to react to a series of
stimuli and repeatedly change the speed and direction of
their movement. The results of the study showed that CODS
and reactive agility test times are not related if both types of
running tests contain four directional changes. These results
offer several implications for reactive agility training and
testing. Indeed, it may be advisable to use training drills with
a series of visual stimuli, where players have to react and
change direction repeatedly and have more directional
alternatives and running directions. For soccer and related
sports, these types of training drills and running tests seem to
be much more relevant than those requiring less cognitive
processing and fewer reactions to changing stimuli.
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