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MA05CH03-Liu ARI 9 November 2012 13:4
Gravity Flows Associated with
Flood Events and Carbon
Burial: Taiwan as Instructional
Source Area
James T. Liu,1,∗Shuh-Ji Kao,2Chih-An Huh,3
and Chin-Chang Hung1
1Institute of Marine Geology and Chemistry, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung,
Taiwan 80424, Republic of China; email: james@mail.nsysu.edu.tw, cchung@mail.nsysu.edu.tw
2Research Center for Environmental Changes and 3Institute of Earth Sciences, Academia
Sinica, Nangang, Taipei, Taiwan 11529, Republic of China; email: sjkao@gate.sinica.edu.tw,
huh@earth.sinica.edu.tw
Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 2013. 5:47–68
First published online as a Review in Advance on
August 28, 2012
The Annual Review of Marine Science is online at
marine.annualreviews.org
This article’s doi:
10.1146/annurev-marine-121211-172307
Copyright c
2013 by Annual Reviews.
All rights reserved
∗Corresponding author.
Keywords
mountainous river, typhoon, hyperpycnal flow, turbidity current, POC,
carbon burial
Abstract
Taiwan’s unique setting allows it to release disproportionately large quan-
tities of fluvial sediment into diverse dispersal systems around the island.
Earthquakes, lithology, topography, cyclone-induced rainfall, and human
disturbance play major roles in the catchment dynamics. Deep landslides
dominate the sediment-removal process on land, giving fluvial sediment dis-
tinct geochemical signals. Extreme conditions in river runoff, sediment load,
nearshore waves and currents, and the formation of gravity flows during
typhoon events can be observed within short distances. Segregation of fresh
biomass and clastic sediment occurs during the marine transport process, yet
turbidity currents in the Gaoping Submarine Canyon carry woody debris.
Strong currents in the slope and back-arc basin of the Okinawa Trough dis-
perse fine-grained sediments rapidly and widely. Temporal deposition and
remobilization may occur when the shallow Taiwan Strait acts as a receptacle.
Taiwan can therefore serve as a demonstration of the episodic aspect of the
source-to-sink pathway to both the coastal and deep-ocean environments.
47
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MA05CH03-Liu ARI 9 November 2012 13:4
1. INTRODUCTION: THE BACKGROUND
1.1. Influence of the Tectonic Setting
Taiwan, a high-standing island with an area of 36,000 km2, is located along the Ring of Fire on
the western margin of the Pacific Ocean. Because of its tectonic setting between the colliding
Philippine Sea and Eurasian plates, Taiwan has rugged mountainous terrain due to uplift, de-
nudation, and river incision. The Central Range extending along the north–south longitudinal
axis of the island has more than 200 peaks higher than 3,000 m above sea level. This mountain
range is the major divide between rivers that flow into the Pacific Ocean on the east coast and
those that flow into the Taiwan Strait on the west coast (Figure 1). Most rivers originate in this
range, with steep gradients and short distances from the headwaters to the confluences or mouths,
forming small mountainous rivers (SMRs) (Milliman & Syvitski 1992).
Previous studies have indicated that approximately 70% of the global fluvial sediment discharge
is from the orogens in southern Asia and high-standing islands fringing the Pacific and Indian
Oceans (Milliman & Meade 1983). This is due to a complex interplay between active tectonism,
steep topography, heavy rainfall, and intense human activities (Dadson et al. 2003, Griffiths 1979,
Milliman & Syvitski 1992). The contribution by SMRs to the world ocean’s sediment budget in
this region, although significant, has often been underestimated (Goldsmith et al. 2008, Lyons
et al. 2002, Milliman & Syvitski 1992). Sediment discharge from Taiwan rivers is 180–380 Mt
(metric megatons) year−1(depending on the method) (Dadson et al. 2003, Kao & Milliman 2008),
suggesting that the sediment yield of the island is ∼5,000–10,600 t km−2year−1, which means that
0.9%–1.9% of global fluvial sediment is discharged from only 0.024% of Earth’s surface.
1.2. Influence of the Monsoon Climate and Typhoons
The Tropic of Cancer crosses southern Taiwan; the island’s average annual temperature is above
22◦C and the average rainfall is over 2,500 mm. The humid tropical and subtropical climate in
Taiwan is very much influenced by the Asian monsoon. Taiwan is also situated in the typhoon
corridor in the western Pacific. Between 1949 and 2009, 255 typhoons passed through Taiwan,
an average of approximately 4 per year. The statistics of the typhoon tracks show that approxi-
mately 56% of them were westbound, coming from the Pacific Ocean, and approximately 31%
were northbound, coming from the Philippines and northern South China Sea (Figure 1). The
remaining 13% did not follow one of the common tracks shown in Figure 1.
Figure 2 shows the tracks of selected typhoons mentioned in this review. Typhoon-induced
episodic floods and hyperpycnal flows play an important role in the transport of terrestrial sediment
and carbon to the sea (Dadson et al. 2005, Hilton et al. 2008b, Kao & Milliman 2008, Liu et al. 2012,
Lyons et al. 2002, Milliman & Kao 2005, Milliman et al. 2007). [Hyperpycnal processes involve
transporting river material, not entrained seafloor sediment, directly to the marine environment
by a turbulent flow (hyperpycnal turbidity current), which initially contains freshwater (Mulder
et al. 2003).] Typhoons are not only physical agents for enhanced delivery of terrestrial material
to the sea; they are also geological agents, triggering gravity flows such as turbidity currents that
eventually leave deposits (turbidites) on the seafloor and form large-scale deep-water depositional
systems (Kneller & Buckee 2000, Mulder et al. 2003, Shanmugam 2000).
1.3. Influence of Earthquakes on the River Sediment Load
Taiwan is prone to earthquakes (http://www.cwb.gov.tw/V7e/earthquake/). Large earthquakes
induce landslides and alter the topography of river catchments, thus facilitating erosion (Chen et al.
2005, Hovius et al. 2011b, Lin et al. 2008a, Meunier et al. 2008). Earthquakes often reinforce the
48 Liu et al.
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Figure 1
Topographic map of Taiwan based on elevation. The large arrows represent the common tracks based on 255
typhoons making landfall in Taiwan between 1949 and 2009. At the bottom of each ribbon is the percentage
of typhoons that took that track; only ∼13% are not represented by any of the tracks. The catchments of
four river systems featured in this review—the Lanyang, Liwu, Zhuoshui, and Gaoping—are also
highlighted. Data taken from the Taiwan Central Weather Bureau (http://rdc28.cwb.gov.tw/data.php).
www.annualreviews.org •Taiwan as Instructional Source Area 49
B
C
120° E
22° N
23° N
24° N
25° N
0 25 50
121° E
Longitude
Latitude
122° E
<0
0–50
50.1–250
250.1–500
500.1–1,000
1,000.1–2,000
2,000.1–3,000
3,000.1–3,846
Elevation (m)
Distance (km)
N
Other tracks:
13%
6%
7%
23%
22%
11%
18%
Gaoping
River
Zhuoshui
River
Liwu
River
Lanyang
River
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MA05CH03-Liu ARI 9 November 2012 13:4
117° E
19° N
20° N
21° N
22° N
23° N
24° N
25° N
26° N
27° N
118° E 119° E 120° E 121° E
Longitude
China
Ocean
Taiwan
Southern
East China Sea
Northern
South China Sea
Gaoping
Submarine
Canyon
Luzon
Strait
Taiwan
Strait
Okinawa
Trough
Latitude
122° E 123° E 124° E 125° E
Fanapi (2010)
Morakot (2009)
Kalmaegi (2008)
Fong Wong (2008)
Sinlaku (2008)
Jangmi (2008)
Billis (2006)
Haitang (2005)
Mindulle (2004)
Conson (2004)
Nakri (2002)
Kai-Tak (2000)
Herb (1996)
Figure 2
The tracks of selected typhoons mentioned in this review.
effect of typhoons and vice versa, thus substantially increasing the sediment load in fluvial systems
(Chang et al. 2007, Chen et al. 2011, Lin et al. 2008b, Wenske et al. 2011), which often reach hy-
perpycnal concentrations (Dadson et al. 2005). Three out of the nine “dirty” rivers in the world are
in Taiwan, and these are able to produce one or several hyperpycnal flows each year (Mulder et al.
2003). Kao & Milliman (2008, table 3) have calculated that 10 Taiwanese rivers have discharged
>20% of their cumulative sediment loads at hyperpycnal concentrations. The three major factors
combined (topography, typhoons, and earthquakes) render high erosion rates, high river runoff,
and high sediment load, thus making Taiwan well suited to serve as an instructional source area
that can elucidate flood-related gravity flows in the source-to-sink pathway for terrestrial sediment
and carbon and their eventual burial in the deep sea.
2. SOURCE-TO-SINK EXAMPLES
Erosion rates in the Central Range average 3–7 mm year−1(Dadson et al. 2003, Fuller et al. 2003),
with much of the eroded sediment derived from bedrock landslides that mobilize clastic sediment
50 Liu et al.
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MA05CH03-Liu ARI 9 November 2012 13:4
Table 1 Some characteristics of the selected river catchments in Taiwan
River
Catchment area
(km2)
Discharge
(m3s−1)Sediment load (106tons year−1)Average slope
Lanyang 978a63.62a17 (Dadson et al. 2003), 5–17 (Liu et al. 2008) 1/55a
Zhuoshui 3,157a145.95a54 (Dadson et al. 2003), 28 (Dadson et al. 2005),
30–60 (Liu et al. 2008)
1/190a
Gaoping 3,257a68.48a49 (Dadson et al. 2003), 35 (Dadson et al. 2005),
15–35 (Liu et al. 2008)
1/150a
Liwu 616b31.31a15 (Dadson et al. 2003), 11 (Dadson et al. 2005) 1/32b
aWater Resour. Agency (2010).
bWikipedia (http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-hant/ ).
from threshold hillslopes (Hovius et al. 2000). Typhoons trigger large floods in river catchments
and play a crucial role in sediment transfer in Taiwan (Dadson et al. 2005, Kao & Milliman 2008).
The catchments of three rivers—the Lanyang (LYR), Zhuoshui (ZSR), and Gaoping (GPR)—
are selected in this review as instructional source areas; another river, the Liwu (LWR), is also
mentioned. (The romanization of Chinese names in this review follows the international Pinyin
system.) Table 1 lists the physiographical and hydrographical characteristics of these rivers. The
LYR and LWR flow into the Pacific Ocean, and the ZSR and GPR flow into the Taiwan Strait
(Figure 1).
Typhoons occur mostly in summer and early fall, but on occasion they also appear in late spring
and early winter (Figure 3). Typhoons coming in the wet seasons, however, have more power than
those occurring in the dry seasons, creating extreme annual values in the river flow and suspended
load. Depending on the location of the river catchments with respect to the typhoon track, the peak
river discharge and suspended-sediment content in different river catchments might not occur on
the same day, and might not even occur within the short period of the typhoon (Figure 3).
2.1. Lanyang River to the Okinawa Trough
The LYR catchment is a watershed that has been highly disturbed by human activities such as
road construction, hillslope farming, and aggregate extraction (Kao & Liu 1996, 2000, 2002).
Based on sediment-trap observations made at a location approximately 90 km from the LYR
in the southwesternmost Okinawa Trough (SOT), the measured mass fluxes are related to the
runoff of the LYR (Hsu et al. 2004). A three- to five-day lag exists between the peaks of riverine
sediment discharge and sediment fluxes at the trap site. The velocity of the Kuroshio Current is
∼1ms
−1or greater (Kao et al. 2006b), which could result in an 86-km transport within one day
if the sediment were carried by the Kuroshio. Higher sediment fluxes are also observed at greater
depths, suggesting a significant lateral transport due to gravity flows or resuspension.
From 210Pb-based sediment-accumulation rates, Huh et al. (2006) estimated sediment
burial in the SOT to be 14 Mt year−1, which is comparable to the LYR’s sediment load
(6.4–18 Mt year−1) (Kao & Milliman 2008), lending strong support to the sediment-trap ob-
servation by Hsu et al. (2004, 2006) that the SOT is a proximal and ultimate sink of sediments
off northeast Taiwan. Historical data reveal that hyperpycnal flows potentially occurred in 8 out
of 56 recorded years, contributing 83 Mt (23%) of a total of 360 Mt of sediment load (Kao &
Milliman 2008). Note that in the entire 56-year record, hyperpycnal flow events constitute only
195 h. The normal mode of sediment dispersal is via hypopycnal plumes.
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MA05CH03-Liu ARI 9 November 2012 13:4
a
10,000
1,000
100
10
100,000
10,000
1,000
100
10
1967 1971 1975 1979 1983 1987
Time (year)
1991 1995 1999 2003 2007 2011
c
100,000
10,000
1,000
100
10
100,000
10,000
1,000
100
10
Time (year)
Sediment content (ppm)
Discharge
(m3 s–1)
Discharge
(m3 s–1)
Discharge
(m3 s–1)
1991 1995 1999 2003 2007 2011
b
100,000
1,000
10,000
100
10
100,000
10,000
1,000
100
10
K
M
F
Figure 3
Available records of the river discharge and sediment content from the gauging station closest to the river mouth for the (a)Lanyang
River (Lanyang Bridge station), (b) Zhuoshui River (Xizhou Bridge station), and (c) Gaoping River (Liling Bridge station). The
interruptions in the records are due to the gap in the original data provided by the Water Resources Agency, Taiwan Ministry of
Economic Affairs. Small red circles represent days of typhoon warnings issued by the Taiwan Central Weather Bureau. The three
circled letters represent Typhoons Kalmaegi (K), the second-greatest typhoon discharge in 2008; Morakot (M), the greatest in 2009;
and Fanapi (F), the greatest in 2010.
In contrast, Jeng & Huh (2006) point out that the LYR is not a major source for hydrocarbon
in the SOT. Sediment-trap observations show that great sediment fluxes correspond to high values
of δ13C-TOC (total organic carbon) around −22(Kao et al. 2003). Yet this is contradictory to
the observed correlation that at peak riverine sediment loads, δ13C-TOC values approach −25
(Kao & Liu 2000). This is because the material and organic carbon collected by sediment trap
might not come directly from the LYR. Premixed organic matter sourced from the East China
Sea shelf during typhoons could be a contributing factor. Another possibility is that the sediment
trap might not have captured the sediment from the river, and the enhanced fluxes in the trap are
related to typhoon disturbance of reworked marine sediments. Furthermore, a rapid (three- to
five-day) addition of marine organic carbon from primary production in the upper ocean occurs,
resulting in a dramatic shift in the δ13C-TOC of sinking particles. Nevertheless, the δ13 C-TOC
values of surface sediments increase seaward within a short distance of the LYR mouth (Huh et al.
2004, Kao et al. 2003). In addition to hemipelagic sediments, those from seismically triggered
turbidity currents are widely distributed in the SOT. The time of deposition for various turbidite
layers can be correlated not only spatially among sites but also temporally with the history of
major submarine earthquakes in and around this seismically active region (Huh et al. 2004, 2006).
These facts reveal the source-to-sink complexity in this region.
2.2. Zhuoshui River to Taiwan Strait
The ZSR originates in the middle section of the Central Range at an altitude of 3,400 m above
sea level. It has the largest sediment load among rivers in Taiwan. The ZSR flows onto a shallow
52 Liu et al.
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MA05CH03-Liu ARI 9 November 2012 13:4
shelf. Sediment transport beyond the plume stage is controlled largely by the tidal currents,
wave-induced longshore currents, and regional current systems ( Jan et al. 2002). Mud normally
constitutes a majority (90%) of the suspended-sediment discharge (Kao et al. 2008b). During
typhoon floods, as the sediment flux increases, the sand fraction also increases to a maximum of 30%
at the peak flood. The findings of Kao et al. (2008b) suggest that the transport and deposition of the
mud exported by the ZSR are very likely in the northward direction, and the river plume related
to Typhoon Herb (1996) was probably hypopycnal. If it had been hyperpycnal, the deposited mud
would have initially been near the river mouth (Liu et al. 2002, Wright & Nittrouer 1995).
7Be-enriched mud belts and patches of fresh fluvial origin appeared off the ZSR and other small
rivers on the west coast of Taiwan immediately after Typhoons Mindulle (2004), Haitang (2005),
and Billis (2006) and vanished shortly afterward (Huh et al. 2011, Milliman et al. 2007). These
mud patches were ephemeral and migrated gradually toward the north, which could be followed at
monthly to seasonal intervals. Owing to frequent episodic typhoons and floods, non-steady-state
210Pb profiles are common in the Taiwan Strait (Huh et al. 2011). The mud budget in the Taiwan
Strait suggests that ∼85% of the fluvial mud from western Taiwan rivers is transported out of the
strait (Kao et al. 2008b).
Chien et al. (2011), in a study of the sediment dynamics of the ZSR plume after Typhoon
Kalmaegi (2008) (Figure 2), reported a maximum suspended-sediment concentration (SSC) of
∼120 g liter−1in the river shortly after the onset of high-density river flow. Immediately seaward
of the river mouth, within the influence of fresh river effluent, the SSC values dropped drastically,
indicating rapid deposition. After the typhoon, the texture of the surficial sediment near the river
mouth also became finer, changing from silt to silty clay, which also corroborates previous findings.
This proximal deposition could be explained by the gentle slope immediately seaward of the ZSR
mouth, which creates shorter run-out distances of sediment deposits by the ZSR plume (S.-N.
Chen, personal communication).
2.3. Gaoping River to Gaoping Shelf and Submarine Canyon
The headwater of the GPR originates in the southern part of the Central Range (Figure 4a)at
an elevation of ∼4,000 m above sea level; 48% of the drainage basin is above 1,000 m, 32% is
between 100 and 1,000 m, and 20% is below 100 m (Liu et al. 2009a). Ninety-one percent of the
annual discharge of the GPR is concentrated in the flood season ( June to October) (Liu et al.
2002). The physical and chemical weathering rates of the GPR watershed are not only greater
than the world average but also greater than the SMR average (Hung et al. 2004). Studies show
that sediment yield from the GPR watershed (15 kg m−2year−1) is higher than Taiwan’s overall
average (∼10 kg m−2year−1) (Dadson et al. 2003) and much higher than the mean value of global
SMRs (3 kg m−2year−1) (Milliman & Syvitski 1992).
210Pb-based sediment-accumulation rates show the greatest values in a pair of depositional
lobes flanking the Gaoping Submarine Canyon (GPSC) in the upper-slope region and the lowest
values at the base of the slope (Huh et al. 2009a). However, the sediment-accumulation rate could
not be resolved from cores collected near the canyon head owing to episodic disturbances by active
sediment transport, deposition, or erosion (Liu et al. 2009b). From the distribution of sediment-
accumulation rates off the GPR mouth and the adjacent shelf and slope, it is estimated that over
80% of the GPR sediment load is transported via the GPSC to the abyssal plain and the Manila
Trench in the South China Sea (Huh et al. 2009a). During non-typhoon periods, fine-grained
sediment and terrestrial organics are transported southward (Kao et al. 2006a), in which the ballast
effect is evident because the marine organic carbon burial exceeds the primary productivity in the
overlying waters.
www.annualreviews.org •Taiwan as Instructional Source Area 53
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MA05CH03-Liu ARI 9 November 2012 13:4
Figure 4
(a) Three-dimensional topography of the Gaoping River catchment and the head region of the Gaoping Submarine Canyon. (b)The
bathymetry of the area indicated by the red box in panel a, showing the head region of the canyon and the locations of sediment-trap
moorings discussed in this review.
Submarine canyons have been shown to play an important role globally in the transport of
terrestrial and shelf-generated sediment to the deeper part of the ocean (Khripounoff et al. 2003).
Recent studies have shown that the GPSC is a two-way conduit for land-sea exchanges of water
masses, energy, and sediment (Chiou et al. 2011; Lee et al. 2009a; Lin et al. 2005; Liu & Lin
2004; Liu et al. 2002, 2006, 2009b). In a 54-year record, hyperpycnal flows occurred in only 3
different years, lasting a total of 35 h (Kao et al. 2008b). Liu & Lin (2004) showed that hypopycnal
plume dynamics and the coastal wind field largely control the delivery of terrigenous fine-grained
sediment to the canyon. Both lithogenic and nonlithogenic particles contribute to high mass fluxes
(exceeding 800 g m−2day−1) in the lower part of the canyon in the wet season (Huh et al. 2009b,
Liu et al. 2009b).
In the canyon’s interior, the M2tide is the most important forcing in sediment transport
(Lee et al. 2009b, Liu et al. 2010), occasionally interrupted by hyperpycnal events in the wet
season (Huh et al. 2009b; Liu et al. 2010, 2012). Sediment transport in the canyon takes place
mostly in the tidally modulated benthic nepheloid layer (BNL) (Liu et al. 2002, 2010). Sediment
transport is highly nonlinear, and internal tides and related small-scale mixing are also important
in this transport (Lee et al. 2009a,b; Liu et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2008). The net transport of
suspended particles near the canyon floor is landward, mostly by tidal currents, whose direction is
also modulated by the spring/neap tide (Huh et al. 2009b; Liu & Lin 2004; Liu et al. 2002, 2006).
The presence of event beds, such as those generated by turbidity currents or hyperpycnal flows,
suggests occurrences of gravity-driven flows. Gravity-flow-related erosion could take the form of
mass wasting triggered by earthquakes (Huh et al. 2006, Sari & Cagatay 2006, Su et al. 2012)
such as canyon-wall slumping or slope failure, or the form of entrainment by turbidity currents
triggered by earthquakes and typhoons (Liu et al. 2006, 2012; Xu et al. 2004). Erosion could
54 Liu et al.
120.0° E
22.0° N
22.5° N
23.0° N
23.5° N
24.0° N
–1,000
0
1,000
Elevation (m)
Latitude
Longitude
2,000
3,000
4,000
120.2° E
Gaoping River
catchment
20 km
Gaoping
Submarine
Canyon
120.4° E 120.6° E 120.8° E 121° E
a
120.30° E
Gaoping
River
Xiaoliuqiu
Island
0
–100
–200
–300
–400
–500
–600
–700
–800
–900
–1,000
120.40° E
Longitude
22.30° N
22.35° N
22.40° N
22.45° N
22.50° N
Latitude
Depth (m)
2000
2002
2004
2008
2010
b
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MA05CH03-Liu ARI 9 November 2012 13:4
Table 2 Height of instrument above the seafloor on the taut-line moorings from whose data the cumulative sediment
transport was estimated (Figure 6)
Instrument height (meters above bed)
Year
Water depth
(m)
Mooring
number LISST-100/XR-420 Current meter Reference(s)
2000 290 T1KP 25 (LISST-100) 50 (rotary) Liu et al. 2002, 2010
2002 313 T3KP 28 (LISST-100) 33 (rotary) Liu & Lin 2004, Liu et al. 2010
2004 315 T4KP 41 (LISST-100) 47 (acoustic) Liu et al. 2006, 2010
2008 615 T7KP — 56 (acoustic) Liu et al. 2012
2010 267 T10KP4 40 (XR-420, optical
backscatter sensor)
20 (acoustic) R.T. Hsu, J.T. Liu, C.-C. Su &
S.-J. Kao, unpublished
observations
also result in “overturned” deposits with lower 210Pbex activities in the core-top samples from the
canyon (Liu et al. 2009b). Gravity flows in the canyon are also generated by typhoon-triggered
hyperpycnal flows in the river during the wet season (Liu et al. 2012), which is discussed further
below along with examples.
From a source-to-sink perspective, high sediment-accumulation rates and mass fluxes suggest
that part of the canyon is a trap for terrestrial and marine organic and biogenic particles. Yet other
evidence also shows that the canyon is a conduit for suspended sediment bypassing (Huh et al.
2009b). Gravity flows might play a pivotal role in determining whether the GPSC is a trap (sink),
pathway (conduit), or source (entrainment of the canyon walls and floor) on different spatial and
temporal scales.
3. FROM HYPERPYCNAL FLOWS TO TURBIDITY CURRENTS
Because each of the previous mooring observations in the GPSC (Table 2) encountered at least one
typhoon (Table 3), here we reexamine the data to render new insights into the interaction between
Table 3 Peak river discharge and sediment content of various typhoons recorded at the Liling Bridge gauging station of
the Gaoping River
Typhoon Period
Peak date(s) of river
discharge and sediment
content
Peak river discharge
(m3s−1)
Peak river sediment
content (ppm)
Kai-Tak July 6–10, 2000 July 10, 2000 893∗1,221∗
Nakri July 9–10, 2002 July 9–10, 2002 278∗516∗
Conson June 7–9, 2004 June 8–9, 2004 18 80
Kalmaegi July 16–18, 2008 July 18, 2008 7,670∗21,722∗
Fong Wong July 26–29, 2008 July 29, 2008 1,723 2,162
Kammuri August 5–8, 2008 August 8, 2008 825 1,009
Nuri August 19–21, 2008 August 19, 2008 598 700
Morakot August 5–10, 2009 August 9, 2009 3,883∗60,010∗
Fanapi September 17–20, 2010 September 19, 2010 2,382 8,396
The period of a typhoon is defined by the duration of the typhoon warning issued by the Taiwan Central Weather Bureau. Numbers are rating-curve
values except for those marked with asterisks, which are direct measurements. Data taken from Water Resour. Agency (2010).
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MA05CH03-Liu ARI 9 November 2012 13:4
the typhoon-induced gravity flows and the tidal flows. Sediment fluxes from each mooring were
computed by multiplying the measured flow by the SSC (Liu & Lin 2004; Liu et al. 2002, 2006)
or acoustic backscatter (Liu et al. 2012; R.T. Hsu, J.T. Liu, C.-C. Su & S.-J. Kao, unpublished
observations). The cumulative (net) suspended-sediment transport of each mooring record was
then computed by time integration of the sediment flux and plotted (Figures 5 and 6) similarly
to the progressive vectors used by Liu et al. (2006, 2009b, 2012). In what follows, observations of
three recent typhoons are used as illustrations for further discussion (Figure 3c).
3.1. Typhoon Kalmaegi (2008)
Typhoon Kalmaegi’s track cut across the northeast corner of Taiwan (Figure 2) during July 16–
18, 2008. The peak discharge and SSC occurred on July 18 (Table 3). A sediment-trap mooring
(T7KP) deployed in the GPSC (Figure 4b) captured two hyperpycnal turbidity currents (Liu et al.
2012). From the pulsating warm water plumes, nontidal flow patterns, and sediment characteris-
tics carried by the passing flow, Liu et al. (2012) identified distinct waxing and waning phases of
two hyperpycnal turbidity currents. Within the 16-h duration of these events, the measured mass
flux was 200 kg m−2day−1, from which Liu et al. (2012) estimated that the two turbidity currents
transported 2.6 Mt of sediment to the deep sea. Those findings verified the turbidite sequences
observed in sedimentological records from the Mediterranean region (Mulder & Alexander 2001,
Mulder et al. 2003). Liu et al. (2012) also confirmed the direct link between typhoon-triggered hy-
perpycnal flows in the GPR and turbidity currents in the GPSC that efficiently transport terrestrial
sediment en masse to the deep sea.
Based on the colocated optical backscatter and flow data collected by Liu et al. (2012), a plot of
cumulative sediment transport shows that during Typhoon Kalmaegi the net sediment transport
abruptly changed from up-canyon to down-canyon around 9:00 AM on July 18 (Figure 6). Liu
et al. (2012) attributed this reversal to the passing of a hyperpycnal turbidity current triggered
mostly by the sediment-laden river effluent at the head of the canyon and wave-driven gravity
transport on the shelf by typhoon waves (see Palanques et al. 2008 and Puig et al. 2004, which
discuss wave-driven gravity flows).
3.2. Typhoon Morakot (2009)
Typhoon Morakot is unique in that within five days it dropped nearly 3 m of rain in southern
Taiwan, which is equivalent to the average annual rainfall of that area (Figures 2 and 3). The high
rainfall in the GPR catchment caused numerous landslides, severe hillslope erosions, avulsion, the
collapse of riverbanks, and the collapse of five out of eight bridges crossing the GPR. It also created
enormously high SSCs in the river plume (Figures 3cand 7). During the typhoon, the peak SSC
in the river (Table 3) exceeded the threshold (40 g liter−1) for the formation of hyperpycnal
flows (Mas et al. 2010, Mulder et al. 2003). It does seem likely, however, that the hyperpycnal
plumes moved down the canyon and triggered hyperpycnal turbidity currents similar to what Liu
et al. (2012) observed. These currents caused the breakage of several undersea cables along the
thalweg of the GPSC (Su et al. 2012). Immediately after Morakot, Kao et al. (2010) observed
anomalously warm and turbid low-salinity water at 3,000–3,700 m depth in areas 180 km off
southwestern Taiwan. The 250-m-thick bottom-hugging water mass appears to have originated
in shallow coastal waters and was transported to the deep sea via hyperpycnal flows.
Six weeks after Morakot (August 5–10, 2009), on September 28, 2009, a box core (K1) was
taken during R/V Ocean Researcher 1 cruise 915 at the head of the GPSC (Figure 7). The coring
site was near the landward terminus of the canyon, where the vertical drop between the upper
56 Liu et al.
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0
–1,000
–2,000
–4,000
–3,000
–5,000
–6,000
–7,000
–8,000
–9,000
–10,000
–11,000
–1,000 0 1,000 2,000 3,000
45,000
40,000
35,000
30,000
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
–500
50
0
–50
–100
–150
–200
–250
–300
–500 0 500 1,000 1,500
–100 0 100 200 400 500300
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
–5,000
–10,000
–50,000 –40,000 –30,000
East–west cumulative transport (kg m–2)
North–south cumulative transport (kg m–2)
–20,000 –10,000 0 5,000
2000
Typhoon Kai-Tak
(2000)
2002
Typhoon Nakri
(2002)
Typhoon Ramasun
(2002)
2004
Typhoon Conson
(2004)
2010
Typhoon Fanapi
(2010)
a
b
c
Figure 5
Cumulative transport based on the sediment-trap observations at locations near the head of the Gaoping
Submarine Canyon in 2000, 2002, 2004, and 2010 (Figure 4b). The insets are enlarged versions for the years
of (a) 2000, (b) 2002, and (c) 2004. In each inset, the black cross indicates the origin of the record, and the
bold colored lines indicate periods of typhoons encountered during each deployment. Cumulative transport
was computed by time integration of the suspended-sediment flux, which is the product of the measured
suspended-sediment concentration (SSC) and the flow velocity (negative toward the south and west). The
2010 data set has the largest net transport values because of the high SSC, which was two orders of
magnitude higher than those in other years.
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MA05CH03-Liu ARI 9 November 2012 13:4
Typhoon Kalmaegi (2008)
Typhoon Fong Wong (2008)
Typhoon Nuri (2008)
–500
–10,000
–8,000
–7,000
–6,000
–5,000
–4,000
–3,000
–2,000
–1,000
0
1,000
–9,000
3,500 7,500 –11,500 –15,500
East–west cumulative transport (count-km)
North–south cumulative
transport (count-km)
–19,500 –23,500 –27,500 –31,500
Figure 6
Cumulative transport based on the 2008 sediment-trap deployment in the Gaoping Submarine Canyon (Figure 4b), which was located
farther down the canyon than the other deployments. Periods of typhoons during the deployment are indicated by thicker colored
tracks. Cumulative transport was computed by time integration of the suspended-sediment flux, which is the product of the backscatter
(count) and the flow velocity (in centimeters per second).
rim and floor of the canyon is 80 m. This location was likely near the plunge point at which
the hyperpycnal river plumes descended into the canyon, judging by the satellite image taken on
August 13, 2009 (Figure 7).
The sandy material in the lower 11 cm of the core shows a sharp contrast with the rest of the
muddy material (Figure 8a,b). The core samples were analyzed for grain-size composition, TOC,
TON (total organic nitrogen), δ13C, and δ15 N (R.B. Sparkes, I.-T. Lin, N. Hovius, A. Galy, J.T.
Liu, et al., unpublished observations). The mean grain size of the core showed a sharp graded
sequence superimposed by an inversely graded sequence with a demarcation at the down-core
depth of 42–43 cm (Figure 8a,b), similar to what Liu et al. (2012) found in their sediment trap.
This suggests the occurrence of a turbidity current or hyperpycnal flow (Liu et al. 2009b, 2012;
Mulder et al. 2003). The demarcation layer contains anomalously high TOC and C/N ratio and
low δ13C(Figure 8c,d).
A simple two-end-member scheme used to estimate the terrestrial fraction (Ft) of the organic
carbon is as follows (Liu et al. 2006):
δ13C (measured in the K1 core) =δ13C (measured in the GPR)
×Ft+δ13C (measured on the Gaoping slope) ×(1 −Ft).(1)
Representative δ13C values of −18 and −27 were used for the Gaoping slope (seafloor sediment)
and GPR (woody debris) end members, respectively, from the recent study of Morakot’s effect
on the GPR system (R.B. Sparkes, I.-T. Lin, N. Hovius, A. Galy, J.T. Liu, et al., unpublished
observations). However, other published δ13C values for Taiwanese rivers are also noted (Hilton
et al. 2010, Kao et al. 2006a). In general, in the K1 core a large portion (over 70%) of the
organic carbon (modern and fossil) is of terrestrial origin. Within the turbidite deposit, the value
is as high as 90% (Figure 8d). These findings confirm that the turbidity currents depositing
the sediment were transporting terrestrial material, presumably from the GPR hyperpycnal flows
during Morakot, thereby forming an integral part of the organic pathway to transfer terrestrially
sourced carbon to geological carbon sequestration (Hovius et al. 2011a).
58 Liu et al.
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22.35° N
22.40° N
22.45° N
22.50° N
Latitude
120.35° E 120.40° E 120.45° E
Longitude
Gaoping
River
Gaoping
Submarine
Canyon
–100
–15
–50
–250
–100
–200
–300
–400
Xiaoliuqiu
Island
Box core K1
N
Figure 7
Satellite image of the landward terminus of the Gaoping Submarine Canyon taken by FORMOSAT-II at
9:44 AM on August 13, 2009, on which bathymetric contours (in meters) are superimposed. The box core K1
was taken on September 28, 2009. Adapted from Kao et al. (2010); image provided by the Center for Space
and Remote Sensing Research, National Central University.
3.3. Typhoon Fanapi (2010)
Typhoon Fanapi devastated southern Taiwan during September 17–20, 2010 (Table 2). R/V
Ocean Researcher 3 cruise 1493 deployed two moorings near the terminus of the GPSC, including
one sediment-trap mooring (T10KP4) on September 24. After the lifting of the typhoon warning,
the sediment content and river discharge remained high for several more days, and consequently
the instruments on the moorings were able to capture the wake of the river hyperpycnal flows
(anomalously high SSC and warm water) within the BNL (R.T. Hsu, J.T. Liu, S.-N. Chen, C.-C.
Su & S.-J. Kao, unpublished observations).
The optical backscatter sensor measurements on T10KP4 were first converted from formazin
turbidity units (FTUs) to milligrams per liter (1 FTU ≈1.7 mg liter−1), according to Jouanneau
et al. (1998). Subsequently, the cumulative sediment-transport plot showed that the first two
semidiurnal tidal cycles of the record had strong down-canyon transport (Figure 6). After 11:50 AM
on September 25, the net transport became up-canyon and remained so until the end of the record.
3.4. Gravity Flow: Tidal-Flow Interactions in the Gaoping Submarine Canyon
A consistent theme that emerges from all the cumulative sediment-transport plots (Figures 5 and
6) is the strong tidal modulation for the net sediment transport in the BNL. Owing to the steering
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0
49–50
48–49
47–48
46–47
45–46
44–45
43–44
42–43
41–42
40–41
39–40
38–39
37–38
36–37
35–36
34–35
33–34
32–33
31–32
30–31
29–30
28–29
27–28
26–27
25–26
24–25
23–24
22–23
21–22
20–21
19–20
18–19
17–18
16–17
15–16
14–15
13–14
12–13
11–12
10–11
9–10
8–9
7–8
6–7
5–6
4–5
3–4
2–3
1–2
0–1
20 40 60
Mean grain size
Down-core depth (cm)
Cumulative
proportions (%)
TOC (%) C/N
80 100 0 20406080
Sand
Silt
Clay
100 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 48610121416
Water content (%) δ13CFt (%)
15 20 25 30 35 40 –26 –25 –24 60 70 80 90
abc d
Figure 8
Down-core properties of the box core K1, including (a) mean grain size (red ) superimposed on a photograph
of the core; (b) water content (blue) superimposed on the cumulative proportions of clay, silt, and sand;
(c) TOC (total organic carbon) ( green)andδ13 C(purple); and (d)C/Nratio(orange) and terrestrial fraction
of the organic carbon (Ft, defined by Equation 1) (brown).
60 Liu et al.
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MA05CH03-Liu ARI 9 November 2012 13:4
effect of the GPSC, in the course of each semidiurnal tidal cycle the net sediment transport shows
periodic reversals following the orientation of the thalweg. Because of unfortunate choices of
deployment sites in 2000, 2002, and 2004, flow observations were greatly influenced by the local
canyon topography (Liu et al. 2010), and thus the data are not representative of the net effect of
tidal transport (Figure 5a–c).
The early part of the T7KP observation in 2008 (before the influence of Typhoon Kalmaegi)
and the later part of the T10KP4 observation in 2010 (after the influence of Typhoon Fanapi) show
a net up-canyon transport (Figures 5 and 6). In fact, another typhoon-free record from mooring
T6KP in 2008 (Huh et al. 2009b) shows exactly the same trend. Typhoons do not necessarily
offset this trend, as shown in Figures 5 and 6. Only Kalmaegi and Fanapi had noticeable indica-
tions of reversed net sediment transport to down-canyon. One explanation is obvious, as seen in
Table 3: Some typhoons do not generate substantial river discharge and SSC, and thus are unable
to form hyperpycnal flows at the river mouth. The other possibility is the inability of the mooring
instrumentation to be close enough to the canyon floor to capture the bottom-hugging turbidity
currents, if any (Kao et al. 2010, Liu et al. 2012).
Although Liu et al. (2012) have seen the retardation of the turbidity current by the tidal flow,
little is known about the interactions between the gravity-driven turbidity currents and the tide-
driven barotropic and baroclinic flows in the canyon. Despite the strong terrestrial signals in the
suspended sediment of the BNL after Fanapi (R.T. Hsu, J.T. Liu, S.-N. Chen, C.-C. Su & S.-J.
Kao, unpublished observations), little is known about how the hyperpycnal plume plunges into the
canyon, how the hyperpycnal flow affects the BNL, or how turbidity currents are ignited. These
are subjects worthy of future pursuit.
4. CARBON SOURCE AND BURIAL
The highest rates of total particulate organic carbon (POC) and sediment transfer have been
measured in small river catchments (<5,000 km2) draining mountainous terrain (Dadson et al.
2003, Hilton et al. 2008b, Hovius et al. 2000, Kao & Liu 1996, Lyons et al. 2002, Milliman &
Syvitski 1992). In Taiwan, frequent deep landslides coupled with biomass elimination provide
opportunities to examine the transfer behavior of clastic sediment and POC over a large dynamic
range of flow conditions (Hilton et al. 2008a, Kao & Liu 1996). Hilton et al. (2008a) confirmed the
important role of the erosional process that supplies POC biomass from forested hillslopes to river
channels during high rainfall. This is seen in Taiwan in a common post-typhoon phenomenon of
driftwood—large tree trunks to small tree branches and twigs—along riverbanks and on riverbeds
(West et al. 2011) and even on beaches and in harbors (Figure 9a,b). Apparently, typhoons trigger
landslides that subsequently release coarse woody debris from mountain forests (Hilton et al. 2011;
Seo et al. 2008a,b; West et al. 2011). Carbon contained in the driftwood is part of the pathway
in which fresh terrestrial carbon is transported from river catchments to the coastal waters and
beyond. The orange-colored streaks to the north of the river plume and along riverbanks and
shorelines seen in the FORMOSAT-II image taken on August 13, 2009, are actually driftwood
(Figure 7). Morakot-generated driftwood from Taiwan reached Kyushu, Japan, approximately
1,100 km away (Radio Taiwan Int. 2009).
In the transport process, large woody debris can break down and be entrained with clastic
material as part of the river sediment load, enhancing POC biomass supply by an SMR. Woody
material—including small plant debris, branches, and twigs—carried in a hyperpycnal turbidity
current was captured by the sediment trap in the GPSC during Typhoon Kalmaegi (Figure 9c).
A piece of woody material is also visible in the photograph of the Morakot-generated turbidite
(Figure 8a). The findings by Liu et al. (2012) confirmed the pathway for effective and speedy
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MA05CH03-Liu ARI 9 November 2012 13:4
a
b c
Figure 9
Photographs of driftwood piling up on (a) the bank of the Gaoping River (courtesy of R.B. Sparkes) and (b) a beach in eastern Taiwan
(courtesy of the Central News Agency), taken shortly after Typhoon Morakot in 2009. (c) Photograph of a freeze-dried sediment-trap
sample (courtesy of H.-L. Lin, taken from Liu et al. 2012) carried in the head of a passing turbidity current in the Gaoping Submarine
Canyon in 2008, which was triggered by Typhoon Kalmaegi.
transport of terrestrial sediment and carbon from the river hyperpycnal plume via turbidity currents
to the deep sea (Saller et al. 2006). Generally, Taiwan’s SMRs rapidly transport sediments from
their source areas to the sea (Huh et al. 2011). Therefore, this link between the hyperpycnal flow
and the turbidity current could be one pathway for the burial of terrestrial carbon promoted by
rapid sediment accumulation in marine depocenters (Burdige 2005, Canfield 1994, Galy et al.
2007, Hovius et al. 2011b, Leithold & Hope 1999, Liu et al. 2012).
Typhoons or dust storms significantly enhance the supply of terrestrial and oceanic nutrients in
marginal seas (Chang et al. 1996, Chung et al. 2012, Hung et al. 2009, Shiah et al. 2000, Siswanto
et al. 2009) as well as in the Kuroshio Current (Chen et al. 2009) and the open Gulf of Mexico
(Yuan et al. 2004). The nutrient-rich water can boost phytoplankton blooms and in turn help
drive the global carbon cycle. For example, the diatom abundance in the southern East China Sea
(SECS) (25.45◦N, 122.00◦E; Figure 2) increased by approximately 50-fold within 10 days of the
passage of Typhoon Morakot (Chung et al. 2012). Seasonal investigations near the continental
shelf break (25.40◦N, 122.45◦E; Figure 2), including periods before and shortly after the passage
of Typhoons Fong Wong, Sinlaku, and Jangmi in 2008, showed that nutrient-rich waters were
brought to the surface after the typhoons, leading to a phytoplankton bloom (Hung & Gong
2011). Elevated POC fluxes (552 ±28 mg C m−2day−1) off the northeast corner of Taiwan were
62 Liu et al.
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MA05CH03-Liu ARI 9 November 2012 13:4
observed after Typhoon Jangmi, which is approximately a threefold increase from the monthly
mean value (184 ±37 mg m−2day−1) (Hung & Gong 2011).
Typhoons have a profound impact on POC flux, but are they important to the summer POC
flux in the SECS? The areas of the cold-water patch (e.g. <27◦C) in the SECS under non-typhoon
and post-typhoon conditions are approximately 2,900 and 10,000–30,000 km2, respectively (Hung
& Gong 2011, Hung et al. 2010). The corresponding POC fluxes are 184 and 225–552 (average
value of ∼400) mg m−2day−1, respectively (Hung & Gong 2011). Thus, the typhoon-induced
POC transport in the SECS would be 0.21 Mt (assuming four typhoons and that the cold-water
patches last 20 days per year, the trapping efficiency is 75%, and the affected area is 20,000 km2).
Also, assuming the summer to be 100 days long, POC transport under non-typhoon conditions
(∼80 days) would then be 0.056 Mt. Consequently, typhoons could contribute approximately
79% of the total summer POC transport in the SECS, which is a conservative estimate because
the sizes of cold-water patches are underestimated owing to heavy cloud cover. Furthermore,
typhoon-triggered terrestrial nutrients also enhance new phytoplankton production (Chung et al.
2012; C.C. Hung, C.C. Chung, G.C. Gong, S. Jan, W.C. Chou, et al., unpublished observations).
In general, typhoon-related marine POC loads in waters around Taiwan are also an important
source in carbon burial. Simultaneous occurrences of typhoon disturbances in river catchments,
on the seafloor of shallow shelves and deep submarine canyons, and on the ocean surface make
sedimentary systems important in organic carbon burial. Great burial flux and organic preser-
vation efficiency can be achieved over short periods in Taiwan’s unique setting as well as other
similar Oceania islands owing to largely enhanced new marine production, riverine input of clastic
sediment, and terrestrial organic matter.
5. NEW PARADIGM: FRESH SEDIMENTS FROM HIGHLY DISTURBED
CATCHMENTS DURING FLOODS ARE OLD SEDIMENTS
Owing to its short half-life, 7Be—a radionuclide often used as an indicator of fresh terrestrial
sediment—is concentrated in the uppermost layer of topsoil, and therefore can be more easily
detected in sediments resulting from sheet erosion; during landslides, hyperpycnal flows, etc., 7Be
becomes so diluted that its detection is virtually impossible, even with high-efficiency detectors.
During the peak of Typhoon Morakot, the measured SSC at the LWR exceeded 90 g liter−1,yet
7Be was not detected in the suspended sediment (Hale et al. 2012). Similarly, 7Be was not detected
in riverbank and suspended-sediment samples in the lower reaches of the GPR on August 20, 2009,
when the measured SSC was 5 g liter−1, nor was it detected in Morakot cores taken from Fangliao
Canyon (Hale et al. 2012). These facts suggest that a new paradigm is needed for quantifying
marine deposits from floods of highly disturbed river catchments.
Traditionally, flood deposits on the shelf that came from freshly eroded topsoil have been
characterized by, among other factors, fine-grained sediments having high levels of fresh organic
material, high water content, and detectable 7Be (Dail et al. 2007, Huh et al. 2009a, Leithold &
Blair 2001, Leithold et al. 2005). However, in the case of Morakot, although the turbidite layer
contains a very high fraction of terrestrial carbon (Figure 8d), much of the fluvial sediment load
was composed of fossil organic carbon (R.B. Sparkes, I.-T. Lin, N. Hovius, A. Galy, J.T. Liu,
et al., unpublished observations). Similar conditions have been documented in other mountainous
watersheds (Kao & Liu 1996, Leithold et al. 2006). Deepening incision of river channels driven
by a wetter climate was inferred from fossil organic carbon deposited in the SOT in the Holocene
(Kao et al. 2008a). Furthermore, the chemical weathering index of riverbed sediments from the
GPR (∼63; Selvaraj & Chen 2006) is consistently lower than that of surface soil samples (∼85;
S.-J. Kao, unpublished data), pointing to the same conclusion. Consequently, these “new” deposits
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in the receiving basins differ from topsoil in their physical and geochemical properties. These
observations lead us to suggest that new marine deposits are old terrestrial sediments transported
by highly disturbed fluvial dispersal systems during and following severe typhoons.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that
might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledge support from the Republic of China National Science Council. Robert B. Sparkes
made grain-size, TOC, δ13C, and C/N data available and also supplied the photograph of driftwood
on the bank of the Gaoping River (Figure 9a). Ray T. Hsu made optical backscatter sensor and
flow data on mooring T10KP4 available. We are grateful for John Milliman’s helpful comments
to improve the manuscript.
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Annual Review of
Marine Science
Volume 5, 2013 Contents
Reflections About Chance in My Career, and on the Top-Down
Regulated World
Karl Banse pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp1
Causes for Contemporary Regional Sea Level Changes
Detlef Stammer, Anny Cazenave, Rui M. Ponte, and Mark E. Tamisiea pppppppppppppppp21
Gravity Flows Associated with Flood Events and Carbon Burial:
Taiwan as Instructional Source Area
James T. Liu, Shuh-Ji Kao, Chih-An Huh, and Chin-Chang Hung ppppppppppppppppppppp47
A Deep-Time Perspective of Land-Ocean Linkages
in the Sedimentary Record
Brian W. Romans and Stephan A. Graham pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp69
Remote Sensing of the Nearshore
Rob Holman and Merrick C. Haller ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp95
High-Frequency Radar Observations of Ocean Surface Currents
Jeffrey D. Paduan and Libe Washburn ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp115
Lagrangian Motion, Coherent Structures, and Lines
of Persistent Material Strain
R.M. Samelson pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp137
Deglacial Origin of Barrier Reefs Along Low-Latitude Mixed
Siliciclastic and Carbonate Continental Shelf Edges
Andr´e W. Droxler and St´ephan J. Jorry pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp165
The Trace Metal Composition of Marine Phytoplankton
Benjamin S. Twining and Stephen B. Baines ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp191
Photophysiological Expressions of Iron Stress in Phytoplankton
Michael J. Behrenfeld and Allen J. Milligan ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp217
Evaluation of In Situ Phytoplankton Growth Rates:
A Synthesis of Data from Varied Approaches
Edward A. Laws pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp247
vi
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MA05-FrontMatter ARI 16 November 2012 11:15
Icebergs as Unique Lagrangian Ecosystems in Polar Seas
K.L. Smith Jr., A.D. Sherman, T.J. Shaw, and J. Sprintall pppppppppppppppppppppppppppp269
Ecosystem Transformations of the Laurentian Great Lake Michigan
by Nonindigenous Biological Invaders
Russell L. Cuhel and Carmen Aguilar ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp289
Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs: Effects on Breakdown,
Dissolution, and Net Ecosystem Calcification
Andreas J. Andersson and Dwight Gledhill ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp321
Evolutionary Adaptation of Marine Zooplankton to Global Change
Hans G. Dam ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp349
Resilience to Climate Change in Coastal Marine Ecosystems
Joanna R. Bernhardt and Heather M. Leslie ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp371
Oceanographic and Biological Effects of Shoaling of the Oxygen
Minimum Zone
William F. Gilly, J. Michael Beman, Steven Y. Litvin, and Bruce H. Robison ppppppppp393
Recalcitrant Dissolved Organic Carbon Fractions
Dennis A. Hansell pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp421
The Global Distribution and Dynamics of Chromophoric Dissolved
Organic Matter
Norman B. Nelson and David A. Siegel ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp447
The World Ocean Silica Cycle
Paul J. Tr´eguer and Christina L. De La Rocha pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp477
Using Triple Isotopes of Dissolved Oxygen to Evaluate Global Marine
Productivity
L.W. Juranek and P.D. Quay ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp503
What Is the Metabolic State of the Oligotrophic Ocean? A Debate
Hugh W. Ducklow and Scott C. Doney ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp525
The Oligotrophic Ocean Is Autotrophic
Peter J. le B. Williams, Paul D. Quay, Toby K. Westberry,
and Michael J. Behrenfeld ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp535
The Oligotrophic Ocean Is Heterotrophic
Carlos M. Duarte, Aurore Regaudie-de-Gioux, Jes´us M. Arrieta,
Antonio Delgado-Huertas, and Susana Agust´ıppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp551
Errata
An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Marine Science articles may be found at
http://marine.annualreviews.org/errata.shtml
Contents vii
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