Content uploaded by Iyiola Ebenezer Adeyemi
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Iyiola Ebenezer Adeyemi on May 25, 2022
Content may be subject to copyright.
RJOAS, 5(125), May 2022
200
UDC 332
BIODIVERSITY AS A TOOL FOR SUSTAINABLE SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
IN NIGERIA
Kehinde S. Aina1*, Ebenezer Iyiola2, Omolade R. Oyewumi1, Olusola Osuntuyi Edward3
1Department of Forest Products Development and Utilization, Forestry Research Institute of
Nigeria, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
2Department of Forestry and Wood Technology, Federal University of Technology Akure,
Nigeria
3Department of Technical and Engineering Studies, Bamidele Olumilua University of
Education, Science and Technology, Ikere-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
*E-mail: sesan2003toy@gmail.com
ORCID: 0000-0002-5342-9746
ABSTRACT
This article reviews the important of biodiversity in Nigeria; Nigeria is enriched with large
natural resources which include non-agricultural and agricultural resources. Each resource
has its own peculiarities. In agricultural resource, its role on economic growth and nation
development cannot be over-emphasized. Apart from production of food crop, wildlife also
plays some important roles in any nation’s growth. Man has been known to be depended on
plants and animals for food. A good inter-bio-relationship between animals and plants in the
same ecosystem yields robust and better diversity. Nigeria has being place of high
importance on biodiversity in a variety of ways. Food, raw materials, a wide range of goods
and services, genetic information for agroforestry, medicines and health-care assistance,
household and commercial items, aesthetics and cultural values all come from the country's
biodiversity. It also delivers green ecosystem services that help to improve the environment
and educate people about the natural world. Biodiversity values within Nigeria were directly
tied to a diverse range of ecosystems which exist in multiple ecological zones. The use of
biodiversity and the amount of protection are both influenced by different cultural varieties.
KEY WORDS
Ecosystem, biodiversity, agriculture, food, animals, Nigeria.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life that includes all interactions between plants,
animals, and microorganisms living in the same habitat. This applies to all levels and kinds of
biological organization that coexist in the same environment, including genetic diversity,
diversity of species, and ecological diversity (CBD, 2012). Biodiversity on the planet is a rich
natural resource in terms of economics, culture, aesthetics, science, and education,
providing huge monetary and non-monetary advantages to humanity (Leverington et al.,
2010). It also supplies essential bio resources that allow humanity to continue to survive on
our planet (Aguilera 2019). The term biodiversity refers to the diversity of living creatures'
species, or the number of distinct animal, plant, and microbial species present. Long-term
evolution determines the species makeup of a particular environment (Pimbert, 1993). Each
species has evolved to its own niche, which is defined by particular characteristics
(temperature range, food availability, or light), allowing this to breed and maintain its
population (Mann, 1991). The extinction of one species seems to have repercussions on
many others, causing an imbalance. Any species that fills the void left by extinct species will
definitely not be able to satisfy all duties it once did. When a species becomes extinct, its
services to the global biosphere are irrevocably lost, and it is extinct (Mann, 1991).
Over exploitation, pollution, and habitat conversion are the greatest risks to species
diversity. They result in the slow extinction of species on a local, regional, and global scale.
Furthermore, introducing species into new environments disrupts natural equilibrium. It
should have been obvious that the extinction of species is followed by a performance
RJOAS, 5(125), May 2022
201
degradation, some of which have serious consequences for human life, such as the
diminution of economically exploited fish populations and soil and sediment erosion.
Ecological diversity, which explains the current variance in both terrestrial and aquatic
environments, is another significant aspect of biodiversity (Purdy, 2012). This includes
differences in a biological community's complexity, such as the number of various niches,
trophic levels, and other ecological processes (Brenda, 2009). Ecosystem diversity includes
things like deserts, forests, grasslands, wetlands, and seas. Ecological variety is the
broadest scale of biodiversity, and within each ecosystem, there is a vast quantity of both
species and genetic variation (Cunningham, 2015). Ecosystem diversity refers to the
diversity of ecosystems within a given geographic area and their overall influence on human
life and the environment (Brenda, 2009). For a multitude of reasons, ecological diversity is
essential to human survival. Ecosystem approach enhances oxygen levels by enhancing
photosynthesis among the habitat's plant organisms. Diversity in an aquatic setting aids in
the purification of water for human use by vegetation. Plant variations expand as a result of
diversity, making them useful source of medications as well as herbal products for human
use. People alter the nature of biological communities by a variety of acts that increase the
rates of species invasions and extinctions at all scales (Naveh, 1994). Agreements were
established in the international community by the 21st century that highlighted environmental
conservation as one of the top goals of sustaining and conserving biodiversity for the growth
of mankind (Kolahi et al., 2012). Many protected areas are also known to play key roles in
preserving biodiversity with vital services supplied by natural systems, which ensure highly
sustainable and balanced eco-world (Borrie et al., 1998).
Nigeria is one of the world's most biologically diverse countries. The country homes
have high comparative broad degrees of rich endemism and species due to the complicated
topography and large diversity of habitats found in them. The Niger Delta's coastal creeks,
the Cross River Basin's rainforests, and the mountains along Cameroon's border are just a
few examples. There is an inland pattern of an assortment of different forest and woodland
habitats that finish up in Sudan Savannah and Sahel/semi-desert zone in the northern
section of the nation (Figure 1). Each ecosystem has its own wild fauna, higher and lower
floral species, and a diverse collection of marine and freshwater aquatic animals. Nigeria is
rich in endemic flora, with 91 species belonging to 44 groups, with Rubiaceae family having
the most members (Borokini, 2014).
Figure 1 – Nigeria vegetation map (Source: Ibenegbu, 2018)
RJOAS, 5(125), May 2022
202
However, land use changes from agriculture and overgrazing, over exploitation of
natural resources by extractive players, invasive species, and environmental degradation are
all threatening Nigeria's biodiversity. Nigeria has a total of 7895 plant species divided into
338 families and 2215 genera (NFNB, 2001). There are around 22,000 species of
vertebrates and invertebrates. There are around 20,000 insects, 1,000 birds, 1,000 fishes,
247 mammals, and 123 reptiles among these species. All of these animals and plant species
are found in varying numbers across the country's vegetation, as shown in (Table 1). Majority
of these variations helped to keep the country's agricultural economy afloat.
Table 1 – Nigeria Vegetation Type
S/N
Vegetation type
Name of reserve
Locations (State)
1
Guinea Savannah
Ebbazikampe, Ibi and upper Ogun
Kwara, Taraba, and Oyo
2
Rainforest
Okpara, Anambra
Oyo, Anambra
3
Lowland Rainforest
Ohosu, Ologbo, Iri-Ada-Obi, Ologbolo-Emu-Urho, Orle
River, and Gilli-Gilli; Uddi/Nsukka,and Akpaka; Obudu
Edo, Anambra and Cross
River
4
Mangrove/Swamp
Forest
Stubbs creek
Akwa-Ibom
5
Sudan Savannah
Wase Sanctuary, wase Rock Bird Sanctuary, Pandam
Wildlife Park and Pai River; Dampar Sanctuary and
Nasarawa; Lama/Bura, Kogin Kano, Dagida, Alawa
and Kwiambana
Plateau; Nasarawa;
Bauchi; Kano, Niger and
Zamfara
6
Sahel Savannah
Lake Chad
Borno
Source: NFNB (2001).
Poverty. Poverty is a basic violation of human dignity since it denies people options
and chances. It refers to a person's inability to engage successfully in society on a
fundamental level (Good, 1991). It includes not having enough to feed and house a family,
not having a school or clinic in the town or area, not having property on which to produce
one's food or a work to earn one's livelihood, and not having access to credit. Poverty
involves being vulnerable to violence, and it frequently entails living in marginal or vulnerable
locations with no access to safe drinking water or sanitation (Cardinale, 2012). According to
the reports UNDP 2008, 2009 that high number of impoverished people lives in Nigeria. It
increased from 27.2 % to 65.6 % in 1996, representing an annual growth of 8.83 % during a
16-year period. However, from 1996 and 2004, the poverty rate fell by 2.1 percent each year
on average, to 54.4 percent (UNDP 2008, 2009).
Poverty, to a considerable extent, leads to a serious danger for biodiversity and, in
other ways, continues to increase poverty in most rural regions. It serves as a vital
connection between alleviating poverty, job creation, and long-term economic viability
(WCED 1987). This demonstrates how biodiversity and poverty frequently coexist at different
sizes (Fisher and Christopher, 2007). As seen in (Figure 2), the Sudan, Guinea, and Sahel
savannah have higher poverty levels than the rest of the vegetation. Natural protection in
ecological vegetation zones contributes to the socioeconomic growth of the areas. According
to Ola-Adams et al., (2004), conservation is viewed both as a restraint to development and a
strategy for poverty alleviation. Many results show insufficient information to tell policymakers
about the importance of conservation in a country's economic growth.
Poverty, as an underlying element of biodiversity loss can endanger species diversity in
two ways. First, the rich elite drives poor to damage their own source of living for little
financial return, and second, owing to deprivation, they find it impossible to secure any other
alternative than eroding the fundamental base of their own long-term existence (Iment and
Adebola, 2001). Biodiversity is always on the receiving end, as it is the most immediately
available source of food, fiber, shelter, medicine, and limited commercial gain for rural people
(Adebayo and Uyi, 2010).
Food supply and food security. Food is vital to people' everyday activities; it nourishes
and aids in the growth of human bodily systems, as well as utilizing biodiversity directly
(Power and Jetz, 2019, Steffen et al., 2015, Bardgett and Van der Putten, 2014, Wardle, et
al., 2014). Vegetables, fruits, nuts, grains, meat, honey, and food additives such as food
RJOAS, 5(125), May 2022
203
colorants, flavorings, and preservatives are examples of nutrition (Bardgett and Wardle,
2010, Fausto et al., 2018, Hill et al, 2018). Only 12,500 flowering plant species are
considered edible by humans, out of an estimated 300,000 species. It has long been
recognized that wild food sources continue to play an important role in providing people's
nutritional needs in many countries (Babigumira et al., 2014, Pereira et al., 2020, Jetz et al.,
2012, Faurby and Svenning, 2015).
Figure 2 – Poverty rate in each State across Nigeria (Source: OPHI, 2017)
Previous research has shown that diversification protects crops from production
fluctuation and ultimate crop failure (FAO, 2019). It is well known that the majority of foods
consumed in industrialized nations originate from domesticated species that are heavily
reliant on wild populations, with a considerable portion of it foraged from the wild (Ravenga
and Mock, 2015). In comparison to general variation, the diversity of organisms exploited for
food supply remains modest, leaving plenty of space for more exploitation (Roe et al., 2005,
Butchart et al., 2010). The utilization of wild species and variations to provide genes for
improved yields, tolerances, vigour, pest and disease resistance in cultivated and
domesticated species, however, decreasing this gap indirectly (Hills et al., 2018, Adams et
al., 2014). Thus, wild animal and plant species provide a vast reservoir of genetic variety,
which is essential for food security (Adams et al., 2014). Forests, savannah woodlands, and
coastal mangroves all contribute directly to the nutrition of Nigerians living in rural
communities (Usman and Adefalu, 2010). In Nigeria, biodiversity and human food are
inextricably linked. Nigerians rely heavily on biodiversity for food and other supplements (Igu
et al., 2017). Nature has provided 70-80 percent of food for rural Nigerians, while 20-30
percent is being used to sustain the essential benefits of urban and peri-urban groups (Ajao,
2012). Bush meat, snails, periwinkles, fish, wild fruits like bush mango, edible kola, nuts,
various types of vegetables, and also condiments and nutrition foods like hot leaves, various
species of spices, honey from bee hives, mushrooms, and scent leaves are all examples of
foods derived from the forests (Meduna et al., 2009). The bush meat trade has helped many
Nigerian households in rural regions by providing work for numerous men and women. The
distinctiveness of Nigeria's food supply from biodiversity rests in the country's broad-based
ecological variety spanning the length and breadth of the country (Nataniel and Nathaniel,
2001). The Niger Delta's coastline region, with its mangrove habitat, offers a unique range of
sea-food sources. Nigeria boasts the most diverse range of swamp forest vegetables, fruits,
wild nuts, and dietary supplements of any country (USAID, 2008). The tropical rainforest belt
RJOAS, 5(125), May 2022
204
that runs through the southern portion of Nigeria contains a great number of fruit trees that
may be used for both commercial and residential purposes, as well as raw material for the
wood industry. Previous research on the Okwangwo sector of Cross River National Park in
northern Cross River State found the existence of 15 distinct types of seeds, 3 oil seeds, 44
different fruit types, and 25 different fungus species.
The demand for Gnetum africanum as a food source has outstripped the availability,
affecting millions of Nigerians in the Cross River and Akwa-Ibom states. The Guinea
Savannah forests of Nigeria are rich in animals and also supply a variety of unusual fruit
trees and vegetables. The Sudan savannah supplies food fodder for grazing animals and is
also home to a diverse range of species. The diversity of animals, plants, and trees that
make up biodiversity may be valued and maintained for long-term sustainability.
Domestic and commercial products. Biodiversity provides enormous industrial value
with a wide range of industrial materials or templates obtained directly from biological
resources (FSIN, 2018, Wardle et al., 2014, Babigumira et al., 2014). Some of the building
materials found in biodiversity were fibers, dyes, resins, gums, adhesives, rubber, oils and
waxes, and scents (Pereira et al., 2020). Herbicides, fungicides and insecticides are among
agrochemicals derived from natural sources or synthesized using natural compounds as
templates (Aktar et al., 2009). As for food and medicine, the full potential of biodiversity for
exploitation has significantly higher range of species for industrial uses, raw materials from
biodiversity are tremendous, and as a result, biological resources must not be allowed
becoming extinct. The bulk of rural people living in various regions of Nigeria obtained
greater proportion of their income from the wild bio-resources. Biodiversity provides firm
foundation for better rural life with improved economy. Many rural people mostly men and
teenagers live by collecting unprocessed wild resources, while bulks of their women are
involved in processing the natural resources to add value for distribution and
commercialization (FEPA, 2003).
Figure 3 – Ecosystem structures and functions (Source: Epson Group Sustainability Report, 2021)
In communal ties with biodiversity, many rural Nigerians' lives may be seen in the
trading and acquisition of food resources. Leaves, vegetables, ropes, seeds, fruits, nuts, gum
Arabic, firewood, bamboo, rattan, chewing sticks, cattle sticks, logs, snails, bush meat, and
fish) and their products (medicines, oils, fats, wines, thatches, sponges) are gotten through
communal relationship with biodiversity. As reported by (FGN, 2010) that massive communal
network involves in biodiversity, market exchanges and job opportunities for about 20 % of
Nigeria's population living in both rural and urban areas. Wood carving, canoe construction,
furniture manufacturing, basket weaving, local dye industry, honey production, fish smoking,
food processing, oil palm processing, fruit processing, and herbs medicine processing are
occupations involved with biodiversity in Nigeria. The domestication of both plant and animal
species can benefit from genetic preservation through the assistance from the wild. Many
developing countries of the world have to learn from Nigerians in relation to biodiversity as an
RJOAS, 5(125), May 2022
205
important source of livelihood support, and economic development of the people living in
both rural and urban places.
Ecosystem functioning and ecological services. Over the time, changes occurred in
ecosystem structure and functions which are often caused by biodiversity loss (Figure 3). If
these changes are not well addressed, it may lead to loss or degradation of essential
services, as well as having negative impact on human civilizations, aesthetic, ethical, and
cultural values. Presence of natural resource scarcity for livelihood support is seen today in
many Nigerian communities that formerly had an abundance of items and services for life
support systems. Abundance of life and life support systems was witnessed through inter
relationship with biodiversity but when human population is rapidly increasing, the
significance of biodiversity in supporting ecosystem functioning is critical falling for long-term
development.
Watershed protection and resource recycling. Watershed conservation is directly
influenced by biodiversity. The large network of river systems, as well as its related wetlands
and flood plains, rely on the continued operation of these watersheds, support a diverse
range of flora and animals. The two main major rivers found in Nigeria (Niger and Benue),
play a critical role in Nigeria's ecosystem and economy. The foliage of tropical crops, rocks of
savannah and woods safeguards the headwaters of numerous rivers. Gallery forests provide
a buffer zone of cover for water sources that support humans, animals, and cattle (Miller et
al., 1995). When the trees and it’s accompanies biodiversity elements are lost, siltation and
degradation of water supplies occurs, thereby creating immense miseries for human
populations, animals, and livestock. Watersheds and their associated biodiversity also play
very critical roles in protecting much-needed freshwater for domestic and agricultural
purposes, and providing good habitat for a diverse range of wildlife. Watershed protection
also provides a better platform for nutrient circulation and resource recycling for complex
ecosystem and species interaction, generic renewal, and ecosystem productivity (Nataniel
and Nathaniel, 2001).
Health and traditional medicine for human welfare. The World Health Organization
defines human health as a condition of entire physical, mental, and social well-being, rather
than simply the absence of sickness or infirmity (Manoharachary and Nagaraju, 2016).
Biodiversity, in addition supply nutrition which performs direct and indirect responsibilities in
sustaining the health of the human population (Johnson et al., 2013). There are two key
ways in which biodiversity might help impoverished people manage their health risks
(Christian, 2021). The first is related to biodiversity's role in reducing the risk of infectious
illnesses, while the second is related to biodiversity's role as a source of accessible medical
regimens that are not only curative but also preventative, hence lowering health risks (Diaz et
al., 2019). For decades, biodiversity had benefited millions of Nigerians in meeting their
health need and requirements. Traditional medicine uses plants which are mostly found in
the wild. This practice has recently received formal acknowledgment and attention for health
improvement (Diaz et al., 2006). Biodiversity minimizes the danger of spreading illnesses
within an ecosystem and among its human populations, as well as the chances of invasive
diseases entering the system (Sandifier et al., 2015). Almost every local community has vast
collections of plants and animals for treatment of various ailments. Plants and animals
provide helps and solutions to many health-related problems associated to reproduction
system services such as prenatal care, birthing, anti-infection medicines, and sexual drive
enhancement (Wittebolle et al., 2009). Hundreds of different kinds of plants are useful for
healing various ailments in different locations in Nigeria (Will et al., 2012). As a result, trading
in medicinal plants and animal parts has expanded. Today, traditional medicine practice has
constitutes a major category of commodities at local markets in rural and peri-urban areas.
Recently, people are now becoming more reliant on herbs, animal parts, fruits and other
natural resources. It has now being shown that conservation and sustainable management of
biodiversity is critical to ensure better health delivery to millions of Nigerians (Kala, 2017).
Domestication of these therapeutic plants and animals are currently being attempted in
various places like homes, research institutes, tertiary institutions and Non-governmental
organisations in Nigeria. The country has being able to achieve results through the
RJOAS, 5(125), May 2022
206
involvement of research institution like National Agency for Genetic Resources and
Biotechnology (NAGRAB) and Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria (FRIN), these institutes
have preserve key genetic biodiversity resources in Nigeria. The National Institute for
Pharmaceutical Research and Development also has accurate information on the medicinal
and patent worth of Nigeria's plant resources. Apart from direct use of biodiversity in
traditional medicine, diversity likewise contributes ecosystem services such as environment
welfare activities with biological scavengers and decomposers (Figure 4).
Figure 4 – Ecosystem to biodiversity and health delivery (Source: FAO, 2020)
Culture, heritage, arts and crafts
Many ethnic groups found in Nigeria have their own traditions and expertise employed
to interact with the environment. It has been seen that conservation of natural environments
and species is crucial to Nigerian cultures. Biodiversity plays vital resource endowment for
Nigerian cultures. The two worlds of culture, heritage and biodiversity are inextricably linked
in Nigeria. The lifestyles, customs, and conventions of Nigerians, as well as the arts, crafts,
music, and folklore reflects the ecosystem and natural resources found in each group and
culture. As an example, the Niger Delta's, Ijaws, Itsekiris, and Ilajes, are found in the riverine
areas and the people are comfortable with coastal environments. They swim, make canoes,
do fishing, compete in water regattas, and prepare seafood. Another example is the people
living in the Lake Superior, an inland body of water such people are in the Benue flood plains
and around Lake Kainji, Hadejia-Nguru lake, Lake Chad, and Oguta Lake. The Benue flood
plains are experienced with freshwater fishing, freshwater fish processing, and water
resource management (Nigeria Biodiversity Report, 2014).
Recently, several regions in Nigeria gives significant attention during ancient times to
areas with high conservation of biodiversity in support of worship, availability of vital herbs,
and consultation with deities. Some tribes still have fetish and holy forests where spiritual
consultations and harvest of plants for traditional medicines are made for the benefit of the
community. The inter relationship of biodiversity with culture, and natural heritage intertwined
in Nigeria to gained international acclamation, Osun-Osogbo forest in Osun State has being
designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The link between culture and biodiversity has
also aided in the conservation of some endangered animal species, such as the Sclaters
guenon (Cercopithecus sclateri), which can be found not only in the wild of Taylor Creek and
Stubbs Creek forest reserves, but also in holy woods found in Akpugoeze community in
Anambra State and Langwa community in Imo State (Onyekwelu et al., 2008).
Ecotourism and aesthetic values. Tourism and aesthetic resources are part of the
benefit of biodiversity places such as coastal sandy beaches, barrier islands, sparkling
landscapes; biodiversity hotspots, incredible cultural variety, and pleasant temperature are
among Nigeria's natural resources (William et al., 2020). Nigeria's diverse ecosystems make
it potentially high-tourism destination. In recent times, there has been some favourable
RJOAS, 5(125), May 2022
207
emphasis given to the benefits of biodiversity for tourism. The world renowned mountain race
has began and held in Nigeria's Obudu Plateau in recognition of the Plateau's distinctive
topography and semi-temperate climate. The Arugungu Fishing Festival is also a popular
tourist attraction in Nigeria, and the Hadejia Nguru Wetlands in northern part of Nigeria.
Many notable sites in Nigeria has huge potential for receiving millions of migratory birds, that
could provide huge resource for seasonal bird watching if well developed (Crawley, 1997).
However, owing to social instability, aging infrastructure, corruption, and poor policies has
made social and environmental insignificance of these resources, Nigeria has not being
receiving much tourism attention. Nigeria is known to be home of famous big animals like
Cross River gorilla (Gorilla diehli), African elephant (Loxadonta africana), lion (Panthera leo),
and Nigerian-Cameroon chimpanzee. The nation is also a center for primate variety; it is
among the highest in Africa for avian richness with a record of 940 species. Surprisingly,
Nigeria's incredible biodiversity is little known to the world and even areas like the Niger
Delta are understudied and underappreciated (Hillebrand, 2004).
Research and scientific knowledge for development. Nigeria's biodiversity provides
inspiration for knowledge, tourism, and enjoyment; it also supports scientific and educational
endeavours. Much of Nigeria's significant biodiversity hotspots play home to some of the
world's most endangered primates, while many areas are still understudied. Biodiversity
provides an outdoor laboratory for researchers as well as limitless opportunities for study in
areas such as medical, biotechnology, pest control and management, and ethnography.
Nigeria's biodiversity is chronically under-researched and under-documented; this attributes
make the contribution of biodiversity to scientific knowledge and sustainable national
development falls well short of its inherent potential.
Job creation and occupation. Biodiversity play a major role in job creation in Nigeria.
Jobs such as farming, fishing, logging, livestock raising, agricultural and forest resources
selling, sawmilling and wood processing, manufacturing in areas like paper making, perfume
mixing, food processing, brewery, distilling, garment and shoe making employs more than 65
percents of Nigerians (CBD, 2015). Hunting and gathering is still a popular partime job in the
rural regions, while the wood-based industries employ tens of thousands of people directly
and indirectly. Most commercial and industrial investments have biodiversity-related
activities, oil palm and rubber estates, gum Arabic, kola nut, cocoa and forest plantations,
tobacco manufacturing firms, horticulture and commercial fruit tree ventures are biodiversity
activities that provide jobs for Nigerians.
Climate change mitigation and adaptation. Biodiversity's importance in global warming
has been recognized in Nigeria, although it is not handled comprehensively. Climate change
mitigation and adaptation policies in Nigeria need to be improved. Global warming policies
and interventions should make a concerted effort to improve biodiversity' adaptive capability.
The concept of ecosystem-based adaptation actions for climate change mitigation and
adaptation in Nigeria would ensure ecosystem health and optimal contribution to sustainable
development. According to the report of National Adaptation Strategy and Plan of Action for
Climate Change in Nigeria (NASPA-CCN, 2011) stated that climate change is already having
a substantial influence on Nigeria. This report also stated that effect of Climate change may
cost Nigeria lost of GDP between 2 % and 11 % by 2020, and if no adaptation is made to
climate change, further loss in GDP between 6 % to 30 % will be witnessed by 2050. Climate
change is projected to amplify the negative effects of human pressure on biodiversity. This
will reduce biodiversity' ability to provide ecosystem services and may result in the invasion
of unusual species that are favoured by climate change.
Conclusion. Based on the information provided in this article, it is therefore advice that:
1. Over exploitation of biodiversity must be avoided. Government policy should ensure
that the execution of conservation legislation and penalty strictly adherent. Economic
activities in the forest should be minimized to avoid primary cause of biodiversity loss
and destabilization of the natural ecosystem;
2. Violators of biodiversity loss should be penalized financially and conservation should
be rewarded financially;
RJOAS, 5(125), May 2022
208
3. Forest policy should compel rural residents to exercise conservation in order to
maintain the biodiversity's long-term viability. This exercise will give the future
graduates to be well informed on the importance of biodiversity conservation thereby
creating more jobs for the people;
4. Through forestry extension services, sufficient knowledge and adequate information
will be known on effects of over-exploitation of biodiversity to the environment and
ecosystem;
5. Rural residents should be taught as tour/forest guides with adequate administration to
manage a viable ecotourism estate and business. Additionally, revenue generated
from ecotourism business should be diverted back to the community to help in the
growth of local economy;
6. The government or other international bodies should give an incentive for protecting
of the biodiversity hotspots and financial aids should be given to the community to
improve their social amenities like medical centre while grants or scholarships should
also be given to their children to boost the interest of the rural dwellers to
conservation;
7. Based on the information gathered from this article, it is crucial to emphasize that the
majority of industrial biodiversity applications have greatly contributed to the
deterioration of the earth's biological resources and efforts must be intensified to
maintain and manage the resources from being extinction.
REFERENCES
1. Adebayo, R. A. and Uyi, N.O. (2010). Biological control of invasive weed species:
Nigerian experience. International Journal of Agricultural Research 5: 1100-110.
2. Adams, W. Aveiling. R, Dan Brockington and Barney Dickson (2004): biodiversity
conservation, eradication of poverty. Science 306 (5699):1146-9,
https://doi:101126/SCIENCE.1097920
3. Aguilera J. (2019): The numbers are just horrendous. Almost 30,000 species face
extinction because of human activity. TIME. Available at:
https://time.com/5629548/almost-30000species-face-extinction-new-report/. [Accessed:
September 15, 2021]
4. Aktar, M. W., Sengupta, D., and Chowdhury, A. (2009). Impact of pesticides use in
agriculture: their benefits and hazards. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 2(1), 1–12.
https://doi.org/10.2478/v10102-009-0001-7
5. Ajao A. (2012). Harnessing Nigeria’s biological diversity in an integrated approach to
national development. JORIND, 10 (2) 40-45.
6. Babigumira R, Angelsen A, Buis M, Bauch S, Sunderland T, Wunder S.(2014). Forest
clearing in rural livelihoods: household-level global-comparative
evidence.WorldDevelopment. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.03.002.
7. Bardgett, R. D., and van der Putten, W. H. (2014). Belowground biodiversity and
ecosystem functioning. Nature, 515:505-511. https://doi: 10.1038/nature13855.
8. Borrie WT, Stephen FM, Stankey GH (1998). Protected area planning principles and
strategies. In: Lindberg K, Wood ME, Engeldrum D (eds). Ecotourism: A guide for
planners and mangers. The Ecotourism Society, North Bennignton, Vol. 2, p 133.
9. Borokini, T I (2014).A Systematic Compilation of IUCN Red-listed Threatened Plant
Species in Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 3 (3), 104 - 133.
10. Brenda Wilmoth Lerner; K. Lee Lerner, eds. (2009). "Ecosystems". Environmental
Science: In context. In Context Series. 1. Detroit: Gale. pp. 242–246. ISBN 978-1-4103-
3754-2. OCLC 277051356.
11. Butchart, S. H. M., Walpole, M., Collen, B., van Strien, A., Scharlemann, J. P. W., et al.
(2010). Global biodiversity: Indicators of recent declines. Science 328:1164- 1168.
https://doi: 10.1126/science.1187512.
12. Cardinale B.J. (2012). Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity, Nature. (486), 59–67.
RJOAS, 5(125), May 2022
209
13. Christian Asongwe (2021). Traditional Medicine, Disease Control and Human Welfare in
Colonial Southern Cameroons. Saudi Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol.
6(1): 26-36. 26 https://doi:10.36348/sjhss.2021.v06i01.005
14. Convention of Biodiversity (2012). Report of the eleventh meeting of the conference of
the parties to the convention on biological diversity. Convention on \biological \diversity,
Hyderabad.
15. Convention of Biodiversity (2015). Nigeria: Fifth National biodiversity report. Convention
on biological diversity. Retrieved from chm-cbd.com.ng.
16. Crawley, M.J. (1997). Biodiversity. In: Plant Ecology, 2nd edn. (ed. M.J. Crawley). 595–
632. Blackwell Science, Oxford. Cunningham, Margaret. "What is Biodiversity? -
Definition and Relation to Ecosystem Stability". study. com. DSST Environment &
Humanity: Study Guide and Test Prep. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
17. Cunningham William, (2015). Environmental Science: A Global Concern © 2015 13e, AP
Student Edition (Reinforced Binding)Edition: 13, page 640, ISBN: 9780021364565
18. Díaz S, Fargione J, Chapin FS III, Tilman D (2006). Biodiversity Loss Threatens Human
Well-Being. PLoS Biol 4(8): 277. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0040277
19. Díaz, S. Settele, J., Brondízio, E. S., Ngo, H. T., Agard, J., (2019). Pervasive human-
driven decline of life on Earth points to the need for transformative change. Science
366:eaax3100. https://doi: 10.1126/science.aax3100.
20. Epson Group Sustainability Report (2021). Better products for better future. Sustainable
agriculture reviews 46, http://doi.org/101007/978-3-030-53024-2
21. Fausto-Castro Liliana, Alejandro Estrada-Baltazar, Ricardo Gomez-Gonzalez,José
Enrique Botello-Álvarez, Pasiano Rivas-García (2018). Informal collection, recycling and
export of valuable waste as transcendent factor in the municipal solid waste
management: A Latin-American reality. Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 182, PP
485-495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcl.2018.02.065
22. Faurby, S. and Svenning, J. C. (2015). Historic and prehistoric human-driven extinctions
have reshaped global mammal diversity patterns. Diversity and Distributions 21:1155-
1166. https://doi: 10.1111/ddi.12369.
23. Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN). (2010). Fourth National Biodiversity Report to the
Convention on Biological Diversity. www.cbd.int/doc/world/ng-r-oi-en.
24. Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA). (2003). National Biodiversity Strategy
and Action Plan. FEPA, Nigeria. 75p Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nation, FAO (2008): Forestry for Local
25. Fisher, B. and Christopher, T. (2007). Poverty and Biodiversity: Measuring the Overlap of
Human Poverty and the Biodiversity Hotspots. Ecological Economics, 62, 93-101.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.05.020753-5_441
26. Food and Agriculture Organisation (2019). The state of the world’s biodiversity for food
and agriculture. Bélanger, J. and Pilling, D. editors. FAO Commission on Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture Assessments, Rome. Pages: #570 p.
https://doi.org/10.4060/CA3129EN
27. Food and Agricultural Organization (2020). Global Forest Resources Assessment: A
clear global picture supporting the development of sound policies, practices and
investments affecting forests and forestry. Rome, Italy. #16p.
https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8753en
28. Food Security Information Systems (FSIN). (2018). Global Report on Food Crises
2018.Rome.http://vam.wfp.org/sites/data/GRFC_2018
29. Good, J., Newton, I., Miles, J., Marus, R and Greatorex-Davies, J.N. (1991). Forests as a
Wildlife Habitat, Forestry Commission Occasional Paper 40, Edinburgh.
30. Hill, A. P., Prince, P., Piña Covarrubias, E., Doncaster, C. P., Snaddon, J. L. (2018).
AudioMoth: Evaluation of a smart open acoustic device for monitoring biodiversity and
the environment. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 9:1199- 1211.
https://doi.org:10.1111/2041-210X.12955
31. Hillebrand H. (2004). The generality of the latitudinal diversity gradient Am. Nat. (163),
192-211.
RJOAS, 5(125), May 2022
210
32. Ibenegbu Christopher Ifeanyi (2018). Awareness and Attitudes of Art Students and
Lecturers on Health Hazards Associated With Fine and Applied Arts Making in Nigeria.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2394-3787
33. Igu, N.I. and Marchant, R. (2017). Potential and Determinants of Carbon Storage of
Freshwater Swamp Forests in the Niger Delta. Open Journal of Ecology, 7, 199-210.
https://doi.org/10.4236/oje.2017.73015
34. Iment.N and Adebola.N. (2001). The effects of poverty in conservation of Biodiversity:
The Nigerian Experience. http://www.scienceinafrica.co.20
35. Jetz, W., McPherson, J. M., and Guralnick, R. P. (2012). Integrating biodiversity
distribution knowledge: Toward a global map of life. Trends in Ecology and Evolution,
27:151-159. http://doi.org: 10.1016/j.tree.2011.09.007.
36. Johnson, P. T. J., Preston, D. L., Hoverman, J. T., and Richgels, K. L. D. (2013).
Biodiversity decreases disease through predictable changes in host community
competence. Nature 494:230-233. https://doi: 10.1038/nature11883
37. Kala, C.P. (2017). Traditional Health Care Systems and Herbal Medicines. European
Journal of Environment and Public Health, 1(1), 03.
https://doi.org/10.20897/ejeph.201703
38. Kolahi M, Sakai T, Moriya K, Makhdoum MF (2012). Challenges to the future
development of Iran’s protected areas system. Environ Manage. 50:750-765.
39. Leverington F. Costa KL, Pavese H, Lisle A, Hockings M (2010). A Global Analysis of
Protected Area Management Effectiveness. Environ Manage. 46:685-698.
40. Mann, Stefan, (2009). "The Nature of the Diversified Farm Household," Working Papers
56726, Agroscope Reckenholz Tanikon (ART). RePEc:ags:artawp:56726. https://doi:
10.22004/ag.econ.56726
41. Manoharachary, C and Nagaraju. D (2016). Medicinal plants for human health and
welfare. Annals of phytomedicine. 5. 24-34.
42. Meduna, A.J., Ogunjinmi, A.A. and Onadeko, S.A. (2009). Biodiversity Conservation
Problems and Their Implications on Ecotourism in Kainji Lake National Park, Nigeria.
Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 10, 59-73.
43. Miller, K., Allegretti, M.H., Johnson, N. and Jonsson, B. (1995). Measures for
conservation of Biodiversity and sustainable use of its components. In: Global
Biodiversity Assessment
44. Nataniel I T and Nathaniel A. (2001). The effects of poverty in conservation of
Biodiversity: The Nigerian Experience. Science in Africa Retrieved from
www.scienceinafrica.co.za
45. National Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan on Climate Change for Nigeria (2011).
Federal Ministry of Environment Climate Change Department.
46. Naveh, Z. (1994). "From Biodiversity to Ecodiversity: A Landscape-Ecology Approach to
Conservation and Restoration". Restoration Ecology.2 (3): 180–189.
https://doi:10.1111/j.1526-100x.1994.tb00065.x.
47. Net Form of Net Blotch (Pyrenophora teres f. sp. teres) (2001). Plant Health in
Australia./contingency plan,Net blotches of barley, Victorian DPI
www.dpi.vic.gov.au/DPI/nreninf.nsf/v.
48. Nigeria fifth National Biodiversity Report (2014): available at
https://www.cbd.int/reports/nr5/
49. Ola-Adams, B.A (2004). Conservation and management of biodiversity pg: 117-118.
Acessed on 06/06/2021
50. Onyekwelu, JC, Mosandl, R and Stimm, B. (2008). Tree species diversity and soil status
of primary and degraded tropical rainforest ecosystems in south-western Nigeria. J Trop.
For. Sci., 20: 193–204
51. Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (2017): Nigeria Country Briefing,
Multidimensional Poverty Index Data Bank, OPHI, University of Oxford
52. Pereira, H. M., Rosa, I. M. D., Martins, I. S., Kim, H., Leadley, P. (2020). Global trends in
biodiversity and ecosystem services from 1900 to 2050. bioRxiv (Pre print). https://doi:
10.1101/2020.04.14.031716
RJOAS, 5(125), May 2022
211
53. Pimbert, M.P., 1997. Issues emerging in implementing the Convention on Biological
Diversity. Journal of International Development, 9 (3): 415-425.
54. Powers, R. P., and Jetz, W. (2019). Global habitat loss and extinction risk of terrestrial
vertebrates under future land-use-change scenarios. Nature Climate Change 9:323-329.
https://doi: 10.1038/s41558-019-0406-z.
55. Purdy, Elizabeth (2012). "Ecosystems". In S. George Philander (2009.). Encyclopedia of
Global Warming and Climate Change. 1 (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
Reference. pp. 485–487. https://doi:10.4135/9781452218564.
56. Ravenga C, and Mock G. (2000): Pilot analysis of global ecosystem: freshwater system
world resource institution, Washington, DC USA,1-78 pp
57. Roe. Aveling, Jon Hutton, bhaskar Vira, William Wolmer and Jo Elliot (2005): biodiversity
conservation and the eradication of poverty. Science, 306 (5699):1146-9,
https://doi:101126/SCIENCE.1097920
58. Sandifer Paul A., Ariana E. Sutton-Grier, Bethney P. Ward (2015). Exploring connections
among nature, biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human health and well-being:
Opportunities to enhance health and biodiversity conservation, Ecosystem Services,
Volume 12, Pp 1-15, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2014.12.007.
59. Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockström, J., Cornell, S. E., Fetzer, I., (2015). Planetary
boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. Science 347. https://doi:
10.1126/science.1259855.
60. United States Agency for International Development (2008). Nigeria Biodiversity and
Tropical Forestry Assessment – Maximising Agricultural Revenue in Key Enterprises for
Targeted Sites (MARKETS). http/pdf/usaid.go/pdf.docs
61. United Nations Development Programme (2008). Annual Report: Capacity Development:
Empowering People and Institutions ISBN 978-0-230-54704-9
62. United Nations Development Programme (2009a). Fast Facts, United Nations
Development Programme, available at:
www.undp.org/governance/docs/Overview_pub_FastFactsDemGov.pdf (accessed 1
June 2021).
63. United Nations Development Programme (2009b). Governance for the Future:
Democracy and Development in the Least Developed Countries, United Nations
Development Programme, available at: http://opentraining.unesco-
ci.org/tools/pdf/otpitem.php?id¼602 (accessed 1 June 2021).
64. United Nations Environment Program Convention on Biological diversity (2005): retrieved
from https://www.cbd.int/forest/what.shtml.
65. Usman, B.A. and Adefalu, L.L. (2010) Nigerian Forestry, Wildlife and Protected Areas:
Status Report. Biodiversity, 11, 44-52. https://doi:10.1080/14888386.2010.9712664
66. Wardle, D. A., Bardgett, R. D., Klironomos, J. N., Setälä, H., van der Putten, W. H.,
(2014). Ecological linkages between above ground and below ground biota. Science
304:1629-1633. https://doi: 10.1126/science.1094875.
67. World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Report of the World
Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future. UN Documents:
Gathering a Body of Global Agreements. Oxford University Press. Encyclopedia of
Quality of Life and Well-Being Research, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0
68. Will R. Turner, Katrina Brandon, Thomas M. Brooks, Claude Gascon, Holly K. Gibbs,
Keith S. Lawrence, Russell A. Mittermeier, and Elizabeth R. Selig (2012). Global
Biodiversity Conservation and the Alleviation of Poverty. Biosciences 62 (1) Pp:85-92
69. Williams, J. J and Newbold, T. (2020). Local climatic changes affect biodiversity
responses to land use: A review. Diversity and Distributions 26:76-92. https://doi:
10.1111/ddi.12999.
70. Wittebolle, Lieven; Marzorati, Massimo (2009). "Initial community evenness favours
functionality under selective stress". Nature 458 (7238): 623–626.
