Content uploaded by Iulia Fratila
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Iulia Fratila on Jun 08, 2024
Content may be subject to copyright.
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ujlr20
Journal of Leisure Research
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/ujlr20
Phenomenological exploration of young adults’
recreational cannabis use experiences and
associated leisure meanings
Iulia Fratila & Liza Berdychevsky
To cite this article: Iulia Fratila & Liza Berdychevsky (05 Jun 2024): Phenomenological
exploration of young adults’ recreational cannabis use experiences and associated leisure
meanings, Journal of Leisure Research, DOI: 10.1080/00222216.2024.2355477
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2024.2355477
Published online: 05 Jun 2024.
Submit your article to this journal
View related articles
View Crossmark data
JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH
Phenomenological exploration of young adults’
recreational cannabis use experiences and associated
leisure meanings
Iulia Fratilaa and Liza Berdychevskyb
aDepartment of Global and Community Health, George Mason University; bDepartment of Recreation,
Sport and Tourism, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
ABSTRACT
Societal normalization and decriminalization of cannabis use chal-
lenge its traditional characterizations as deviant leisure. This study
investigated cannabis users’ understandings of their consumption in/
as leisure by utilizing hermeneutic phenomenology based on 16
in-depth interviews with young adults living in the U.S. states with
legalized recreational cannabis. Findings suggest that young adults
view recreational cannabis use as leisure due to the related state of
mind (e.g., experiencing flow, relaxation, meditative state), consump-
tion time patterns (e.g., reserving use as a reward for free,
post-obligations time), leisure activity characteristics (e.g., an intrinsic
act of getting high, accompanying other leisure pursuits), and plea-
sure associated with use (e.g., enjoyment, humor, social facilitator,
sensory enhancement). This study contributes novel insights regard-
ing normative leisure meanings associated with cannabis, which can
be leveraged strategically in public health and drug education efforts.
These findings are timely during the societal transition from criminal-
ization to normalization and commercialization trends concerning
cannabis.
Introduction
Drug use has been rooted in human civilization for millennia and the perceptions of
drug use and users have been shaped by societal norms. In the Western context, drug
use has been construed as a deviant form of leisure (Rojek, 1995; Stebbins, 1996),
omitting potentially normative leisure meanings. However, current re-stitching of the
societal fabric, including shifting cultural norms, politics, morality, and legality, encour-
age (re)classifications of (deviant) leisure meanings (Sullivan & LeDrew, 1999). This
includes re-visiting current understandings of cannabis in/as (deviant) leisure.
As of December 2022, there are 21 U.S. states and the District of Columbia that
have legalized the purchase and consumption of recreational cannabis to adults aged
21+ (Hansen et al., 2023). Furthermore, some researchers have theorized a drug nor-
malization thesis (i.e., that recreational drug use is a normal feature of young people’s
© 2024 National Recreation and Park Association
CONTACT Iulia Fratila ifratila@gmu.edu
https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2024.2355477
KEYWORDS
Deviant leisure;
recreational cannabis use;
phenomenology;
cannabis legalization;
drug education
2 I. FRATILA AND L. BERDYCHEVSKY
leisure; Frank etal., 2013; Measham, 2004). Specifically, the normalization thesis points
toward the increased availability and accessibility to drugs, increased rates of drug
experimentation and regular use, higher levels of knowledge about drugs, increased
intentions of future use and the cultural accommodation of use (e.g., changing laws;
Parker et al., 1998).
There is considerable variation when conceptualizing young adulthood and/or
emerging adulthood including age-based theories that define this life stage starting
at 18 and continuing into the third decade (Nelson & Luster, 2015), which has been
adopted in this study. According to emerging adulthood theorist, Arnett (2015), there
are unique developmental characteristics that explain the propensity for drug explo-
ration among those aged 18 to 29. Young people’s views on drugs in/as (normative)
leisure are shaped by various factors, such as the type of drug, generational attitudes
toward drugs, and the emerging adulthood life stage that encourages experimentation
and risk taking (Fratila & Berdychevsky, 2020). In 2020, the rate of cannabis use (at
least once in the prior 12 months) was the highest among young adults aged 18-25
(34.5%) followed those aged 26+ (16.3%; SAMHSA, 2021). In response to the changing
socio-cultural-political landscape in the U.S. and the increased rates of drug use,
leisure scholars can meaningfully contribute to the holistic scholarship on (recre-
ational) drug use and expand its understanding beyond deviant leisure. Thus, the
purpose of this study was to investigate the phenomenon of recreational cannabis
use and its potential normative leisure meanings. Specifically, this study sought to
understand the links (if any) between cannabis use and leisure as viewed by the
young adults in the U.S.
Literature review
Cannabis use and its deviant leisure roots
Governmental infrastructure and its impacts on the societal norms have affected the
deviant leisure meanings attributed to drug use(rs). During the period of U.S. indus-
trialization (i.e., the societal shift from agrarian economy toward technology and
machinery that enabled mass production and set the blueprint for capitalism), partic-
ipating in ‘immoral leisure,’ like drug consumption, signified having non-conformist
values, which threatened capital accumulation and jeopardized workers’ ability to gain
paid employment (Rojek, 1999a). It was also during this time that the rational recre-
ation movement emerged to designate appropriate rational leisure forms congruent
with established societal structures, effectively contributing to U.S. temperance move-
ment (e.g., from Malleck, 2008; “Rational recreation and self-improvement,” n.d.). This
movement serves as a meaningful historical parallel to current cannabis legalization
and understanding how governmental decisions (i.e., laws) structure acceptance, access,
and societal (non)acceptance of substances for recreation.
Following the industrial era, drug use was characterized by deviant leisure meanings
and medicalized approach, complementing the previous explanations of moral wrong-
ness and irrationality (Williams, 2009). Medicalization represented an epistemological
shift of understanding deviant leisure from badness to sickness, wherein physical and
psychological ills became priority criteria for differentiating between (non)acceptable
JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH 3
leisure forms (Williams, 2009). From this perspective, deviant leisure included recre-
ational pleasures, such as drinking alcohol, smoking tobacco, and sunbathing because
they pose serious threats to people’s health when abused/taken to extreme (Rojek,
1999a). Connections between criminality and some forms of deviant leisure (e.g., drug
use) have also solidified. Criminalized deviant leisure is characterized by violating the
codified list of legal social norms (i.e., engaging in any activity breaking the law;
Blanco, 2016). Indeed, by legal statues, recreational cannabis use has historically been
a code-breaking activity and cannabis users have been considered criminals. One of
the consequences of cannabis criminalization is the social construction of racial ineq-
uities where non-White communities have experienced racial bias and disproportional
penalization of their cannabis use (ACLU, 2020). This trend has been recorded in the
contemporary society with data showing that Black/African Americans are 3.64 times
more likely to be arrested for cannabis possession than White Americans, albeit having
similar cannabis use rates (ACLU, 2020).
Deviant leisure rhetoric claims that drug users are inevitably overcome by abuse,
relinquishing their personal freedom. This discourse is underpinned by the govern-
mental associations between drug use, compulsion, misery, and potential disease and
death (Sedgwick, 1993). Mirroring the broader research within the sociology of deviance
scholarship, the research on deviant leisure has considered drug use as illicit and
psychopathological (Conrad & Schneider, 1992). The rhetoric of pathology views drug
users through a deficit model, suggesting drug users are deficient psychologically and/
or socially (Barratt, 2011). Hence, cannabis users have been commonly classified as
derelict and belonging to the margins of society as members of deviant leisure sub-
cultural groups (Lunze et al., 2015).
According to Rojek’s theory of abnormal leisure, deviant leisure subcultures are
categorized as invasive, mephitic, or wild leisure (Rojek, 1999b). Invasive leisure involves
retreating into private pleasures, like drug use, to escape the feeling of being less than
others or a social misfit. Mephitic leisure includes engaging in disruptive activities as
a resistance to becoming a part of the unauthentic masses. Finally, wild leisure revolves
around discharging surplus bodily capacities normally suppressed by the modern social
order (e.g., joyriding). Leisure scholars have described deviant leisure as a side effect
of anomie—a sense of alienation and breakdown of moral values stemming from a
conflict between individual’s belief systems and modern social order (Cohen, 2002).
With the transition to post-modernity (i.e., late 20th century movement toward more
subjectiveness and skepticism of the modern social order), societal discourses have shifted
focus to understanding hedonistic and consumptive explanations of deviant leisure and the
pursuit of risk and pleasure in leisure (Malick, 2017). Modernity-oriented values prioritizing
the protestant work ethic, sacrifice, and delayed gratification have been exchanged for
consumptive practices endorsing pleasure, desire, self-enhancement, and instant gratification
(Winlow & Hall, 2016). Capitalist expectations fuel the consumer market and emphasize
the importance of free choice. There is an increasing influence to purchase (leisure) goods
that can satisfy needs for self-expression and personal freedom (Husch, 1991). Thus, drug
use represents a private leisure choice allowing people to experience a momentary state of
empowerment, self-control, and self-expression (Husch, 1991).
Cannabis has departed from deviant leisure characterizations toward postmodern
hedonic consumption (Bruwer & Alant, 2009). Increasingly, cannabis gained acceptance
4 I. FRATILA AND L. BERDYCHEVSKY
as an individual prerogative, which is an important feature of consumer society.
However, this acceptance is underpinned by self-responsibility and calculated hedonism,
which suggests one can control themselves while being open toward a variety of sen-
sations (Szmigin et al., 2008). According to Measham’s (2004, p. 319) notion of “con-
trolled loss of control” there is a calculative risk-benefit assessment for leisure that
involves intoxication. This controlled calculation intends to make drug-taking experi-
ences safe, while adhering to the societal norms defining acceptable levels of intoxi-
cation and outlining this as a tolerated form of hedonism (Taylor et al., 2020). Indeed,
young peoples’ choice to use cannabis in/as leisure can be considered a rational decision
based on cost-benefit analysis. This balancing act suggests that cannabis users do not
necessarily belong to deviant subcultures often characterized by extremeness, but that
instead they are driven by mainstream societal standards and live non-criminal lifestyles
(Duff & Erickson, 2014).
Cannabis use and normative leisure
There are numerous studies illuminating the roles of cannabis within leisure time-space-
mindset (Belhassen et al., 2007; Schaub et al., 2010). Alternative to deviant leisure
discourses, this body of knowledge examines the roles of psychoactive substances in
altering the mind, bonding with others, and facilitating pleasurable leisure experiences
(Spracklen, 2011). Various contextual factors shape normative leisure outcomes, includ-
ing the setting and time of consumption, the cannabis’ strain, and the type of involved
leisure activity (Fratila & Berdychevsky, 2020; Gould et al., 2018). According to Lau
et al. (2015), “cannabis use was usually reserved for leisure-time” and used to enhance
other activities and stimulate creativity (p. 716). Indeed, cannabis use can accompany
various leisure activities, including cycling, listening to music, watching TV, being
outdoors, and socializing with others (e.g., partying, hanging out) (Gould et al., 2018;
Liebregts et al., 2015).
According to Parker et al.’s (1998) drug normalization thesis that is dominated by
cannabis use, recreational drug users come from all socio-educational backgrounds,
which contrasts literature that has focused exclusively on marginalized youth. Cannabis
normalization suggests cannabis users live conventional lives with professional obli-
gations, thriving social connections, and continue to enjoy other leisure activities
(Liebregts et al., 2015). Cannabis is sometimes used to “manage the challenges and
demands of living in a contemporary modern society” (Osborne & Fogel, 2008,
p. 562).
Researchers and practitioners have started recognizing cannabis as a recreational
activity and a normal feature of some young adults’ leisure (Duff & Erickson, 2014;
Liebregts etal., 2015). Scholars seeking to investigate and clarify recreational cannabis
normalization meanings are advocating for socially just policies and more effective
drug education programs focusing on safe use practices (Lau et al., 2015). There is
increasingly more attention needed to critical discussions concerning recreational drug
use governance and education due to shifting socio-political climate of liberalization
and legalization. Thus, this study sought to uncover the phenomenological essence of
and leisure meanings associated with recreational cannabis consumption based on the
lived experiences of young adult cannabis users in the U.S.
JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH 5
Methodology
This study was designed following Heideggerian Hermeneutic phenomenology
(Heidegger, 1927/1962). In contrast to Husserlian Transcendental phenomenology,
which focuses on epistemological questioning and consciousness, Heidegger emphasized
the existential-ontological features of the lived experience (Koch, 1995). According to
Heidegger (1927/1962), an individual’s concept of the world and their subjective expe-
riences are inextricably connected to the contexts in which they are formed. Therefore,
forming the concept of self in the world is only possible as ‘Dasein’ or by
“being-in-the-world” (Heidegger, 1927/1962, p. 65). The concept of “hermeneutic circle”
characterizes the interpretive nature of being and offers a way of thinking about how
to enter an individuals’ conscious loop through analysis and interpretation of the
individuals’ lived experiences (Heidegger, 1927/1962). The hermeneutic circle of under-
standing is achieved by moving from pieces or parts of an experience to the whole
of the experience. This movement is repeated back-and-forth for multiple iterations
to increase the understanding of meaning through words or texts used to explain it
(Koch, 1995).
Data collection
This study focused on young adults who lived in the U.S. states where recreational
cannabis use was legalized. The University Institution Review Board approved this
study (protocol 18465). Data were collected using one-on-one semi-structured inter-
views. All participants’ names were pseudonymized. This method has been utilized in
pervious phenomenological inquiries to encourage conversational interviewing style
that develops rich understanding of the phenomenon (van Manen, 2016). 14 partici-
pants were interviewed virtually, utilizing Zoom (two were conducted in-person). For
online interviews, the researcher asked participants to settle in a private space; similarly,
the researcher was alone in a room. The interview length varied from 50 minutes to
three hours, with the average length of 1.5 hours. The interview guide included ques-
tions like, “In your opinion, is recreational cannabis use a leisure activity? Why or
why not?” and “Can recreational cannabis use be a part of some other leisure activities?
If yes, which?” The study utilized criterion sampling (individuals had to be between
18-30 years old, resided in a state where recreational cannabis use was legalized, con-
sumed cannabis within the past 2 months, and were not involved in the criminal justice
system) and snowball sampling. The recruitment messages for this study were distrib-
uted by the university professors via in-class announcements, as well as online and
hard copy flyers posted on college campuses, throughout the community, and on social
media (e.g., reddit, Instagram, Facebook). The recruitment phase lasted about
two months.
Participants
The sample included 16 participants. Their age ranged from 18 to 30 years old. Seven
participants self-identified as women, six participants as men, and three as genderqueer/
non-binary. Eleven participants self-identified white/Caucasian, two as Hispanic, two
6 I. FRATILA AND L. BERDYCHEVSKY
as Asian, and one as multiracial (i.e., African American and Asian). Thirteen of the
participants lived in Michigan and Illinois, two participants were from Colorado, and
one was from Virginia. Nine participants reported being employed, three were
self-employed, and four were unemployed. Ten participants were currently enrolled in
college. The amount of self-reported leisure hours per week ranged from five to
40 hours, with an average of 24 hours of leisure per week.
Participants reported their cannabis use patterns. Four participants reported using
cannabis 1-2 times a week while four participants reported using cannabis 2-3 times
per week. Eight participants reported using cannabis 4+ times per week. Most partic-
ipants reported that they never felt their cannabis use was out of control (n = 12), but
three participants sometimes felt this way. Eight participants said that they never worry
about their cannabis use, while seven participants said that they sometimes worry
about it. Twelve participants said that they have never wished to stop using cannabis,
while three participants said that sometimes they have wished to stop. Finally, nine
participants believed that it would not be difficult to stop using cannabis, four thought
that it would be quite difficult, one reported it would very difficult, and one viewed
it as impossible.
Data analysis
The analytical steps follow the tenets of interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA),
evolving from ideographic/individual to nomothetic/aggregate/composite analytical
levels (Smith et al., 2009). IPA steps at the ideographic level proceeded through the
following sequence: (1) initial noting or exploratory commenting (e.g., coding data
unit as “cannabis helps to not think; take a break”), (2) developing initial themes (e.g.,
mental break), and (3) clustering initial themes into super-ordinate themes (e.g., leisure
state of mind). At the nomothetic level, the data analysis involved looking for patterns
across participants, assessing how themes can connect to other themes, identifying the
most explanatory themes, reconfiguring and re-labelling themes, and mapping the ideas
across participants.
These steps were utilized to uncover the phenomenological textures (i.e., descriptions
of what it means to experience recreational cannabis in/as leisure) and structures (i.e.,
how or through which frames of reference the leisure meanings are processed in the
consciousness) to create textural-structural essence statements first at the ideographic
level and then at the nomothetic level. For instance, participants’ responses about
cannabis and leisure were initially coded as “unwind after long week,” “unwind after
long day,” “unwind after work,” “break from productive mind,” and “break from reality,”
and were then collapsed across participants into the themes of “mental break” and
“relaxation.” This represented the state of mind texture. Some responses were initially
coded as “enhancing inner thoughts/focus” and “current escape allows to cope with
problems at later time” and were then collapsed across participants into themes like
“flow/meditating” and “being in the present moment,” which reflected the state of
mind structures. The qualitative data analysis software, ATLAS.ti8, was utilized for
data analysis. To produce a rigorous and trustworthy study, the researchers kept a
detailed research audit trail (i.e., credibility adherence) and practiced reflexivity (i.e.,
dependability adherence). Concerning positionality, our research team represented both
JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH 7
insider-outsider experiences (e.g., first author is an emerging adult raised in U.S. cul-
ture and second author is middle-aged professor from an international background).
Findings
The young adults in this study construed recreational cannabis use in/as leisure using
various textures and structures reflected in Figure 1. The participants’ descriptions of
textures (i.e., what it means to experience recreational cannabis in/as leisure) is pic-
tured in the top half of the circle. Specifically, recreational cannabis use was related
to leisure meanings of (T1) the state of mind, (T2) free time, (T3) activity, and (T4)
pleasure, which were underlined by various structures. Pictured at the bottom half of
the circle are the structures/contextualizing mechanisms reflecting how leisure meanings
appear in the consciousness (i.e., the facilitating structures S1, S2, S3, and S4 corre-
sponding with T1-T4, respectively). For instance, leisure state of mind (T1) is under-
lined by factors included in S1—i.e., meditating/flow, being in the present moment,
Figure 1. Phenomenological meanings of recreational cannabis use in/as leisure.
8 I. FRATILA AND L. BERDYCHEVSKY
and de-stressing. The textures and structures of the phenomenon were categorized
into their respective domains for the sake of presenting a visual heuristic reflecting
the phenomenological essence statement. However, the accounts of actual lived expe-
rience surpass these artificial boundaries and meanings intermingle synergistically to
reflect the complex nature of recreational cannabis in/as leisure. Hence, the arrows
between the textures and structures are included in Figure 1 to reflect the interactions
and overlaps. The following narrative unpacks the textures and structures.
State of mind texture of the cannabis use as leisure and its structures
The textures framing cannabis use in/as leisure state of mind focused on a cognitive
break and mental relaxation. Heather (19 yo) shared that recreational cannabis use
can “just get your mind off of it…off of things in your life.” Similarly, Zach (21 yo)
explained, “if I wanna just not think and feel nice for a little bit…there’s the mental…
shut off my brain for a little bit.” Furthermore, participants saw cannabis use as a
mental break from productivity. Danielle (28 yo) shared that it is “really easy for [her]
brain to want to think about all the things [she] has to do [for law school] around
the clock” but recreational cannabis can put her in a leisure state of mind, offering a
mental break. Similarly, Emma (26 yo) stated, “[cannabis is] definitely something [she]
uses for leisure because [she does] have a hard time just relaxing…[she] feel[s] like
[she] need[s] to be productive and if [she’s] not productive enough then [she’s] not
doing good in life.” For Phoebe (20 yo), recreational cannabis “is a way to unwind
and relax.” Eileen (18 yo) described recreational cannabis use as “a nice way to relax…
and just calm down after 15 credit hours at the University.”
These textural descriptions were contextualized by the structures of meditation and
untying oneself from daily demands and worries and disconnecting from stress. Eileen
(18 yo) remarked that with recreational cannabis, she is “[able to] separate [herself]
from what [she’s] doing during the day.” For Danielle (28 yo), “using [cannabis] helps
[her] focus on what’s in front of [her]…[allowing her to] not be so stressed.” Luna
(21 yo) remarked that she views “cannabis as something that can take the edge off
or…make [her] de-stress.” Emma (26 yo) stated, “cannabis is a nice leisurely, just let
go kind of like…a meditative state.” Emma (26 yo) made a connection between can-
nabis and meditating, “[being] in [her] own state,” “flow,” and "[being] free from
anything around [her].” She explained:
[Cannabis] helps dissolve any judgment that I have on myself…which is why I think [can-
nabis] puts me in a meditative state…[when] you talk about meditation you’re supposed to
come to it with no judgment, and that means of yourself, of what’s going on around you,
you’re supposed to just kind of really get into that ow state and I think ow state is what
makes anything great happen because that’s where your passion and all those things just
come about, and I think for me, the judgment, the anxiety, anything around me that I’m
feeling it just all dissolves [with recreational cannabis].
Indeed, these textures and structures reflected participants’ separation from the
mindset required to meet their daily demands. Similarly, participants also expressed
meanings related to recreational cannabis use in/as free time as a temporal break from
productiveness.
JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH 9
Free time texture of the cannabis use as leisure and its structures
The textural descriptions associated with recreational cannabis in/as free time revolved around
notions of altered time perceptions and time away from functionality (i.e., time that allows
one to be less focused, functional, and task-oriented). Eileen (18 yo) suggested, “[recreational
cannabis] almost makes time go by slower, extend[ing] the amount of free time that I have.”
For other participants there was a clearly defined time for cannabis use. Heather (19 yo)
reflected on her cannabis use, saying, “that experience was very reserved for my free time”
because she “could not function” and she “could definitely not work [under the influence].”
Similarly, Dave (21 yo) shared that “[he] will not smoke until [he is] done com-
pletely” with the day’s tasks, and when he and his friends “have a lot of leisure time”
because they “prefer to be focusing on school and then when [they’re] done with
everything [e.g., studying]…[they] can goof off a little” [i.e., use recreational cannabis].
Indeed, Dave (21 yo) shared that using cannabis any time before school obligations/
work “would be really bad for him because [he doesn’t] really focus [i.e., when high].”
For Emma, who is a cosmetologist, “[she is] using scissors and chemicals,” thus “[she
doesn’t] usually like to mix work and marijuana, [she] just can’t really focus…[her]
brain just associates relaxation and time to just unwind with cannabis.”
These textures were supported by various structures, including designating specific
time of use (i.e., reserving use for the end of day or week) and utilizing cannabis as
a post-productivity reward. Zach (21 yo) shared, “I normally smoke at night…a couple
hours before I go to bed… in my free time.” Danielle (28 yo) similarly described:
[I see weed as] recreational, I’ll use it at the end of a day…it’s not every day, which is
[another reason] why I think it’s recreational… just like with drinking…you’ll have a glass
of wine at the end of the day, you’ll have a glass of wine with friends…[that’s] pretty syn-
onymous with my usage [of cannabis].
Emma (26 yo) also shared, “if it’s a day off where I don’t have much to do…I
definitely smoke a joint.” Similarly, for Jamie (21 yo), cannabis was temporally per-
missible as a means for “relaxing on a Friday night” representing “a weekend thing,”
where they are “relaxing with friends after a long week.”
For other participants, the free time meanings were qualified as post-productivity
rewards related to accomplishments. Zach (21 yo) explained, “I try to use [cannabis]
as more of a reward…like, I took an exam the other day and I did really well, so I
was like ‘yay, it’s time to get stoned.’” Likewise, Luna (21 yo) explained:
Let’s say the last couple days I’ve been really intensely studying…and then I went and took
my exam at 7pm, I come out of my exam…on my way home I’m going to stop, buy some
blunt wraps [to roll the cannabis with] and then I’m gonna go home [and smoke]…I see
it as like it’s my reward.
To conclude, these free time textures and structures signified a departure from
obligatory tasks or activities. Thus, it was also meaningful to understand how partic-
ipants described recreational cannabis in/as leisure activity.
Activity texture of the cannabis use as leisure and its structures
The textures reflecting recreational cannabis use in/as leisure activity revolve around
experiencing being high or the process of getting high and recreational cannabis
10 I. FRATILA AND L. BERDYCHEVSKY
accompanying other leisure activities. Jamie (21 yo) shared, that “[they] enjoy the
experience of being high on its own.” Luna (21 yo) reflected beyond the “getting high
part” and explained:
I see smoking as an experience…if I’m going to hang out with one of my friends I like
rolling a blunt…we’re going to go buy the blunt wraps…I’m going to hand grind my
weed…then I’m going to put [the cannabis] in the wrap; it’s like a whole process of rolling
it, then you light it and you’re passing it [to others] and the conversations you’re having
as you’re smoking are dierent versus when you’re just sitting and talking…it’s a whole
experience of smoking, it’s not just the ‘getting high’ part that I enjoy.
Recreational cannabis use was also discussed as an activity that accompanied other
leisure activities. Indeed, participants paired their recreational cannabis use with a
range of leisure activities, including going to restaurants/food places (Eileen, James,
Luna), cooking (Danielle), participating in a book club (Jerry), bowling (Dave),
coloring in a coloring book (Luna), going to a concert/music festival (Luna, Danielle,
JR, Phoebe), going to a theme park/amusement park (Phoebe), hiking (Jerry), lis-
tening to music/listening to friends play instruments (Dave, Phoebe, Zach, Luna,
Danielle), walking dogs (Jerry), watching movies/TV shows (Dave, Jamie, JR, Phoebe,
Eileen, Minea, Danielle), working out (Jerry, Emma), doing yoga (Emma), and taking
a bath (Jerry, Emma). Indeed, Emma (26 yo) expressed that “[she] love[s] to take
a bath with candles and just sit there and soak and smoke a joint.” Danielle (28 yo)
explained using cannabis in/as leisure activity with her friends or partner when they
make a meal together, or if they will go out to eat because “it’s really fun to be able
to divvy up that work [cooking together] and then enjoy [their] food at the end of
that day [while high].” For Luna (21 yo), recreational cannabis use involved “watch[ing]
[her] favorite show and text[ing] one of [her] friends or color[ing in a] color-
ing book.”
The activity textures were facilitated by various structures, including self-connection,
socialization with others, partying, and partaking in celebrations. Luna (21 yo), “asso-
ciate[s] weed with a lot of different fun activities that [allow her] to get in touch with
[her] inner child so [she] use[s] it recreationally.” Luna (21 yo) elaborated on
self-connection and recreational cannabis in/as leisure activity, sharing:
My cannabis use is, denitely [something] I would categorize as recreational. I focus on
trying to create a relationship with myself…a friendship with myself. One way I’ve done
that is through the use of cannabis… let’s say one night instead of going out and hanging
out with your friends, you see hanging out with yourself as a hangout [so] instead of
[thinking] ‘oh I’m gonna be alone in my room today [as if it’s a negative/bad thing],’
[instead] I’ll be like ‘oh, I’m going to smoke a little bit, I’m going to listen to some fre-
quencies and meditate.’
Recreational cannabis use in/as leisure activity was also facilitated by “hanging
out” or “chilling” with others as was described by multiple participants. Dave (21
yo) shared, “I’m a very social creature so I don’t really like smoking on my own…
it’s a very social thing.” Minea (21 yo) stated, “if I’m hanging out with people, we’re
going to smoke because it’s always making hanging out more fun.” Along these lines,
Eileen (18 yo) shared that when she uses cannabis “[her and her friends] just sit in
a circle and just talk and laugh.” For Jamie (21 yo), recreational cannabis use
JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH 11
represented “a fun little house activity, like social experience.” In other words, can-
nabis was an activity that all the house mates could participate in together as they
bonded socially.
Furthermore, the socializing aspects facilitating recreational cannabis in/as leisure
activity manifest themselves in specific social settings such as parties, celebratory
events, or special occasions. In general, recreational cannabis in/as leisure activity was
embedded in the party context. Cristina (28 yo) shared that “for every event and party
there’s weed around.” Similarly, JR (27 yo) stated, “people just whip out a [cannabis]
joint at a party the same way they whip out vials for [alcoholic] shots.” Phoebe (20
yo) described her experiences with recreational cannabis use in/as leisure activity as
part of familial celebrations. Phoebe (20 yo) talked about her Aunt Jamie’s “cannabis
cooker edible tincture machines,” which she bought for “make[ing] [cannabis] gummies
and cannabis butter to make edibles.” Phoebe (20 yo) explained that “it was Easter
when [Aunt Jamie] got it, so [during the Easter celebration] the whole family was
stoned because she was trying out the edibles.”
Several participants talked about recreational cannabis use in/as leisure activity in
the context of birthdays. Jerry (30 yo) described her friend “Becca’s 30th blunt birth-
day,” which “kind of revolved around weed.” Jerry recalled, “there [was] just people
in the living area that were smoking and drinking…and the [birthday party] title was
around blunts.” Danielle (28 yo) also shared:
I took two [cannabis] edibles, and I was like this is my treat for the day, I would get super
high and then go watch the Jonas Brothers [i.e., music concert], like my birthday, I’m
gonna have a f***king day. Absolutely, I use cannabis for celebration.
Indeed, the meanings attributed to recreational cannabis in/as leisure activity suggest
that cannabis use can be a desirable pursuit itself. Furthermore, it was utilized as a
tool for enhancement of other leisure activities and within the context of celebrations.
The participants’ descriptions also led to investigating the pleasurable manifestations
of cannabis.
Pleasure texture of the cannabis use as leisure and its structures
The textures characterizing recreational cannabis use in/as pleasure revolve around fun
and enjoyment. Jamie (21 yo) explained that “[cannabis] can be a fun experience.”
Similarly, Minea (21 yo) stated, “[cannabis] makes my leisure time more fun.” When
probed further Minea shared that “[there is the] enjoyment of being high; things just
feeling better, [they] can watch something and [they] can appreciate it for being stupid
instead of frustrated at it.” In other words, with recreational cannabis use, “things are
just more enjoyable… things that are already really enjoyable, it’s just like turning the
volume up” (Danielle, 28 yo). Indeed, it is not that Danielle (28 yo) and her friends
“can’t [have fun] without [cannabis], but [she] think[s] [cannabis] just facilitates that
process a little bit easier, like dumb sh***t (i.e., ‘dumb-friend-like fun’), which is kind
of nice…like almost…childlike.” Luna (21 yo) explained that pleasurable cannabis
meanings involve mixing recreational cannabis use with “little activities that you did
when you were a kid that you found pleasure in” (e.g., coloring in coloring book,
dancing) that bring out “[her] inner child,” and which “makes [her] feel creative and
12 I. FRATILA AND L. BERDYCHEVSKY
fun.” Thus, in Luna’s experience when she “get[s] high [she] choose[s] to do activities
that are very much just purely for pleasure.”
These textures were facilitated by various structures, including making things fun-
nier/taking things less seriously, loosening inhibitions, and enhancing senses. According
to Danielle (28 yo) “things are just simpler and more funny and it doesn’t have to be
anything highbrow or too serious.” Likewise, Phoebe (20 yo) discussed how “you just
kind of see the world in a different lens when you’re high… you can’t help but laugh
and you’re in your favorite place so, it just elevates your mood to a different level.”
For Eileen (18 yo), “the [cannabis] strains that [her and her friends] use are kinds
that just make everything funnier” enabling the experiences of recreational cannabis
in/as pleasure.
Furthermore, the pleasure meanings were underscored by the sensory enhancement
associated with recreational cannabis use. Participants shared that “ultimately, [cannabis]
also just enhances a lot of your senses” (Luna, 21 yo), and this “impacts senses in a
positive, enjoyable way” (Jamie, 21 yo). Indeed, for Jamie, there was a mix of corporeal
and social liberation similar to “the group context and alcohol,” which “lower[s] your
inhibitions.” Jamie explained:
When it comes to being physically aectionate with friends, like this one particular friend
because he and I have both talked about a physical touch…[we] have both agreed that we’d
enjoy that and we’d like to incorporate that into our lives more oen but that we both tend
to overthink, like ‘oh no, am I being too much?’ [i.e., when trying to show physical aec-
tion] …so, sometimes we’ll get high for the explicit purpose of just being able to cuddle
while watching TV… [thus] when it comes to physical aection specically, [cannabis]
makes new experiences less intimidating and so then once we’ve done something while we
were high then it’s less intimidating to do it while we’re sober.
Zach (21 yo) also explained how cannabis impacts physical or bodily sensations,
such as sex. Zach said, “physically things, like, sensations, feel better so, like sex feels
really good.” Beyond touch, participants described the sensory enhancements offered
by cannabis when “listening to music [which] feels really nice [when] you just close
your eyes and listen to it” (Zach, 21 yo), as well as “taste…stuff sometimes tastes
better when you’re stoned” (Steve, 29 yo). For Luna, (21 yo) cannabis induced sensory
connections during an outdoor music festival:
I always would roll a couple [cannabis] blunts just to have them, so at your favorite set
[i.e., when you’re at a music festival stage with favorite artist playing their songs], like,
when you’re with your best friends…and you smoke a little bit…it is just the experience
of smoking in the crowd and you’re watching these lights and your favorite artist is right
there, you’re listening to your favorite songs, but then also it does enhance the music, it
sounds so incredible, even just, when the wind blows in your face [i.e., cannabis enhances
that feeling].
Thus, participants’ descriptions showcase the meanings associated with recreational
cannabis use as a pleasurable leisure pursuit. Overall, the illustrated composite
textural-structural meanings form the essence of the recreational cannabis use in/as
leisure are graphically depicted in Figure 1. This essence is comprised of textures,
including the state of mind, activity, free time, and pleasure. These textures are sup-
ported by the underlying structures. The state of mind texture is facilitated by med-
itating/flow, being in present moment, and de-stressing. The free time texture is
JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH 13
supported by using cannabis for reward purpose, reserving it for end of day/week or
occasional use, and utilizing it when minimal focus/function is required. The activity
texture is underpinned by socializing, connecting with the self, and contextualizing
cannabis within parties and celebrations. Finally, the pleasure texture is undergirded
by making things funnier, loosening inhibitions, and enhancing senses.
Discussion
The U.S. young adults in this study described various ways they construe recreational
cannabis use in/as normative leisure, which is illustrated by Figure 1. Specifically, their
experiences highlighted dimensions of recreational cannabis in/as leisure state of mind,
free time, leisure activity, and pleasure. These leisure meanings offer perspectives
expanding the traditional deviant leisure literature, which has traditionally defined all
drug use as immoral and irrational (Malleck, 2008; Rojek, 1999a), psychologically
problematic (Williams, 2009), and pertaining exclusively to deviant subcultures/coun-
tercultures (Rojek, 1995, 1999b). Thus, this study offers a more nuanced and holistic
understanding of recreational cannabis and its leisure meanings.
Concerning leisure state of mind, participants expressed that recreational cannabis
use symbolized an intentional mental break and a way to experience a relaxed mental
state that allowed them to mentally separate from their obligations and upcoming
responsibilities. These accounts align with the notion that “leisure is most essentially
a position of relaxation [and] of faithful openness to immediate reality” (Kleiber, 2000,
p. 83). Recreational cannabis in/as leisure state of mind also revolved around medi-
tation, being in the present moment, and de-stressing. Leisure literature has recorded
the roles of mediation and mindfulness as stress relievers (Choe etal., 2014). However,
the connection to recreational cannabis represents a novel addition. Furthermore, this
qualitative inquiry highlights the ways in which recreational cannabis facilitates the
experience of flow—i.e., experiencing a temporary, intrinsically motivated concentration,
and a productive loss of self-consciousness conducive to self-growth
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1997).
This study also illuminates the connections between recreational cannabis use and
free time leisure meanings. According to the classic theorizing of Brightbill (1960),
leisure as free time represents a division between work and non-work time. This kind
of boundary was discussed by several participants who reserved recreational cannabis
use for time post-obligations, end of the workday, weekends, or during days off from
work. Participants also remarked that cannabis use was more enjoyable during times
when they were not required to focus or complete important tasks. Perhaps, because
it is during free time that “[the individual] ‘re-creates’… so that [they] may be
refreshed…to resume daily obligations” (Ap, 1986, p. 167). Similarly, Fratila and
Berdychevsky’s (2020) research found that U.S. college students differentiated between
time for recreational drug consumption and time for responsibilities (e.g., school-
work, job).
Additionally, it was noted that cannabis use created a feeling of time extension (i.e.,
making time go slower or perceptually extending leisure or free time). This is in
juxtaposition to literature describing a “time compression” effect while on vacation,
where people engage in various forms of risk taking due to the feeling that time is
14 I. FRATILA AND L. BERDYCHEVSKY
being compressed into the moment of here-and-now (Berdychevsky, 2016). The changes
in the perception of time attracting recreational cannabis users suggest an alternative
reality, which is connected to the feeling of having a prolonged non-work time where
people can rest, relax, and experience flow.
Recreational cannabis consumption was also characterized as a leisure activity. For
some, the act of getting high represented a leisure activity in itself. Leisure activity is
defined as an act pursued for its own sake and for fun (Freysinger et al., 2013). The
U.S. young adults described how recreational cannabis in/as leisure activity accompanied
their other leisure activities (e.g., cooking, going to concerts). Previous studies have also
discussed the roles of recreational cannabis in enhancing other leisure activities (Osborne
& Fogel, 2008), which involves immersing oneself into “passive and active leisure pur-
suits to produce varying amounts of desirable stimuli” (Gould et al., 2018, p. 125).
Additionally, recreational cannabis was discussed as an activity central to social
gatherings, such as (birthday) parties or special occasions (e.g., family holiday gath-
erings). Others have noted that cannabis use is higher on ‘holidays’ such as Mardi
Gras and St. Patrick’s Day (Buckner et al., 2018). The findings from this study con-
tribute to these celebratory understandings and expand on previous studies that situate
drug use within the leisure night scene (e.g., nightclubs, raves, and dance parties;
Palamar etal., 2022). Nonetheless, some participants described using cannabis on their
own as an activity for self-connection. This supports other scholars’ findings discussing
the potential usefulness of recreational cannabis in/as leisure activity for the exploration
and formation of identity (Lavie-Ajayi et al., 2022; Fratila & Berdychevsky, 2021).
Participants in this study also connected recreational cannabis use to pleasure,
describing their participation in this freely chosen activity for enjoyment. In their
view, recreational cannabis use is pleasurable because it makes things funnier and
takes the seriousness out of things, showcasing the idea of leisure as ludere (i.e., play;
McGhee, 1999). Specifically, the pleasurable meanings of recreational cannabis use
reflect a playful way to recuperate or relax from the demands of professional life roles
or adult responsibilities. Thus, recreational cannabis in/as pleasure could “provide
oneself (and possibly others) with amusement, humor, and/or entertainment” that is
less easily obtained outside of leisure (Barnett, 2007, p. 955).
Participants shared that they experienced pleasure through recreational cannabis use
due to loosened inhibitions and enhanced senses. The psychological literature has often
relied on understanding the pleasurable aspects of drug use as impulsive behavior
following a hedonic tone, wherein the pleasure-seeker disregards the negative conse-
quences of their impulsivity (Moore, 2008). This study found that young adult cannabis
users considered the pleasurable aspects as an intentional leisure lubricant rather than
an impulsive craving. Additionally, similar to other studies (Fratila & Berdychevsky,
2021), the participants in this research shared that recreational cannabis use was plea-
surable because it enabled heightened sensations related to touch (e.g., sex), taste (e.g.,
food), and sound (e.g., music).
Contributions to Knowledge and Practice
This study contributes to the growing cannabis normalization debate suggesting that
some forms of recreational drug use have become commonplace in young people’s
leisure and cultural landscape (Measham, 2004). Specifically, the normalization thesis
JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH 15
posits that young adults utilize drug use in/as normative leisure to take a controlled
time-out from their daily lives (Liebregts et al., 2015). This narrative is considerably
different from that presented in the deviant leisure literature. Participants in this project
shared that cannabis use represented a recreational way to distance themselves from
their otherwise ordinary and mainstream lives but not necessarily as a rebellion
against it.
Thus, it is important to move beyond the conceptualizations of drug use as deviant
leisure that are characterized by the medicalization and criminalization discourses,
which act as theoretical gatekeepers into the cannabis culture limiting our ability to
understand the complexity of this phenomenon (Hathaway, 2004). Previous deviant
leisure approaches have ignored the potential (normative) leisure motives of use and
instead used deviance-focused explanations to marginalize specific social groups (e.g.,
African American and Hispanic communities; Bourne, 2008). The rigid binary of
deviant/normative leisure and the un-equal enforcement of consequences showcase
how leisure is shaped by those in power and utilized as a tool of “racecraft” (e.g., the
disproportionate number of cannabis arrests toward Black Americans; Mowatt, 2019,
p. 663). Thus, this study suggests transcending the traditional deviant leisure frame-
work, which has impeded scholars from a productive and socially just conceptualization
of the healthy/beneficial and unhealthy/harmful spectrum of leisure behaviors.
Indeed, under prohibitory regulations, recreational cannabis use has been explicitly
framed as deviant, criminal, harmful, life-wrecking, and void of any potentially desir-
able leisure qualities (e.g., pleasure, socialization). This study showcases the cannabis
users’ anticipated leisure benefits, which are important to recognize under the current
recreational legalization and normalization trends. However, this is a cautionary tale
because these desirable qualities may be easily exploited. More specifically, society may
be facing a new conundrum with the commercialization of recreational cannabis as
the switch from criminalization to commercialization overly simplifies and glamorizes
the leisure meanings of cannabis for profitable gain.
Cannabis-related leisure meanings expressed by the participants in this study have
already taken on a tangible shape in the commercial market sector. For instance, the
apps like ‘Jointly’, rely heavily on the leisure meanings presented in this study to pro-
mote and maximize the benefits of cannabis use (Jointly, n.d.). The app uses various
leisure characteristics as the menu options in the app’s algorithm that connects cannabis
users’ motivations/goals for use (e.g., relaxation, creativity, etc.; see Figure 2) with
various types of recommended cannabis strains, cannabis delivery, and local dispen-
saries (where legally available). The Jointly app advertises that “you [i.e., the cannabis
consumer] deserve even more from cannabis,” and that they [i.e., the app/businesses]
can help you “shop for cannabis, reflect on your experiences, and discover a new level
of well-being with purposeful [cannabis] consumption” (Jointly, n.d.).
The app also offers a self-reflection journal where cannabis users are prompted with
quantitative and qualitative questions to reflect on their cannabis use experience and
where they can log how different strains impacted their cannabis consumption goals
(e.g., leisure outcomes) and overall health and well-being (see Figure 2). Jointly also
features an artificial intelligence (AI) chat for cannabis related conversations (e.g., one
can ask how cannabis might impact socialization; see Figure 3). According to the app,
the data submitted from the self-reflection journal and chat conversations are also
utilized to enhance the AI capabilities and algorithms to fine tune suggestions for
16 I. FRATILA AND L. BERDYCHEVSKY
future use(rs). Thus, the findings from this study are especially meaningful given that
these accelerated technologies are available to nearly anyone who is interested in using
cannabis in/as leisure.
Several contemporary governing bodies have pivoted from the prohibitive approach
to gain profitable tax dollars off cannabis consumption (Crépault, 2018). Academicians
will have to keep a close eye on how governments and public health sectors, specif-
ically, minimize the commercialization effects seeking to incite consumption (e.g.,
widespread marketing billboards, over-selling, or exploitation of leisure meanings in
advertisements). Furthermore, they will have to consider the role of AI in the collec-
tion and distribution of cannabis information and cannabis consumerism. Additionally,
as the commercialization market unfolds, it provides an opportunity to advocate for
equitable policies in the cannabis industry (McVey, 2017) and ensuring appropriate
and culturally informed health promotion efforts across communities. Considering the
evolving governance needs of the cannabis legalization movement, leisure scholars and
practitioners can contribute useful insights within this domain.
Figure 2. Jointly app goals for use and self-reection journal.
JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH 17
The shifting tides in cannabis legality offer leisure researchers the opportunity to
critically push beyond the traditional deviant leisure classifications of tolerable/
intolerable, casual/serious, and criminal/non-criminal (Williams & Walker, 2006) and
invasive, mephitic, or wild leisure conceptualizations (Rojek, 1999b). A holistic and
more realistic conceptualization of cannabis use in/as leisure can better inform knowl-
edge, practice, education, and advocacy efforts. The conceptualization of cannabis use
in/as leisure can also be leveraged in the ongoing conversations about governmental
legalization (i.e., reduced prohibitions) and societal liberalization (fueled by consumer
capitalism and recreational cannabis business industry).
Additionally, this study suggests that leisure scholars have an important role to
contribute to the interdisciplinary discourses on the prevention and intervention sci-
ences (e.g., shaping drug education messaging; Weybright et al., 2019). Indeed, “leisure
sciences would benefit from intentional collaboration to “pull” from prevention science
and “push” out leisure research” (Weybright et al., 2019, p. 406) representing an
intermix of leisure meanings with drug discourses unfolding in other disciplines and
fields. Leisure scholars can collaborate with critical drug researchers across various
disciplines, including cultural studies, sociology, anthropology, philosophy, criminal
justice, critical race studies, women’s studies, psychology, public health, and addiction
studies to advance the effectiveness of drug education (Walker, 2022).
Leisure academicians can contribute meaningfully to the scholarship on drug use
and pleasure, which focuses on pleasure as an intrinsically motivating factor for drug
Figure 3. Jointly app AI chat for cannabis conversations.
18 I. FRATILA AND L. BERDYCHEVSKY
consumption (e.g., Thompson & Coveney, 2018). Together, leisure and non-leisure
researchers and practitioners could create a more useful model of cannabis use moti-
vations and the (un)anticipated or (un)desirable outcomes. This would move beyond
the “anti-pleasure” momentum of health promotion and public health and “avoid
opposing pleasure and reason” (Coveney & Bunton, 2003, p.175). Indeed, leisure
meanings (e.g., pleasure) provide nuance that can be leveraged in drug education
efforts. These meanings could be useful in order to expand beyond scare tactics, which
were traditionally employed in the zero-tolerance approach that was almost exclusively
used when cannabis was prohibited and cannabis users were criminalized. However,
the abstinence-only approach may be inadequate as cannabis becomes a legalized
pleasure pursuit through the legalization of non-medicinal recreational adult use.
Limitations and future research
The findings presented in this study can be leveraged for policy, advocacy, and health
communication efforts (e.g., drug education). However, this study has its limitations.
The findings are specific to emerging adults living in the U.S. states where recreational
cannabis use was legalized. Therefore, findings may not be transferable to individuals
who are at a different life stage or who are living in states with non-legalized cannabis
use, or those who live outside of the U.S. However, generalization is not the goal of
phenomenology because this research design requires a homogeneous sample for
building ideographic and nomothetic understandings. Another limitation of this study
is that the final participant demographic make-up is overwhelmingly white/Caucasian,
which does not provide insights into cross-cultural leisure or recreational meanings.
Expanding the demographic makeup could help develop more culturally competent
and tailored drug education.
Future research can address the limitations of this study and investigate leisure-related
meanings of cannabis use across various racial/ethnic groups, across the lifespan, in
non-Western contexts, and across the U.S. states and countries with legalized and
nonlegalized cannabis. Leisure scholarship has an opportunity to expand the field by
investigating recreational cannabis markets (e.g., emergence of cannabis cafes), consumer
identities (e.g., individual prerogatives and empowerment, public vs. private self-display
of cannabis in/as leisure interests), and the socialization of legal cannabis use (e.g.,
cannabis in family/friendship leisure interactions) as well as the societal risks and
benefits that emerge from cannabis as a new culturally accommodated leisure form
(e.g., safe driving practices). Cannabis leisure studies can mimic those exploring newly
commodified leisure forms, such as gambling, that seek to understand the socio-cultural
meanings and functions of both the individual and the economy in the global land-
scape of consumer capitalism (Smith & Raymen, 2018). Additionally, leisure investi-
gations might consider adopting a critical lens to identify any disproportionate risks
and harms associated with commercialized recreational cannabis across various identity
markers, including, but not limited to, race, gender, class, religion, sexual orientation,
and sexuality.
Moreover, leisure scholars can investigate the ties between cannabis use as leisure
and health and well-being across the psycho-socio-cultural spectrum. Leisure researchers
should study how leisure meanings of the cannabis use could be leveraged in
JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH 19
identifying the tipping points between consumption as a controlled pleasure and the
harmful/problematic abuse of pleasure seeking. Indeed, tolerable consumptive deviant
leisure undertaken for pleasure includes heavy drinking and the use of cannabis “but
not their seriously regarded cousins - alcoholism and compulsive gambling” (Stebbins,
2019, p. 71). Additionally, leisure scholarship should expand on knowledge delineating
cannabis in/as leisure for positive coping/fruitful escapism and its undesirable mani-
festation as maladaptive coping or untethered escapism.
Highlighting the spectrum of use from the leisure perspective can inform/comple-
ment mental health behavior diagnostics (e.g., DSM-5 that outlines cannabis is harmful
when overtaking one’s recreation and signifies this is a criterion for cannabis use
disorder; APA, 2013). These future research directions for leisure scholars are increas-
ingly pressing as cannabis use is further normalized by the society and a growing
number of people view cannabis use as controlled recreation/leisure.
Conclusion
The findings showcase the usefulness of phenomenology for exploring leisure meanings
of (il)legal and socially contested activities undergoing societal reconstruction. This
methodology allows researchers to approach recreational cannabis in/as leisure holis-
tically and unveil the complexity of the phenomenon through the dynamic of textures
and structures at both ideographic and nomothetic levels without the necessity to
quantify and generalize. Instead, this qualitative approach is designed for interpretation
and meaning-seeking and can be leveraged as an inductive alternative that is a com-
plementary and necessary strategy to lay foundations for and/or make sense of the
quantitative corpus of work. For instance, leisure scholars have developed surveys and
scales exploring leisure meanings of various risk-pleasure behaviors based on preceding
qualitative studies (e.g., Sex as Leisure View Scale; Berdychevsky & Fratila, 2023), and
this development would also be beneficial for the conceptualization of the cannabis
use as leisure and its implications for theory and praxis.
To conclude, relying exclusively on the deviant leisure lens to understand recre-
ational cannabis use(rs) limits scholars’ understanding of the complex normative leisure
meanings. Presently, there is a chance to explore legitimate and lawful understanding
of cannabis’ leisurely potential. However, the significant shift from the medicalization
and criminalization of cannabis use(rs) to the commercialization of cannabis must be
monitored closely. Indeed, the public may be largely lacking the nuanced understanding
of recreational cannabis use in/as leisure due to the rapid switch from emphasizing
cannabis’ criminality and harms to the marketing of cannabis as a favorable cultural
commodity. Therefore, investigation of cannabis-related leisure meanings must be
conducted responsibly and in tandem with the development of just and racially equi-
table policies as well as effective prevention and intervention strategies that aid in a
smooth transition from cannabis’ criminalization to commercialization.
Ethical approval
This study received approval from the University Institutional Review Board. The IRB
protocol number for the study is 18465 and this was approved on October 28, 2021.
20 I. FRATILA AND L. BERDYCHEVSKY
Disclosure statement
No potential conict of interest was reported by the author(s).
References
American Civil Liberties Union [ACLU]. (2020). A tale of two countries: Racially targeted arrests
in the era of. American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). https://www.aclu.org/report/tale-tw
o-countries-racially-targeted-arrests-era-marijuana-reform
Ap, J. (1986). Recreation trends and implications for government. In R. Castle, D. Lewis & J.
Mangan (Eds.), Work, leisure and technology (pp.167–183). Longman Cheshire.
American Psychiatric Association [APA]. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental dis-
orders (5th Ed.). APA. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
Arnett, J. J. (2015). Emerging adulthood: e winding road form late teens through the twenties
(2nd Ed.). Oxford University Press.
Barnett, L. (2007). e nature of playfulness in young adults. Personality and Individual Dierences,
43(4), 949–958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.02.018
Barratt, M. (2011). Beyond internet as tool: A mixed-methods study of online drug discussion
[Doctoral dissertation]. Curtin University. https://espace.curtin.edu.au/bitstream/handle/20.500.
11937/1093/225976_Barratt2012.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=2
Belhassen, Y., Santos, C., & Uriely, N. (2007). Cannabis usage in tourism: A sociological perspec-
tive. Leisure Studies, 26(3), 303–319. https://doi.org/10.1080/02614360600834958
Berdychevsky, L. (2016). Antecedents of young women’s sexual risk taking in tourist experiences.
e Journal of Sex Research, 53(8), 927–941. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2015.1069783
Berdychevsky, L., & Fratila, I. (2023). Young adults’ acceptance of later-Life sexuality is predicted
by their general sexual attitudes and viewing sex as leisure. Leisure Sciences, 1–22. https://doi.
org/10.1080/01490400.2023.2273382
Blanco, J. A. (2016). Deviant leisure in the collegiate undergraduate population: Predicting partici-
pation and aect using self-discrepancy theory [Doctoral thesis]. University of Illinois
Urbana-Champaign. http://hdl.handle.net/2142/90551
Brightbill, C. K. (1960). e challenge of leisure. Prentice Hall.
Bruwer, J., & Alant, K. (2009). e hedonic nature of wine tourism consumption: An experiential
view. International Journal of Wine Business Research, 21(3), 235–257. https://doi.org/10.1108/
17511060910985962
Buckner, J. D., Walukevich, K. A., & Henslee, A. M. (2018). Event-specic cannabis use and
cannabis use motives. Substance Use & Misuse, 53(7), 1093–1098.
Choe, J., Chick, G., & O’Regan, M. (2014). Meditation as a kind of leisure: e similarities and
dierences in the United States. Leisure Studies, 34(4), 420–437. https://doi.org/10.1080/026143
67.2014.923497
Cohen, S. (2002). Folk devils and moral panics: e creation of the mods and rockers. Psychology
Press.
Conrad, P., & Schneider, J. (1992). Deviance and medicalization: From badness to sickness. Temple
University Press.
Coveney, J., & Bunton, R. (2003). In pursuit of the study of pleasure: Implications for health
research and practice. Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health. Illness
and Medicine, 7(2), 161–179.
Crépault, J. F. (2018). Cannabis legalization in Canada: Reections on public health and the gov-
ernance of legal psychoactive substances. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 220. https://doi.
org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00220
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding ow: e psychology of engagement with everyday life. Basic
Books.
Du, C., & Erickson, P. (2014). Cannabis, risk and normalisation: Evidence from a Canadian
study of socially integrated, adult cannabis users. Health, Risk & Society, 16(3), 210–226.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13698575.2014.911823
JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH 21
Frank, V., Christensen, A., & Dah, H. (2013). Cannabis use during a life course - Integrating
cannabis use into everyday life. Drugs and Alcohol Today, 13(1), 44–50. https://doi.
org/10.1108/17459261311310844
Fratila, I., & Berdychevsky, L. (2020). Understanding drugs as leisure through the (de)dierenti-
ation lens and the dialectic of Logos- and Eros-modernity. Leisure Studies, 40(4), 513–528.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2020.1843694
Fratila, I., & Berdychevsky, L. (2021). Aiming “high” in college: Phenomenological meanings of drug
consumption in/as leisure through the lens of existential authenticity. Leisure Sciences, 1–19.
Freysinger, V. J., Shaw, S. M., Henderson, K. A., & Bialeschki, D. M. (2013). Constructing a
framework. In V. Freysinger, S. Shaw, K. Henderson, D. Bialeschki, & V. J. Freysinger (Eds.),
Leisure, women, and gender (pp. 3–20). Venture Publishing, Inc.
Gould, J., Donnelly, R., & Innacchione, B. (2018). Turning over a new leaf in Colorado: An ex-
ploration of legalized recreational marijuana preferences, leisure interests, and leisure motiva-
tions in a sample of young adults. World Leisure Journal, 61(2), 113–130. https://doi.org/10.10
80/16078055.2018.1521866
Hansen, C., Alas, H., & Davis, E.Jr (2023). Where is marijuana legal? A guide to marijuana le-
galization. U.S. News and World Report, January 20. https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/
articles/where-is-marijuana-legal-a-guide-to-marijuana-legalization
Hathaway, A. D. (2004). Cannabis users’ informal rules for managing stigma and risk. Deviant
Behavior, 25(6), 559–577. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620490484095
Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and time. (J. Stambaugh, Trans.). Harper. (Original work published 1927).
Husch, J. A. (1991). Leisure, work and drugs: A perspective of use. Loisir et Societe, 14(2), 399–409.
Jointly (n.d). Jointly App | Jointly. https://jointlybetter.com/
Kleiber, D. A. (2000). e neglect of relaxation. Journal of Leisure Research, 32(1), 82–86. https://
doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2000.11949891
Koch, T. (1995). Interpretive approaches in nursing research: e inuence of Husserl and
Heidegger. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 21(5), 827–836. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.
1995.21050827.x
Lau, N., Sales, P., Averill, S., Murphy, F., Sato, S., & Murphy, S. (2015). Responsible and con-
trolled use: Older cannabis users and harm reduction. International Journal of Drug Policy,
26(8), 709–718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2015.03.008
Lavie-Ajayi, M., Ziv, A., Pinson, H., Ram, H., Avieli, N., Zur, E., Tzur, E., & Nimrod, G. (2022).
Recreational cannabis use and identity formation: A collective memory work study. Wo rld
Leisure Journal, 64(4), 325–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/16078055.2022.2043428
Liebregts, N., van der Pol, P., van Laar, M., de Graaf, R., van den Brink, W., & Korf, D. J. (2015).
e role of leisure and delinquency in frequent cannabis use and dependence trajectories
among young adults. International Journal of Drug Policy, 26(2), 143–152. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.07.014
Lunze, K., Lunze, F., Raj, A., & Samet, J. (2015). Stigma and human rights abuses against people
who inject drugs in Russia—A qualitative investigation to inform policy and public health
strategies. Plos One, 10(8), e0136030. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136030
Malick, M. (2017). Postmodernity and leisure. In Spracklen, K., Lashua, B., Sharpe, E., Swain, S.
(Eds.), e palgrave handbook of leisure theory (pp. 689–704) Palgrave Macmillan.
Malleck, D. (2008). Leisure, liquor and control: Negotiating recreation in the beverage rooms of
post-prohibition Ontario, 1927-1939. Annals of Leisure Research, 11(3-4), 368–385. https://doi.
org/10.1080/11745398.2008.9686803
McGhee, P. E. (1999). Health, healing and the Amuse System: Humor as survival training. Kendall/Hunt.
McVey, E. (2017). Percentage of cannabis business owners and founders by race. Marijuana Business
Daily. https://mjbizdaily.com/chart-19-cannabis-businesses-owned-founded-racial-minorities/
Measham, F. (2004). e decline of ecstasy, the rise of ‘binge’ drinking and the persistence of
pleasure. Probation Journal, 5(4), 309–326.
Moore, D. (2008). Erasing pleasure from public discourse on illicit drugs: On the creation and
reproduction of an absence. International Journal of Drug Policy, 19(5), 353–358. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2007.07.004
22 I. FRATILA AND L. BERDYCHEVSKY
Mowatt, R. A. (2019). A people’s history of leisure studies: Leisure, the tool of racecra. Leisure
Sciences, 40(7), 663–674. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2018.1534622
Nelson, L. J., & Luster, S. S. (2015). Adulthood" by whose denition? e complexity of emerging
adults’ conceptions of adulthood. In J. J Arnett (Ed.), Handbook of emerging adulthood (pp.
421–437). Oxford University Press.
Osborne, G., & Fogel, C. (2008). Understanding the motivations for recreational marijuana use
among adult Canadians. Substance Use & Misuse, 43(3-4), 539–572. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10826080701884911
Palamar, J. J., Rutherford, C., Cleland, C. M., & Keyes, K. M. (2022). Concerts, bars, parties, and
raves: Dierential risk for drug use among high school seniors according to venue attendance.
Substance Abuse, 43(1), 785–791. https://doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2021.2010253
Parker, H., Aldridge, J., & Measham, F. (1998). Illegal leisure: e normalization of adolescent
recreational drug use. Routledge.
Rational recreation and self-improvement. (n.d.). Encylopedia.com. https://www.encyclopedia.com/
humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/rational-recreation-
and-self-improvement#:∼:text=%22Rational%20recreation%22%20was%20the%20ideal,time%20
behavior%20of%20laboring%20men
Rojek, C. (1995). Decentring leisure. SAGE.
Rojek, C. (1999a). Deviant leisure: e dark side of free-time activity. In E.L. Jackson & T.L. Burton
(Eds.), Leisure studies: Prospects for the twenty-rst century (pp. 81–94). Venture, Publishing Inc.
Rojek, C. (1999b). Abnormal leisure: Invasive, mephitic and wild Forms. Loisir et Société, 22(1), 21–37.
Schaub, M., Gmel, G., Annaheim, B., Mueller, M., & Schwappach, D. (2010). Leisure time activities
that predict initiation, progression and reduction of cannabis use: A prospective, population-
based panel survey. Drug and Alcohol Review, 29(4), 378–384. https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1465-3362.2009.00156.x
Sedgwick, E. (1993). Epidemics of the Will. Tendencies, 4, 130–142.
Smith, J. A., Flowers., & P., Larkin. (2009). Interpretive Phenomenological analysis: eory, method
and research. SAGE.
Smith, O., & Raymen, T. (2018). Deviant leisure: A criminological perspective. eoretical
Criminology, 22(1), 63–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480616660188
Spracklen, K. (2011). Constructing leisure: Historical and philosophical debates. Palgrave Macmillan.
Stebbins, R. A. (1996). Tolerable dierences: Living with deviance. McGraw-Hill Ryerson.
Stebbins, R. A. (2019). Consumptive and non-consumptive leisure and its t with deviance. In
Raymen, T., Smith, O. (Eds.). Deviant Leisure (pp. 67–85) Palgrave.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA]. (2021). Key substance
use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2020 National Survey on
Drug Use and Health. Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and
Mental Health Services Administration. https://www.samhsa.gov/data/
Sullivan, A. M., & LeDrew, D. (1999). Exploring leisure’s boundaries. In R. Mccarville & K.
Mackay (Eds.), Leisure in Canada: Canadians and their leisure (pp. 121–127). Venture
Publishing.
Szmigin, I., Grin, C., Mistral, W., Bengry-Howell, A., Weale, L., & Hackley, C. (2008). Reframing
‘binge-drinking’ as calculated hedonism: Empirical evidence from the UK. e International
Journal on Drug Policy, 19(5), 359–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2007.08.009
Taylor, S., Ayres, T., & Jones, E. (2020). Enlightened hedonism? Independent drug checking
amongst a group of ecstasy users. e International Journal on Drug Policy, 83, 102869. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102869
ompson, L., & Coveney, J. (2018). Human Vulnerabilities, Transgression and Pleasure. Critical
Public Health, 28(1), 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2017.1309356
van Manen, M. (2016). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive
pedagogy. Routledge.
Walker, I. (2022). Pleasure and the new normal of recreational cannabis in the United States. In
D. Corva & J.S. Meisel (Eds.), e Routledge handbook of post-prohibition cannabis research
(pp. 306–313). Routledge.
JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH 23
Williams, D. J. (2009). Deviant leisure: Rethinking "e good, the bad, and the ugly. Leisure
Sciences, 31(2), 207–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400802686110
Williams, D. J., & Walker, G. J. (2006). Leisure, deviant leisure, and crime: “Caution: Objects may
be closer than they appear. Leisure/Loisir, 30(1), 193–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/14927713.200
6.9651348
Winlow, S., & Hall, S. (2016). Criminology and Consumerism. In P. Carlen (Ed.), Criminologias
Alternativas (pp. 92–109). IEA.
Weybright, E. H., Son, J. S., & Caldwell, L. L. (2019). ‘To have healthy leisure is to have balance’:
Young adults’ conceptualization of healthy and unhealthy leisure. Journal of Leisure Research,
50(3), 239–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2019.1588694
