Block, neighbourhood or district? The importance of geographical scale for area effects on educational attainment

Abstract

Researchers show an increasing interest in the question of how a neighbourhood influences its residents. The crucial question is whether place-related factors have an independent effect on individual life chances. This study examines adolescent development, with educational attainment as the dependent variable. It further addresses contextual effects that emerge at different intra-urban geographical scales by exploring spatial effects at block, neighbourhood and district level in Oslo, Norway. How does the population composition at the three scales affect the level of future educational attainment for adolescents? What are the most important aspects of the population? Is the impact of various population indicators similar or different across the three scales? A number of causal mechanisms, which operate at different geographical scales, such as social interaction, shared social spaces, stigmatization and institutional resources are discussed. The study has a longitudinal approach, and includes register-based information about the whole population of Oslo and a young target population. The analysis is based on two-, three- and four-level modelling. The results reveal significant effects on the youth's future educational attainment at all geographical levels and for all tested measures of social and demographic area composition. The share of low-educated neighbours seems to have the strongest impact. Contradictory to most other studies, the results show that the highest geographical level (district) has the strongest effect. This surprising result is tentatively interpreted to emerge from a combination of three interwoven mechanisms: the youths' extended activity spaces and social interactions, the institutional aspects (schools), and place stigmatization.

Full text


© The author 2014
 109

THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL SCALE
FOR AREA EFFECTS ON EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
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

-
Geograska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography 96

-
 
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      
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
-
 -


  
      -
      
      

      

Keywords     

Introduction
-
-




    
     -



     

      
  

     
      
-
-

-


        


-


-
-

-

      
-


-
  
     
     
      
-
     


-



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   
     
-
      
    
  

       -
-

   
     
    -

 
-


 -

      
     
  
   

     
  
   
-
 


 -

-
-



et al



-
-
    
-


-




  


 immediate
-
residential area
    district or region 
    

-
area effects-
neighbourhood effects

 

    
-
     

-





-
  

-
  -

-

Theory and existing research
     

    
      -
  
     

-

     
   

      


© The author 2014
 111
     
      

Types of mechanisms
-

et al 
       

Endogenous area effects
-
-

   
  
-
 
-

 -
      -
      
      -
-
   
  
peer groupsrole models.-







-


-

-
-

      -
      
     

      -


    
 
      
-

   -
-

    -
   et al.
et al


-


      -
      
-

   -




-
-

Correlated area effects   
   -
    
 
       
       
 
       
  -

    
    
 
et al
 -

-


   
-
 
  


© The author 2014

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
    
     -



       -


-

   
-

-


     
-

-
    -
     


-
-
et al
Exogenous area effects-
-
    
       
-

  



-
 
-
-

-

-


   
    

-


-


     -

Spatial scales and dening areas
-

    

     -
      
      
-



   -

        -

-
-
       
-
 -


et al-
     -

 
-

 
-
      
    
 et al
 

et al


       
        



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 113
     

 -

-
 
    
-
 
     -
     -

     
-


-
-
   
-


-
    
    
  -

et al.

Context – spatial scales and education in Oslo
Three geographical levels

      
 grunnkretser     -

kvar-
talerdelbydeler-
       1 
bydeler 
   -
 
   
-
      

        -

-

      
-
-

      -
-
    
      -
     -



-
-

        


   
-
-

2
  


     -



  -
     

       

   
      

  




-




-

-
et al
3


© The author 2014

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   -
      

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

     
-
   



-

 






 
 -

       

  -
      
 





-

The school system and catchment areas in Oslo
      
      
     -

    

-

-
-


 
-



-
     


     
4
    -

        



upper
-



  




     
    


     -



      -
      
-
  -


    -

-
 
    
       

   -

-



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 115
   
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
-
   

       

-
   
  -




       
-

 
 -






Data and empirical approach




-
-





      
    
-

Multilevel modelling

    

     
    

-

-
-
     
-
 -

  

-

et al

-
      -




-


    -


    
       -

      -
-
     
-


Dependent variables

  

   
 -




     
  
Educational attainment  


© The author 2014

116

-


-

Independent variables


-


Level 1-



   -
  

   





Levels 2, 3 and 4
  -
  
        -
 
 

 
     
-


   -
     

-

     

  -
      
    -

-

    


-

    


     
      
     
-
        
-
-


-




   


Empirical analysis


     
-
   

Variance across districts, neighbourhoods and
blocks
 

-

-

Variance components models for four level models I






© The author 2014
 

-

Districts    
-

   be-
tweenwithin



    -





      -

     -
-

    
   

-


Neighbourhoods      


-
-
    

   
    
-
       -
  
 



-

Blocks 
        -



     




       
-

Source


Source


© The author 2014


     -



-

Three-level models-
-

    
    

     

  
-

 -



-



     -

-

 
     
    
    

     
       
-
-

  -
-
    
      -

Summing up variance at area levels 


-

 
    -
  
   
    -
   -

-

       
      
   


   
   

-
     



-
   
-
-

-




    
        

Source


© The author 2014
 119

-

Which area characteristics have the strongest
impact on future educational attainment?
District level variables -
  
-



district
-



-



-




-
-

-
  -

   -






-


Neighbourhood level-
neighbourhood
     -
  -


-
-

   
       -
   

-







Block levelblock

        
-

  

 
n 
n
  SE DIC  SE DIC
 –0.598   –0.259 0.043 5213.0
 –0.382 0.032  –0.188  5204.5
 –0.583 0.065  –0.237 0.041 5213.6
 –0.156 0.016  –0.078 0.012 
 –0.226 0.029  –0.097 0.016 
 –0.074 0.005  –0.033 0.005 
 –0.057 0.010  –0.027 0.006 5220.9
 –0.101   –0.046 0.009 
Notes:bold
       



© The author 2014

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


-
-


Residual variation
      
 

-

     
-
  -

-


 
-
 

-



-

  

-
    
        

         

 
n  
n 
  SE DIC  SE DIC
 –0.352 0.063  –0.207 0.035 5214.9
 –0.335 0.029  –0.170 0.024 5203.0
 –0.403 0.054  –0.201 0.032 5211.6
 –0.128 0.015  –0.070 0.011 5206.2
 –0.166   –0.086 0.014 
 –0.069 0.004  –0.033 0.004 
 –0.051 0.006  –0.027 0.005 
 –0.050 0.010  –0.034  5219.3
Notes:bold
         


 
n  
n 
  SE DIC  SE DIC
 –0.250 0.036  –0.172 0.029 
 –0.256 0.031  –0.151 0.022 
 –0.235 0.043  –0.151 0.032 5223.0
  0.013  –0.061 0.010 
 –0.107   –0.069 0.013 5215.9
 –0.069 0.004  –0.034 0.004 
 –0.042 0.005  –0.024 0.004 5210.6
 –0.039   –0.025 0.006 5224.9
Notes:bold
       



© The author 2014
 121
-
 
-



Discussion and conclusion
  -


-
  -

  
   -
    
      
 
 -
-



-
  -

 
-

-

  

-
     

as role modelsnorms and values through




     -

-
  -

     
   

et al
     
-

      
       -
     -
      

   -
   


 



 

 
    
  
        

-
   -


 
-
-

 


-







-

    
  -
  
        


   



© The author 2014

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       
  -
    

 
-

-


-
-

    -
      -



-
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
     


   -

-


 -
-
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 

      




      

  

    

    
      -

-

      


  
      



 -

     
 







   


  
  

-
   
-

      
       



  
    
et al
    
     -
     


    
-


-







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 123


-

 -
       
       
-

-

  

-



  -

et al
    -
   
 
      -

    
     -
       

-
-

       
     
    
  -
-
    

   

      


Acknowledgements
-




Ingar Brattbakk
Department of Sociology and Human Geography
University of Oslo
P.b. 1096 Blindern
N-0317 Oslo
Norway
Email:
Notes
 

 -

-


 -


 

References
   
British
Educational Research Journal 
  Westbound and Eastbound: Managing
Sameness and the Making of Separations in Oslo.
       

         

Urban Studies 
      

Urban Studies –2025.
      
 
-
Housing Studies 
–660.
  -
   
    -
Geograska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography 92
–43.
Bättre framtidsutsikter? Blandade bostad-
sområden och grannskapseffekter. En analys av visioner och
effekter av blandat boende   

       

Housing Studies –636.



Housing, Theory and Society –195.
     
      
European Sociological Review


© The author 2014

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-
    -
Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 19

-
-
Urban Studies
      
-
       
      -

  MCMC Estimation in MLwiN. Version
2.13  

-
Urban Studies –
-
Urban Studies–
        
       Social
Science Research –
DI       

Annual Review of Sociology–336.

-
Schmollers Jahrbuch –
      
       van
        
  Neighbourhood Effects Research:
New Perspectives


Journal of Urban Affairs 
–226.
  Adresse eller karakterer? En evaluering av
inntaksordningen benyttet ved opptak til grunnkurs i allmenne
og økonomisk/administrative fag i Oslo videregående skoler,
høsten 1994
     -
Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning 46

   -
International Journal of Educational Research 

 Residential Mobility and Neighbourhood
Effects: A Holistic Approach   
      

-
Urban Studies 39
–139.
Multilevel Analysis: Techniques and Applications.


R
McInner-city Poverty in the United
States.
 ,  , BURGESS, S., PROPPER, C.,
 (2004): ‘-
’, Geographical Analysis 36 (
350–.
 , PROPPER, C., BURGESS, S.,  ,
 (2005): ‘
       
’, British Journal of Political
Science 35 ( –514.
        -

     European
Sociological Review –391.

 
     Schmollers Jahrbuch




Lovdata
 -


-
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society:
Series A (Statistics in Society) –554.
-
Review of Economic Studies 60
–542.
       
International Journal of Inclusive Education –
–
-

Statistical Applications
in the Spatial Science.


Quantitative Geography: A British View

   Statistisk årbok for Oslo 2004.

       
-
Urban Studies –425.
   
Urban Studies –130.
   -
       
Social Inequality
–145.
        
      
International Migration Review –241.
      
      
     


European Urban
and Regional Studies 
 

Annals of the Association of American Geographers  
622–636.
         Multilevel
Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Multilevel
Modeling
   Segregation och karriärposition. En
studie av bostadsomgivningens betydelse för utbildning,


© The author 2014
 125
sysselsättning och inkomst bland yngre i stockholmsregionen.


   Spatial Order and Social Position:
Neighbourhoods, Schools and Educational Inequality.
   

     -

Urban Studies –1331.

    International Journal of
Educational Research –504.

Environment
and Planning A –
   Den delade skolan. Segregations-
processer i det svenska skolsystemet.


Progress in Human Geography –551.
van
    
  Geograska Annaler: Series B, Human
Geography
-
-
International Journal of Urban and Regional Research

      
       -
  


 

American Behavioral Scientist