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ISSN 1819-7124, Neurochemical Journal, 2022, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 39–45. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2022.
Association of Vitamins and Neurotransmitters:
Understanding the Effect on Schizophrenia
Videsha Bansala and Indranath Chatterjeea, b, 1
a Chatterjee’s NeuroImaging and AI Lab, Tongmyong University, Busan, 48520 South Korea
b Department of Computer Engineering, Tongmyong University, Busan, 48520 South Korea
Received June 22, 2021; revised August 22, 2021; accepted September 2, 2021
Abstract—One of the most challenging tasks is identifying all the chemical interactions inside the human
body. The interplay of vitamins and neurotransmitters is an intriguing topic to study to understand the body-
brain relationship better. Schizophrenia is a severe brain disorder in which neurotransmitters play a crucial
role. We find significantly less study to investigate the linkage between the two in schizophrenia. This study
attempted to determine the link between various vitamins found in our daily diet and neurotransmitters in our
brain that are important for optimal mental functioning, focusing on schizophrenia. We conducted a com-
prehensive evaluation of the relevant literature, examined the significance of vitamins in the human body, and
paid attention to those essential for proper brain growth. We also studied the linkage of neurotransmitters and
their alterations due to the influence of vitamins in schizophrenia patients. Our study finds that vitamin E has
a subtle effect on the dysfunction of serotonin and glutamate, and vitamin D affects dopamine. These find-
ings prove the association of vitamin intake and its effect on the onset of schizophrenia, influencing the
responsible neurotransmitters. To our best knowledge, this is the first study to examine the most relevant lit-
erature and present these findings, which may improve the understanding of the neuroscience domain and
help further research.
Keywords: schizophrenia, vitamins, neurotransmitters, human brain, linkage, neurochemistry, vitamin D,
vitamin E, serotonin, glutamate, dopamine, psychological disorder
DOI: 10.1134/S1819712422010032
INTRODUCTION
Around one percent of the global population suf-
fers from the debilitating mental disorder known as
schizophrenia [1]. Davison et al. [2] and American
Psychiatric Association [3] stated that the life span of
a person who has schizophrenia reduces by 0.4 to
0.7%. However, the diagnosis of schizophrenia is
entirely relied on clinical interviews and observing
symptoms. There are five types of schizophrenia,
namely, paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undiffer-
entiated, and residual, which are classified according
to the observable symptoms [4]. Usually, the symp-
toms like hallucination and delusion are observed the
most. Nonetheless, cognitive symptoms are also
observed during schizophrenia.
The developmental status of illness may be divided
into four stages. Stage 1 is the onset of schizophrenia
diagnosed with the help of family history, environ-
mental and lifestyle risk. Stage 2 is the onset of schizo-
phrenia diagnosed with the help of cognitive assess-
ment. Stage 3 is the onset of schizophrenia diagnosed
with the help of a clinical trial, and stage 4, being the
onset of schizophrenia at this stage, is done with the
help of clinical interviews [5]. According to stage 1,
factors like genetics, environment, and lifestyle play a
significant role in the onset of schizophrenia. Besides
these, neurotransmitters and anti-psychotic drugs are
also responsible for causing schizophrenia [6].
Researchers have been working to find the link
between lifestyle and psychotic disorder, especially
schizophrenia. One of the significant connections
between lifestyle and schizophrenia stated by different
scientists is the deficiency of vitamins and minerals
causing psychotic disorders. Our daily diet affects our
body growth and plays a vital role in our brain devel-
opment.
We are aware that deficiency of vitamins causes
several side effects in the human body. From poor
body growth to weak eyesight and even mental disor-
der, vitamin deficiency can cause several complica-
tions. Among several causes of schizophrenia, lifestyle
is one of the leading triggers. A sufferer’s lifestyle cov-
ers all three aspects of his life, physical, mental and
emotional. In 1999, Ramakrishna T. [7] stated that
more than one-eighth of the population is undernour-
ished and suffers from different mental disorders.
1Corresponding author; address: Chatterjee’s NeuroImaging and
AI Lab, Tongmyong University, Busan-48520, South Korea;
e-mail: indranath.cs.du@gmail.com.
REVIEW
ARTICLES
40
NEUROCHEMICAL JOURNAL Vol. 16 No. 1 2022
VIDESHA BANSAL, INDRANATH CHATTERJEE
Every vitamin has its responsibility in the human brain
and body development. Thus, this review explores
each vitamin in detail to find the linkage between how
each vitamin is responsible for any psychotic symp-
toms leading to schizophrenia. From the previously
available work to the role of different vitamins, we have
discussed how other people found various vitamins
responsible for symptoms of schizophrenia. Later
moving towards the discussion section, we discuss
how different vitamins can help in improving schizo-
phrenia symptoms and also state various research
opportunities which could be taken into consideration
in this field.
RELATED WORK
Researchers initially believed there could be a link-
age between vitamin deficiency and schizophrenia,
and with intensive research, they found that various
vitamins are responsible for mental disorders.
In 1985, Petrie W.M. & Ban T.A. [8] discussed the
role of different vitamins in psychiatry. The authors
addressed each vitamin in-depth, including the com-
plication observed due to the lack of specific vitamins.
They have also focused on how different vitamins
could be used to treat mental disorders, majorly
schizophrenia. Later in 2008, Hoffer L.J. [9] talked
about different vitamins in the light of the complica-
tions experienced due to vitamin deficiency to the role
of vitamin therapy in treating schizophrenia. Again,
the authors touched upon every aspect where vitamins
and schizophrenia could be linked.
Firth J. et al. [1] performed a systematic review of
all randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to note the
effect of vitamins and minerals on people who have
schizophrenia. The authors concluded that there is
evidence that if the level of a few vitamins and minerals
is maintained, then it could result in the reduction of
schizophrenia symptoms. Finally, Peet M. [10] dis-
cussed how a person’s lifestyle could lead to schizo-
phrenia or mental disorder in a similar line. The
author majorly focuses on the diet and diabetes in
schizophrenia. This study confirmed that changes in a
person’s lifestyle could develop mental health and
improve cognitive symptoms in schizophrenia.
We came across investigations that focused only on
one vitamin and its role in schizophrenia. Recently,
Cao B. et al. [11] investigated the link between vita-
min B and schizophrenia and selected six vitamins
from the vitamin B family. They found that lower pyr-
idoxine levels and high nicotinamide level contributes
to schizophrenia. In contrast, biotin, choline, ribofla-
vin, and pyridoxamine showed no contribution to
schizophrenia. Brown H.E. & Roffman J.L. [12] dis-
cussed the role of different vitamins in mental disor-
ders and then concluded that folic acid, vitamin B,
and D play a vital role in stabilizing the symptoms of
schizophrenia. Finally, the role of vitamin E and C in
schizophrenia was discussed by D’souza B. &
D’souza, V. [13]. The authors focused on how vita-
min E and C prevent further oxidative injury and
improve behavioral symptoms of people living with
schizophrenia.
Besides lifestyle, one of the significant causes of
schizophrenia is the malfunctioning of different neu-
rotransmitters in the brain [6]. Further studies [14]
showcase that the nutrients we consume do facilitates
the release of different neurotransmitters. Table 1 is a
summary of various vitamins and the neurotransmit-
ters which are triggered by each one of them. Thus, it
could be concluded that a proper diet with all the vita-
mins keeps our body fit and improves our mental
health intact.
The available pieces of the literature suggest that
every vitamin is responsible for some roles in schizo-
phrenia. However, before we discuss the role of each
vitamin in schizophrenia, let us focus on all vitamins
individually.
3. ROLE OF DIFFERENT VITAMINS
IN PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Vitamins are organic compounds, an essential part
of the human diet. Each vitamin is responsible for one
or more physical or mental developments in the
human body. Table 2 summarizes all the responsibili-
ties of each vitamin. There are six types of vitamins dif-
ferentiated based on solubility. Vitamin B (group) and
C are water-soluble, and vitamins A, D, E, and K are
fat-soluble. Firth, J. et al. [1] mentioned in their study
that people who have schizophrenia were found to
have a deficit in some vitamins. They also discussed
various vitamins and minerals that could be added to a
patient’s diet to reduce some symptoms of schizophre-
Table 1. Different neurotransmitters triggered by different
vitamins
Vitamin Influenced neurotransmitter
Vitamin A Dopamine [15]
Vitamin B
B1 Serotonin [16]
B2 Serotonin and noradrenaline [17]
B3 Serotonin, GABA [18, 19]
B5 Acetycholine [20]
B6 Dopamine, serotonin, GABA [16, 17]
B7 –
B9 Dopamine [17]
B12 Serotonin and noradrenaline [17]
Vitamin C Serotonin [21]
Vitamin D Dopamine and Serotonin [22–24]
Vitamin E Serotonin [21]
Vitamin K Glutamate [25]
NEUROCHEMICAL JOURNAL Vol. 16 No. 1 2022
ASSOCIATION OF VITAMINS AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS 41
nia. Vitamins B, C, D, and E play a significant role in
schizophrenia. The part of vitamin A and vitamin K
during schizophrenia is to be identified with various
clinical studies.
The significant vitamins contributing to schizo-
phrenia are as follow:
(1) Vitamin B (B1, B2, B3, B5, B7, B9, and B12)
[26–29]
(2) Vitamin C [30–33]
(3) Vitamin D [23, 34–36]
(4) Vitamin E [37–41]
Table 1 establishes the links between vitamins and
neurotransmitters. Thus, along with the details of each
critical vitamin, their connection with different neu-
rotransmitters responsible for schizophrenia is dis-
cussed herewith.
Vitamin B and group. Vitamin B is a collection of
eight vitamins, namely, B1 (thiamine); B2 (ribof la-
vin); B3 (niacin); B5 (pantothenic acid); B6 (pyridox-
ine); B7 (biotin); B9 (folate) and B12 (cobalamin).
Each sub vitamin is responsible for one or more devel-
opments in human beings. Thiamine is responsible for
converting glucose to energy circulated in the entire
body through cells for proper working. It is also
responsible for proper muscle movement [29].
Researches [27, 28] also showcase that people who
have schizophrenia were found to have a deficit of
vitamin B1. Mental symptoms like seizures and weak
mental ability were noted [28]. The link between thia-
mine and schizophrenia was studied by Vinh quốc-
Lương K. & Nguyễn L.T.H. [27], and the authors con-
cluded that lack of thiamine during schizophrenia
could lead to problems like inflammation and oxida-
tive stress. They also mention that absorption of thia-
mine decrease with increasing age, and thus, treat-
ment of schizophrenia with increasing age could be
more challenging. Recently, Calderón-Ospina C.A.,
& Nava-Mesa M.O. [16] mentioned a link between
thiamine and neurotransmitter serotonin which is
again responsible for the onset of schizophrenia.
We observed several essential vitamins in overall
human development, moving towards vitamin B2 and
B3, respectively known as riboflavin and niacin. Vita-
min B2 is responsible for maximum redox reactions in
the human body [42]. A study [42] concludes that lack
of vitamin B2 could lead to brain dysfunction and per-
sonality change. On the other hand, vitamin B3 (nia-
cin) was found responsible for human body develop-
ment and proper mental function [26]. Recently in
2019, Gasperi V. et al. [43] mentioned that lack of vita-
min B3 in humans could lead to neurodegenerative
diseases like Alzheimer’s, schizophrenia, and even
headache. Prousky J. [19] stated the role of vitamin B3
(niacin) in triggering the feel-good neurotransmitter,
i.e., serotonin.
Among the vitamins, such as B5, B6, B7, B9, and
B12, it is evident that only vitamin B6 and B12 majorly
contribute to the mental development of humans.
Vitamin B5, B7, and B9 are responsible for the pro-
duction of new proteins and fats [44], regulation of
DNA [45], and DNA replication [46] respectively.
Therefore, the deficiency of these three vitamins could
cause various health complications, even related to
genetic and emotional disorders [47]. Since vitamin
B9 is responsible for treating depression, these three
vitamins could require further clinical-based research
[47]. Vigorous studies [1, 7, 8] showcase that vitamin
B6 and vitamin B12 are responsible for brain develop-
ment and proper functioning of the brain, respectively.
Pyridoxine is accountable for releasing three major
neurotransmitters, i.e., dopamine, serotonin, and
Table 2. Natural supplements of vitamins and the recommended dietary allowed per day (RDA)
* Source—sunlight.
Vitamin
Food Products
RDA
Vegetarian Non-vegetarian
Vitamin A [59–61] Vegetarian—milk, sweet potatoes,
carrots, pumpkin, spinach, mangoes,
cheese
Non-vegetarian—liver, eggs,
shrimp, fish.
700–900 μg
Vitamin B (B1 to B12) [60, 61] Soymilk, watermelon, milk, yogurt,
cheese, grain, cereal, broccoli, avocados,
mushroom, potatoes, bananas, tofu,
orange juice
Ham, meat, fish, eggs,
chicken
1.5 –2 mg
Vitamin C [60, 61] Fruits, potatoes, broccoli, bell peppers,
spinach, strawberries, tomatoes, sprouts
–75–90 mg
Vitamin D* [59–61] Milk, cereals Fatty fish 10–20 mg
Vitamin E [59–61] Vegetable oil, leafy green vegetables,
grains and nuts
15 m g
Vitamin K [62, 63] Cabbage, milk, spinach, broccoli Eggs 90–120 μg
42
NEUROCHEMICAL JOURNAL Vol. 16 No. 1 2022
VIDESHA BANSAL, INDRANATH CHATTERJEE
GABA, responsible for causing schizophrenia [16].
Thus, changes in the level of vitamin B6 could affect
the onset and offset of schizophrenia. In some studies
[11, 16, 47], we find that the level of vitamin B12
affects mental stability, cognitive activities, mood,
energy level, causing neuropsychiatric disorders. Vita-
min B may be considered as a prime vitamin that could
help in the treatment of schizophrenia along with
heavy anti-psychotic drugs.
Vitamin C. Vitamin C is a natural water-soluble
antioxidant and reducing agent [30]. It is abundant in
the brain and helps neuronal regulation [31]. Tracing
back to the late 90s, Milner G. [32] linked vitamin C
with chronic schizophrenia [9]. Lee L. et al. [21] men-
tioned the link between vitamin C and different neu-
rotransmitters in the brain. The level of serotonin was
highly affected by the level of vitamin C in the brain.
Deana R. et al. [33] found that levels of acetylcholin-
esterase and catecholamine depend on the concentra-
tion of vitamin C. Any change in these levels could be
a connection to variation in the synapses of different
neurotransmitters. Other than schizophrenia, vitamin
C also plays a vital role in other mental disorders like
Alzheimer’s [48] and dementia [21].
Vitamin D. Vitamin D is the only vitamin that we
could directly get from sunlight. Vitamin D is pro-
duced when our skin is exposed to sunlight [35]. From
bone metabolism to building the immune systems and
neuromuscular development, vitamin D is responsible
for many activities in the human body [34]. Stubbs B.
et al. [49] stated low bone mass and osteoporosis prev-
alence during schizophrenia. Vitamin D plays a vital
role in the treatment of osteoporosis. Thus, a direct
link between schizophrenia and vitamin D could be
established through this prevalence [23]. Neurotrans-
mitters that are being affected due to the level of vita-
min D are dopamine [23, 36]; glutamate [23, 50]; and
GABA [23, 50]. These three neurotransmitters play a
vital role in schizophrenia, but a link between vitamin
D and dopamine is reported more than glutamate and
GABA. In addition to this, Kulaksizoglu S. & Kulak-
sizoglu, B. [24] linked vitamin D deficiency with psy-
chopathology.
Vitamin E. In the early 90s, Evans and Bishop dis-
covered a whole new group of eight naturally occur-
ring vitamins that were fat-soluble and antioxidant in
nature. They named it Vitamin E [51]. Rizvi S. et al.
[52] stated that vitamin E is not fully effective in the
human body; an equal amount of vitamin C, B3, sele-
nium, and glutathione is essential. Thus, from this
statement, we could understand the linkage between
the vitamins. Any changes in vitamin C and B3 levels
could lead to changes in vitamin E as well. Starting
from immunity booster [37] to the anti-inflammation
agent [38, 39] to a mental disorder like Alzheimer [40,
41] to cardiovascular diseases [53] and lastly cancer
[54], vitamin E plays a vital role to prevent all of such
complications. An optimum level of vitamin E in the
human body keeps it away from all the mentioned
complications. As stated before, if vitamin E is com-
bined with vitamin C, then it is even helpful in the pre-
vention of complications like cataracts [55], menstrual
pain, and pre-eclampsia [52, 56]. Desrumaux C.M.
et al. [57] studied the role of vitamin E behind anxiety
in adulthood. They stated that lack of vitamin E during
pregnancy could cause some alteration in glutamate
level, eventually leading to anxiety issues in adulthood
[52]. On a similar line, Bošković M. et al. [58] studied
the role of vitamin E in schizophrenia and observed
improvement in the glutathione system. Their results
also showcased that if vitamin E is insufficient, there is
minor motor retardation. Vitamin E, along with other
vitamins places a crucial role in schizophrenia. They
might not prevent it entirely, but the symptoms and
person’s struggle during schizophrenia could be
reduced by maintaining the level of each vitamin.
From the above discussion, we could clearly state
that vitamins are essential to overall development.
Besides physical complications, lack of vitamins can
cause various mental disorders like schizophrenia,
depression, Alzheimer’s. Thus, including a proper
amount of each vitamin in our diet is essential. Table 2
lists some food items that contain different vitamins
and recommended dietary allowed per day. These
vitamins may not prevent a mental disorder com-
pletely but indeed can reduce the aggressiveness of
such conditions. Therefore, an optimum level of vita-
mins in the human body is a necessity.
DISCUSSION
As discussed, schizophrenia is caused due to vari-
ous reasons like the malfunctioning of neurotransmit-
ters, lifestyle, adverse environment, drugs, and genet-
ics [6, 63, 64]. Individually each factor that causes
schizophrenia is discussed vastly, but interlinking
among the elements is the trend research [5, 64]. In
this review paper, we have discussed the role of differ-
ent vitamins and attempted to link each vitamin with
one or more neurotransmitters associated with schizo-
phrenia. We have discussed the related work rigorously
and the stated role of each vitamin in developing phys-
ical and mental health. After discussing all the vita-
mins, we shifted our focus to the vitamins related to vari-
ous mental disorders and malfunctioning of neurotrans-
mitters; thus, vitamin B, vitamin C, vitamin D, and
vitamin E were discussed more thoroughly in Fig. 1.
After collecting the relevant data, it was noted that
only a few sub vitamins of vitamin B are related to the
brain and its activities. Vitamin B1, vitamin B2, vita-
min B3, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 are highly
related to human brain development. More efforts are
being made to identify vitamin B9 in developing the
human brain and its related disorders. Thus, in total,
vitamin B is not just essential for physical development
but also brain development.
NEUROCHEMICAL JOURNAL Vol. 16 No. 1 2022
ASSOCIATION OF VITAMINS AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS 43
We cannot deny that we need a robust immunity
system to fight any medical complications, and vita-
min C boosts our immunity system. In this path, we
discussed vitamin C, the immunity booster. From the
relevant studies, we noted that vitamin C is also
responsible for healthy neuronal regulation in the
human brain and detoxification of the body. Connect-
ing it with schizophrenia and mental disorder, differ-
ent studies established a link between vitamin C and
the level of serotonin in the human brain. Therefore, a
gradually falling immunity could be a sign of low vita-
min C and low serotonin levels in the human body,
which could have adverse side effects on mental
health, resulting in different neurodegenerative disor-
ders like schizophrenia.
Ramakrishna, T. [7] stated that vitamin D is highly
essential for developing cerebellar parts in the human
brain. Along with its role in bone metabolism, it is
highly required for neuromuscular development in
humans. During osteoporosis, vitamin D plays a vital
role. The relevant studies noted that neurotransmitters
like dopamine, glutamate, and GABA are connected
to vitamin D. Therefore, vitamin D plays a vital role in
neurodegenerative disorders, i.e., schizophrenia.
Vitamin E is highly effective in improving our
immunity system against diseases like cancer and cat-
aract. Also, relevant studies showcased its role in pre-
venting/decreasing mental disorders like Alzheimer’s
disease and schizophrenia, linked to the glutathione
system. We found a major research gap linked to the
interactions of vitamins because of vitamin E (see Fig. 1).
Vitamin E is extremely interacting among all vitamins.
Other encounters can lead to new techniques to diag-
nose even during therapy any underlined mental ill-
ness. Thus, researchers should focus more on the
interactions among the vitamins and how they can
collectively change mental health. Recently,
Kulaksızoglu B. et al. [66] evaluated the interconnec-
tion between vitamin B12, homocysteine, and methi-
onine along with their serum ratio in 62 schizophrenic
patients. They concluded that due to deficiency of
B12, the level of homocysteine and methionine could
rise, due to which patients could suffer from various
other health complications. We firmly believe that a
proper diet keeping all the vitamins in mind and anti-
psychotic drugs could help the patient deal with a
chronic mental disorder like schizophrenia with more
ease. To sum up, we believe that even if the vitamins
could not prevent any mental illness, it is undoubtedly
capable of building the body for a long fight against
any health complications.
CONCLUSION
The difficulty grows much more while studying the
human brain because it is the most complicated organ
in your body. This paper attempted to link several vita-
mins in our daily diet with neurotransmitters in our
brains responsible for good mental activity. In this
paper, we have gradually moved towards factors that
could be related and may cause schizophrenia. We
carefully examined and analyzed the significance of
Fig. 1. Association and interconnection between vitamins and neurotransmitters to understand its effect on schizophrenia (Dot-
ted line represents interconnection between vitamins).
SCHIZOPHRENIA
Vitamin B
(B1, B2, B3, B6, B12)
Sources: milk, eggs, fruits, carrots.
Other problems: seizures, neurodegenerative diseases,
emotional health issues, change in energy level
Malfunctioning
of serotonin GABA
dopamine
Malfunctioning
of dopamine,
glutamate & GABA
Malfunctioning
of serotonin,
glutamate
Malfunctioning
of serotonin
Sources: fruits, potatoes, broccoli & sprouts.
Other problems: weak immune system, neuronal de-regulation,
dental problems
Sources: milk, cereals, fish & sunlight.
Other problems: osteoporosis, digestive problems,
eected neurotransmitters, emotional issues
Sources: grains & nuts, leafy vegetables & eggs.
Other problems: low immunity, cardiovascular issues, cataract
complication, depression and mental health derioration
Vitamin C
Vitamin EVitamin D
44
NEUROCHEMICAL JOURNAL Vol. 16 No. 1 2022
VIDESHA BANSAL, INDRANATH CHATTERJEE
numerous vitamins in the human body in the relevant
literature. We have also focused on the vitamins
responsible for healthy brain growth. Here, we have
additionally focused on the human brain triggering
neurotransmitters. Changes in neurotransmitters have
already been shown to cause mental illnesses, such as
schizophrenia. We then reviewed our results and
ended our research with all the gaps in the research
with the hope of bringing coherence and future study
to this subject.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research work was performed during the RA-ship
of Ms. Videsha Bansal under the supervision of
Dr. Indranath Chatterjee at Chatterjee’s Neuroimaging and
AI Lab, Busan, South Korea. The authors acknowledge
Tongmyong University for providing the platform to com-
plete the study.
FUNDING
No external funding was received.
COMPLIANCE WITH ETHICAL STANDARDS
Conflicts of interest. The authors declare that they have
no conflicts of interest.
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