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Chapter 6
Recent Advancements in Mycoremediation
Ihsan Flayyih Hasan AI-Jawhari
6.1 Introduction
Human activities are continuously interfering with the environmental processes and
making them polluted by adding heavy metals, radionuclides, hydrocarbons, and
contaminants. Furthermore, the pollution of surface water, and groundwater as a
result of urban and industrial growth has imposed negative consequences on both
humans and the environment (EEA 2003; Kour et al. 2021). Therefore, the require-
ment for eco-friendly approaches is increasing day by day that can treat the pollut-
ants in an effective way.
6.2 Impact of the Agrochemicals on the Ecosystem
Agriculture has a significant effect on terrestrial as well as aquatic ecosystems. The
injudicious use of pesticides, plant hormones, fertilizers, and other agrochemicals
has caused several environmental concerns (Debbarma et al. 2017; Bhatt et al.
2021a,b). Similarly, agriculture is the primary source of PO
43
,NO
3
, and pesticide
emissions, with the continuous increment over the last 35 years (Loebenstein and
Thottappilly 2007; Önder et al. 2011). Further, unorganized land remediation poli-
cies have decreased the vegetation, soil organisms, and soil organic matter (Walls
2006; Arias-Estévez et al. 2008; FAO 2009).
I. F. H. AI-Jawhari (*)
Department of Biology, College of Education for Pure Sciences, University of Thiqar,
Al-Nasiriyah, Iraq
©The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
D. C. Suyal, R. Soni (eds.), Bioremediation of Environmental Pollutants,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86169-8_6
145
6.2.1 Eutrophication and Algal Blooms in the Lakes
Blooming is the uncontrolled growth of the photosynthetic organisms in the lake due
to the excessive accumulation of organic carbon, phosphate, and nitrates. Direct
runoff, deforestation, and agrochemical spray drift transfer terrestrial phosphate and
nitrate to the water environment and causes eutrophication (Fig. 6.1). Due to it, the
population of algae and phytoplankton grows rapidly due to high concentrations of
chemical nutrients that promote their growth. As these organisms grow, the O
2
is
depleted, resulting in life stop in the profundal zone due to the lack of oxygen (Rial-
Otero et al. 2003). It is greatly affected by heat, nutrients, flow rate, and other abiotic
elements (OECD 2012).
Impact indicators:
•Large increase in microalgae and macroalgae growth on the epilimnion layer. The
sunlight penetration gets decreased which leads to the loses of underwater aquatic
vegetation.
•A nutrient imbalance can lead to a change in microalgae components, allowing
toxic algal blooms to flourish.
•Reduce diversity and make a negative impact on the food web due to changes in
benthic species composition.
•In the coastal and maritime environment, it results in reduced dissolved O
2
levels.
Fig. 6.1 Blooming processes in the lakes
146 I. F. H. AI-Jawhari
Besides, phosphorus, nitrogen is another important factor that contributes
towards eutrophication. Several algal species are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen
into nitrate (Howarth 2006). It was observed that nitrogen load in the Yellow Sea
(China) and the North Sea (Europe) was 10–15 times higher than the natural levels.
Moreover, nitrogen loads to US coastal waters were on average 6 times higher than
natural levels (Howarth 2006). In Europe and the United States, agriculture is now
the primary source of nitrogen supply.
6.3 Mycoremediation of Pesticides
Pesticides have a significant economic effect by protecting and lowering pest-related
agricultural sabotage and thereby, increasing productivity and yield. In recent years,
pesticides used have been increased in agriculture. Due to their excessive use
throughout the world, the 1940s and 1950s are known as the “pesticide era”(Graeme
2005). Aside from agricultural uses, pesticides are used in large quantities for urban
plantations maintenance, sanitary handling and storage, vegetation control, and
forest protection. Pesticides have also been used in the reduction of the disease viz.
malaria and typhus fever. Every year, hundreds of thousands of tonnes of pesticides
are used around the world to boost agricultural production by reducing pests (Liu
and Xiong 2001).
Overuse of agrochemicals has imposed negative impacts on the environment
(Giri et al. 2017a,b). They reach specific organisms in less than 5% of cases, with the
majority of them leach into the subsoil and contaminate groundwater (Kookana et al.
1998). Alternatively, if it is immobile, it causes magnification by increasing
chemicals levels in the aquatic ecosystem and harm native organisms (Amakiri
1982). Pesticide pollution can cause contamination of surface and sediments (Juhler
et al. 2001; Bhatt et al. 2021a). Moreover, it has a negative impact on microbial
diversity, especially bacterial, archaeal and fungal communities (Ahmed et al. 1998).
Agrochemicals spray also affects non-vegetation. They can show deviation or
volatility from treatment regions that have been processed to non-target plants,
climate, and the soil. Low crop yields, the devastation of soil organisms even in
microhabitats, and unwanted chemical residue concentrated in crops are the main
outcomes of agrochemical overuse (Edwards 1986). Huge amounts of pesticide are
used, within local soil habitat and thus cause pesticide spills (Gan and Koskinen
1998). Pesticides are poisonous and intransigent by the environment, causing pol-
lution in ecosystems. As a result, health issues occur in the end-users. Carcinoge-
nicity, mutagenicity, immunosuppression, hormonal imbalance, and different other
health issues are all side effects of pesticides (Gupta 2004).
Chemical treatment, volatilization, and incineration are all physical and chemical
processes for removing pesticide residues from the soil. Large quantities of acids and
alkalis are produced as a result of chemical treatment and volatilization, which must
be discharged. Incineration is a highly dependable physical–chemical process for
pesticide removal; but, due to the risk of harmful pollution and high economic costs,
6 Recent Advancements in Mycoremediation 147
it has a lot of public opposition. Further, excavating soil from a contaminated site
and transporting it to other location for cleaning, is expensive and inefficient, and
require a large storage region (Nerud et al. 2003). Therefore, there is a pressing need
to evolved pesticide remediation techniques that are safe, convenient, and cost-
effective (Zhang and Chiao 2002). As a result, many biological processes involving
the bioremediation of organic substances by organisms have grown in popularity as a
treatment option for pesticide residues in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
Bioremediation is usually is less-costly than physical and chemical methods for
removing contaminants without the need for excavation. This kind of process has the
ability to treat pollutants onsite (Kearney and Wauchope 1998). Microorganisms are
the main factor for the recirculation of biological materials and, they have developed
a diverse set of enzymes, activation systems, and pathways for degrading and
utilizing pesticides as a source of energy (Talaro and Talaro 2002; Goel et al.
2008; Kumar et al. 2021).
Mycodegradation and my deterioration are two approaches in which fungi
degrade a wide range of contaminants (Singh et al. 2021). Mycoremediation is the
use of fungi in the ecosystem to degrade wastes and contaminants. This term is
derived from two words—“mukēs”and “remedium”representing the meaning
“fungus”and “restoring balance”, respectively.
6.4 Mycoremediation of Herbicides
Many fungi, such as Phanerochaete velutina, Coriolus versicolor, and Pleurotus
ostreatus have been the capacity to break down different herbicides like atrazine, and
various abilities (Bending et al. 2001). AI-Jawhari and AI-Sead (2016) showed that
Aspergillus versicolor was more efficient for biodegradation and the five-week was
the optimum period for biodegradation of granstar (Tribenuron methyl) to different
metabolites.
Zboniska et al. (1992) investigated the remediation of glyphosate by Penicillium
citrinum.Penicillium notatum was found to use the herbicide as a source of P and
use the CH
6
NO
3
P route to break it down (Bujacz et al. 1995). Trichoderma
harzianum, and Aspergillus niger have shown studies to break down glyphosate
(Krzysko-Lupicka et al. 1997). Klimeka et al. (2001) have shown Penicillium
chrysogenum was the important microorganism to use glyphosate as a nitrogen
source. Since the fungal cell is known to lack observable activity of the enzyme
nitrogen reductase, this isolate was incapable of converting NO
3
to NH
4+
. Further,
Lipok et al. (2003) have discovered a plant pathogen, Alternaria alternata that was
able to use glyphosate as a sole source of nitrogen.
Mougin et al. (1994) confirmed that the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete
chrysosporium biotransformed atrazine and resulted in the reduction of herbicide
concentration by 48% under in vitro conditions within the early 4 days after
treatment. The formation of hydroxylated and/or N-dealkylated metabolites was
clearly demonstrated by the mineralization of the herbicide’s ethyl group. In fungi
148 I. F. H. AI-Jawhari
N-Dealkylation is more common than hydroxylation, resulting in atrazine hydrolysis
through direct or secondary metabolite (Mougin et al. 1994).
Bending et al. (2002) tested the ability of nine species of white-rot fungi
to degrade different mono-aromatic pesticides. The breakdown of atrazine
(20 μgg
1
) was measured in sterilization made up of dirt, wheat straw, and peat.
Bastos and Magan (2009) have examined the ability of T. versicolor to break down
atrazine in sterilized soil for 24 weeks. The fungal treatment was found to accelerate
atrazine breakdown. Similarly, Elguetaa et al. (2016) have analyzed the atrazine
degrading ability of white-rot fungi and found it effective.
6.5 Mycoremediation of Heavy Metals
Heavy metal refers to any metal that is relatively denser and more toxic in compar-
ison to the other metals, even at its lower concentrations. Heavy metal pollution is
most visible in mining regions and abandoned mine areas. Metals are released into
the atmosphere during their extraction and processing processes (Lenntech Water
Treatment 2004). When heavy metals are present in the environment, they are well
known for their toxicity. From the standpoints of ecology, evolution, nutrition, and
the environment, it is a major source of interest. Heavy metals accumulation in soils
is a significant source of concern in agricultural production because it has negative
consequences on food production, cereals growth lead to phyto-poisons, soil
microbe, and human health (Dash et al. 2021). The biological toxicity impacts of
heavy metals in human biochemistry are a major source of concern. These heavy
metals are non-biodegradable and possess a longer half-life. Heavy metals can be
absorbed by the crops growing in the polluted regions. The biodegradation method
becomes hard if the soil has been polluted by heavy metals. Su (2014) has enumer-
ated several properties of heavy metal pollution in the environment, including its
global impact and distribution, latency and long-term damage, arduous biodegrada-
tion, and so on. Further, one of the major risk factors associated with heavy metals is
an occupational hazard. Workers in mines and those engaged in the manufacture of
heavy metals, as well as residents near industrial sites, have been exposed to
suspended particulate matter (Ogwuegbu and Muhanga 2005).
6.5.1 Toxicity of Heavy Metals
Lead (Pb)
There are many different sources of lead emissions. Mainly it discharges to the
ecosystem as a result of smelting and mining of mines. Lead poisoning occurs when
a lead is ingested or inhaled through any means inside the body (Ferner 2001).
Further, it causes severe health problems i.e.: hemoglobin synthesis, kidney dys-
functions, joint and reproductive system impairment, as well as heart dysfunction
6 Recent Advancements in Mycoremediation 149
(Ogwuegbu and Muhanga 2005). Also, ingestion may cause neurological problems
including serious and irreversible brain damage. The brain development of children
is also harmed (Udedi 2003).
Mercury
Eating polluted fish, amalgam dental fillings, coal burning, gold mining are some
major sources of mercury exposure (Balaguru et al. 2016). In its inorganic form,
mercury is extremely toxic. Oral conditions such as gingivitis and stomatitis, serious
brain and CNS damage, and congenital malformations are linked with this pollution
(Ferner 2001; Lenntech Water Treatment 2004).
Arsenic
Some sources of arsenic include long-term consumption of arsenic-contaminated
water and consumption of oil additives and plants cultivated on arsenic-rich soils.
Arsenic has been linked to an increased risk of cancer. Arsenic poisoning can cause
cancer in a variety of organs, including the kidney, liver, heart, respiratory system,
and skin (Ratnaike 2003; Kumar et al. 2021). Moreover, symptoms may worsen if
acute toxicity occurs. It causes muscle pain and stomach pain followed by blood in
urine, loose motions, vomiting, and convulsions. Arsenic poisoning typically
impairs the functioning liver, kidney, skin, and lungs (Kapaj et al. 2006). Arsenic
discouraged the production of (ATP) through breathing (INECAR 2000), and high
levels of exposure can result in death (Ogwuegbu and Ijioma 2003).
Cadmium
Cadmium, as a contaminant, exists in phosphate fertilizers, industrial dyes, and other
outputs as a pollutant. It’s a highly poisonous and dangerous metal. Cadmium-
containing goods are rarely recycled, but they are often thrown away with household
waste. As a result, pollution of the surrounding environment occurs particularly
when waste is incinerated. It is released as a by-product during the refining of zinc
(and sometimes lead), (IARC 1993). Cigarette smoking, battery making, coatings,
plastics making, and air from the smelting refineries are the main sources of
cadmium poisoning that can harm the kidney and liver. Cadmium is a human
carcinogen according to the World Health Organization (Il’yasova and Schwartz
2005).
6.5.2 Remediation of Heavy Metals by Fungi
Heavy metals biosorption is aided by exploring endophytic fungi (Yang et al. 2012).
More specifically, Penicillium sp., and Aspergillus niger have been shown to possess
a higher biosorption potential in removal metal-contaminant environments by
adsorbing heavy metals from the mixed pollutants (Ahmad et al. 2006). The
biological material’s potential to absorb heavy metals from the contaminated site
using metabolically influenced or physicochemical adsorption mechanisms is com-
monly referred to as biosorption (Fourest and Roux 1992). It entails species
150 I. F. H. AI-Jawhari
removing metal ions by separating organisms solid and liquid (Yang et al. 2012).
Biosorption has received a lot of publicity because it is a very powerful and practical
way to remove heavy metals (Cruz et al. 2004; Ting et al. 2008). According to an
estimate, biomass, whether life or death, can serve as a bio-absorption and high-
potency heavy metal ions (Bayramoglu et al. 2002).
Xiao et al. (2010) have obtained an endophytic fungus, Microsphaeropsis
sp. LSE10, from the plant Solanum nigrum. It has shown higher Cd bio-absorption
ability. Similarly, Deng et al. (2011) have demonstrated that an endophytic Mucor
species isolated from Brassica chinensis was able to bioaccumulate and absorb
heavy metals, especially lead and cadmium. Choo et al. (2015) have demonstrated
that the fungal endophyte of Nypa fruticans, Pestalotiopsis sp., was able to grow
luxuriously under the high concentration of chromium, lead, copper, and other heavy
metals. Further, Zhang et al. (2008) have reported the heavy metal accumulating
property in an endophytic Exophiala pisciphila. Li et al. (2012b,2016) have
observed that a higher abundance of metal-resistant endophytes in any host plant
increases the ability of phytoremediation. Moreover, the soil heavy metal concen-
tration affects the colonization rate of the endophytes and thus, bioaccumulation of
the contaminants. Further, the dominant genera were more resistant to heavy metals
than other genera (Li et al. 2016). In another study, Li et al. (2012a) have shown that
regions contaminated with lead and zinc encouraged the colonization of the endo-
phytes and thus promoted phytoremediation. Deng et al. (2014) have reported that
Portulaca possesses high heavy metals aggregation power.It was correlated with the
extensive mycelia producing capacity of this genus (Meena and Sarita 2017).
Kratochvil and Volesky (1998) have summarized the differences between traditional
and biological methods of biosorption. They have revealed that biological methods
are cost-effective, highly efficient, easy to recover, and eco-friendly in comparison to
the conventional alternatives.
6.5.3 Mycoremediation of Hydrocarbon Pollution
Hydrocarbons are the carbon and hydrogen-containing compounds that can be
generated from fuels and other similar sources i.e.: diesel, oil, kerosene, benzene,
ethylbenzene, toluene, and xylenes. Among these, aromatic hydrocarbons are more
dangerous for the environment than aliphatic ones.
The presence of crude oils and similar contaminants in the soil, cause harmful
influences on soil organisms (Scott 2003). Petroleum hydrocarbon pollution of soil
causes several issues. Petroleum hydrocarbon composition is found in the atmo-
sphere is harmful to the environment (Scott 2003). Owing to the accumulation of
hydrocarbon pollutants in animal and plant tissues, wide harm influence by hydro-
carbons pollutants to the local ecosystem can result in mutations and/or deaths
(Alvarez and Vogel 1991). The health risks associated with carbon emissions derive
mainly from direct contact with a polluted ecosystem of pollutants, as well as
secondary contamination of water beneath the soil.
6 Recent Advancements in Mycoremediation 151
PAHs are Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that are resistant to biodegradation
and are often associated with oil pollution. Maliszewska-Kordybach (1999)
found that contaminants can migrate long distances by air and precipitate on the
earth’s surface, plant vegetation, and water bodies (Cheema et al. 2009). The
rhizosphere of a plant controls its microbiome through different types of interactions
(Huang et al. 2004; Haritash and Kaushik 2009). Endophytes support their hosts by
using relevant degradation pathways and metabolic capacities, resulting in increased
phytodegradation of organic pollutants and decreased phyto-toxicity (Soleimani
et al. 2010). Moreover, it also affects the evaporation and transpiration of volatile
pollutants (Weyens et al. 2009).
6.6 Petroleum Biodegradation by Fungi
Many microorganisms have the efficiency to remove hydrocarbons in the atmo-
sphere, water, and soil. Natural biodegradation takes a long time. As a result, rather
than relying on a single organism, microbe from different genera may work together
to expand the restricted range of degradation. Several types of microbes have been
found in petroleum-contaminated soil, water, and surface (Surovtseva et al. 1997).
For the clearance of PAH pollutants, ideas in field degradation of pollutants are more
favored in today’s environment (Ndimele 2010). Al-Hawash et al. (2019) found that
the capacity of Aspergillus sp. RFC-1 to degrade petroleum hydrocarbons was
assessed using surface adsorption, and the results showed that by day 7 of incuba-
tion, crude oil, naphthalene (NAP), phenanthrene (PHE), and pyrene (PYR) removal
capacities had reached 60.3%, 97.4%, 84.9%, and 90.7%, respectively. While, crude
oil, NAP, PHE, and PYR had biodegradation capacities of 51.8%, 84.6%, 50.3%,
and 55.1%, respectively. Extracellular enzymes extracted from the crude-oil-pol-
luted environment from six Aspergillus species efficiently break down crude oil,
(Zhang et al. 2016). Penicillium sp. RMA1 and RMA2, two crude oil-degrading
fungi were isolated from the Rumaila oilfield, that could grow in petroleum hydro-
carbons composition media and removed 75% and 55% of hydrocarbons, respec-
tively, suggesting that these fungi could efficiency catabolism petroleum
hydrocarbons (Al-Hawash et al. 2017). The lipolytic enzyme of Aspergillus niger
isolated from an oil-contaminated ecosystem can removal polyaromatic hydrocar-
bons in petroleum polluted environment (Mauti et al. 2016). Sandhu (2016) obtained
that the high remediation capacity of Aspergillus sp. to kerosene because of its
superior mycelial growth and extracellular enzymes activity. Kadri et al. (2017)
fungi-produced enzymatic systems are important for transfer petroleum hydrocar-
bons to CO
2
or catabolism products. Extracellular enzyme production is the main
mechanism for fungal hydrocarbon degradation (Zhang et al. 2016). AI-Jawhari
(2016) found that the highest anthracene removal rates were achieved after 7-day
incubation with a mixed pure culture of Aspergillus niger and Penicillium
funiculosum. Michael et al. (2020) obtained the enzyme activity in two fungi
Aspergillus oryzae and Mucor irregularis growing them on Bushnell Haas
152 I. F. H. AI-Jawhari
(BH) mineral agar supplemented with the hydrocarbon at various concentrations,
such as 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%, with a dextrose power. After 15 days of incuba-
tion, hydrocarbon remediation potentials of these fungi were confirmed using
GC/MS in BH broth culture filtrates pre-supplemented with 1% engine oil. The
results indicated that M. irregularis only breakdown the long-chain hydrocarbons
and BTEX. This study confirmed that A. oryzae and M. irregularis have the potential
to be exploited in the bio-treatment and removal of hydrocarbons from polluted soils.
Exploration of endophytic fungal genera in phytoremediation appears to be a
more promising feature of phytoremediation (Mohsenzadeh et al. 2010). By foster-
ing pyrene accumulation in the roots of the host, inoculation of Lewia sp., resulted in
a remarkably high removable of pyrene in comparison with non-inoculated ones
(Cruz-Hernández et al. 2013). Further, a fungal endophyte Phomopsis liquidambari,
exists to uses phenolic 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, as a sole carbon source and as a
capacity breakdown of (PAH) in pure culture. One of the most important factors in
the rhizospheric deterioration of petroleum-contaminated soils is the presence of
endophytes. Mohsenzadeh et al. (2010) have analyzed seven plant species from
hydrocarbon-polluted areas. Moreover, several endophytic Fusarium strains viz.
Fusarium acuminatum,Fusarium reticulatum, and Fusarium equiseti are also
reported to have hydrocarbon-degrading potential. This group has also proposed
that combined use of endophytes and plants were more effective than their applica-
tion. Similarly, basidiomycete, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, was discovered to
degrade many organic contaminants in 1985 (Hammel et al. 1992). With the
assistance of enzymes such as (MnP) (LiP), Phanerochaete chrysosporium is
known to break down pyrene and anthracene by oxidation (Lei et al. 2007). It is
worth noting that white-rot fungi account for one-third of the literature on
mycoremediation (Singh 2006). Various strains of white-rot fungi have been iden-
tified to work on a wide variety of organic compounds that are resistant to others.
Phanerochaete chrysosporium, the white-rot fungus, is one of the best fungi for a
breakdown of poisons and insoluble wastes throughout the setting (Singh 2006).
Figure 6.2 showed the degraded Phenanthrene by dioxygenase enzyme phnAc/
phnAd. In recent years, the significance of white-rot fungi for fungal hydrocarbon
bioremediation has also received scientific attention (Rahman et al. 2014).
Fig. 6.2 Reaction catalyzed by the hydroxylating dioxygenase phnAc/phnAd as the first step of the
phenanthrene degradation pathway
6 Recent Advancements in Mycoremediation 153
6.7 Myconanoparticles
Nanotechnology is a branch of science that deals with metal nanoparticles in various
forms. A nanoparticle (10
9
m) is a small piece that functions as a catalyst in terms of
its transportation and assets as a whole (Gholami-Shabani et al. 2016a,b,c). Fungi
are integral microorganisms from the catalog of microorganisms used to synthesize
metal nanoparticles and are superior to different microorganisms in several
ways. They shape a mycelial mesh, which aids in their development withstand
the flow pressure, agitation, and other bioreactor associated stresses. Further, the
potential of fungal strains to grow and reproduce on readily available, low-cost
substrates, reflects their capacity to produce a wide variety of industrially important
compounds (Dhanasekar et al. 2015). The use of fungi in nanotechnology for the
making of nanoparticles is known as mycosynthesis of metal nanoparticles or
myconanotechnology (Honary et al. 2012; Prasad 2016). Many fungal species,
such as Aspergillus,Fusarium,Penicillium, and Verticillium have been used as
promising tools for metal nanoparticles. Different fungal species are potential
candidates for metal nanoparticle making. Mycosynthesis of silver, gold, gold-silver
alloy, platinum, selenium nanoparticles has already been studied. Further,
Trichoderma viride was used for green synthesis for gold nanoparticles using
para-nitro phenol and amino phenol (Mishra et al. 2014).
6.8 Biodegradation in Soils by Fungi
Heavy metal ions are believed to be immobilized by microorganisms by binding
them to their cell walls (Vankar and Bajpai 2008). Moreover, they can convert
certain pollutants into soluble substances and use them as a source of nutrients and
energy (Kumar et al. 2008). The presence of microorganisms that enhance
phytostimulation or rhizodegradation can speed up the phytoremediation method
(Kavamura and Esposito 2010).
Fungi are beneficial for the biodegradation of heavy metal-polluted sites due to
they possess high biomass content (Mann 1990). Because of their negative charge,
the cell walls of fungi can act as a cation exchanger (Muraleedharan et al. 1991;
Fomina et al. 2007). Furthermore, because of their low-cost processing, fungal
biomasses may act as bio-absorption compounds (Maurya et al. 2006). Further,
fungi play a very important role on the Earth because of their ability to decompose,
turn, and cycle nutrients (Archana and Jaitly 2015). The capacity of fungi to break
down anthropogenic substances was recorded for the first time in a study by Wunch
et al. (1999). Marasmiellus troyanus degraded PAH (benzo[α] pyrene) in liquid
culture, to the researchers. After the publication of this study, various writers and
research groups have been tasked with gathering more proof to resolve this problem
(Anastasi et al. 2013; Rhodes et al. 2014; Singh et al. 2015).
154 I. F. H. AI-Jawhari
6.9 Conclusions
Future research should be concentrated on developing real-time biodegradation
assays, and large-scale bioremediation experiments. They should use potential
native strains as well as genetically engineered microorganisms. More work is
required today to gain a deeper understanding of how agricultural soils function as
a whole, and a deeper understanding of the dynamics of these heterogeneous
ecosystems, as well as the interactions of different microorganisms. Much deeper
insight into the associated mechanisms is needed. It is possible to develop technol-
ogies to improve degradation efficiency through studying the process of degradation.
Through a better understanding of the mechanisms, such as cell immobilization in
various systems and the development and use for waste removal in the field, we will
improve the efficiency of degradation. Further, fungi in the soil can be used to make
metal nanoparticles and as green remediators to investigate the ability of fungi in
heavy metal biosorption and extraction from polluted areas for the benefit of the
industry. Fungi may be used as a factory for a variety of purposes, including
investigating nanoremediation, soil fertility, and ecosystem balance. Nanoparticles
may also minimize pesticide usage by enabling native fungi to biosynthesize the
nanoparticles, which is emerging as a cutting–edge technology for mankind. With
the rapid production of environmentally friendly fungal synthesis procedures, the
field of green nanotechnology must blossom in order to make the earth greener and
safer.
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