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Bisphenol A (BPA) in China: A review of sources, environmental levels, and potential
human health impacts
Y.Q. Huang
a
, C.K.C. Wong
a
, J.S. Zheng
a
, H. Bouwman
b
, R. Barra
c
, B. Wahlström
d
,
L. Neretin
e
, M.H. Wong
a,
⁎
a
Croucher Institute for Environmental Sciences, and Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, PR China
b
School of Environmental Sciences and Development, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
c
EULA —Chile Environmental Sciences Centre, University of Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile
d
Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP) Member, United Nations Environment Programme, Uppsala, Sweden
e
Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP) Secretariat, United Nations Environment Programme, Washington, DC, USA
abstractarticle info
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
Bisphenol A
Endocrine-disruptor
Environmental exposure
Potential impact
China
BisphenolA (BPA), identified as an endocrinedisruptor, is an industrially importantchemical that is used as a raw
material in the manufacture of many products such as engineering plastics (e.g., epoxy resins/polycarbonate
plastics),food cans (i.e., lacquer coatings), and dental composites/sealants. The demand and productioncapacity
of BPA in China have grown rapidly. This trend will lead to much more BPA contamination in the environmental
media and in the general population in China. This paper reviews the current literature concerning the pollution
status of BPA in China (the mainland, Hong Kong, and Taiwan) and its potential impact on human health. Due to
potential human health risks from long-term exposure to BPA, body burden of the contaminant should be
monitored.
© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Bisphenol A (BPA) is the common name for 2,2-(4,4′-dihydrox-
ydiphenyl) propane, 4,4′-isopropyllidenediphenol, alternatively,
2,2′-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl) propane, an organic compound with two
phenol moieties. Its important properties include low vapor pressure,
moderate water solubility, and low volatility. It is a solid at room
temperature (Tsai, 2006).
Bisphenol A was first reported by Dianin, 1891. It was then
synthesized by Zincke, 1905, from phenol and acetone (Brunelle,
2005). Being an important industrial chemical, Bisphenol A is primarily
used as an intermediate in the production of polycarbonate (PC) plastics
and epoxy resins. They are widely used in different products of daily life,
including digital media (typically CDs and DVDs), electronic equipment,
automobiles, construction glazing, sports safety equipment, medical
devices (e.g. dental sealants), tableware, reusable bottles (e.g., baby
bottles) and food storage containers. In order to protect food and drinks
from direct contact with metals, epoxy resins are also used in the internal
coating of food and beverage cans. Children's toys may contain BPA, being
used as an additive in other types of plastic (Staples et al., 1998).
Bisphenol A is a high production volume chemical as there is an
increasing demand for polycarbonates, and epoxy resins. The global
demand for BPA is predicted to grow from 3.9 million tonnes (in 2006) to
about 5 million tonnes in 2010 (Morgan, 2006).TheUSmarketis
expected to grow at 4.2% yearly up to 2010 with polycarbonates and
epoxy resins growing at 4.5%/year and 3.5%/year, respectively. In Europe,
the demand is expected to remain steady while the strongest growth will
be in Asia, mainly China. In 2000–2006, Asian BPA markets grew at an
average of 13% annually, with polycarbonate at 19%. Up to 2005, growth
was mainly due to the demand for epoxy resin. However, with the start-
up of polycarbonate capacity in China by Teijin and Bayer and several
projects planned, the BPA demand in China will be driven in the future by
polycarbonates (ICB Chemical Profiles, 2008).
Suspected of being hazardous to humans, concerns about the use
of BPA in consumer products have been regularly reported in the
news media since 2008 after several governments questioned its
safety. Some retailers have removed products containing BPA from
their shelves (Bouw, 2008). The US Food and Drug Administration
raised further concerns regarding exposure of fetuses, infants, and
young children to BPA (USFood, Drug Administration, USFDA, 2010).
This paper will assess and compare the sources, levels, and human
health impacts of BPA in China with other major economies, especially
in light of the expected increase in production, use and releases.
2. Analytical methods for BPA in different environmental media
Due to the use of bisphenol A in the manufacture of many
products, it has been speculated that human exposure to bisphenol A
may be widespread and that people may be exposed to elevated
Environment International xxx (2011) xxx–xxx
⁎Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 3411 7746; fax: +852 3411 7743.
E-mail address: mhwong@hkbu.edu.hk (M.H. Wong).
EI-02213; No of Pages 9
0160-4120/$ –see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.04.010
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Environment International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envint
Please cite this article as: Huang YQ, et al, Bisphenol A (BPA) in China: A review of sources, environmental levels, and potential human health
impacts, Environ Int (2011), doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.04.010
levels. Many of the assessments conducted on BPA have used data on
BPA concentrations in environmental media and in food items, or data
on the migration of BPA into food, as a basis for exposure assessment.
Therefore, this section will briefly introduce several BPA analysis
methods. Ballesteros-Gómez et al. (2009) had done an overview of the
analytical methods reported so far for the determination of BPA in
food. The main strategies developed for sample treatment included
solvent-based extraction, solid-phase extraction and less common
extraction techniques. For separation and detection, main attention
was devoted to the techniques, such as liquid chromatography–mass
spectrometry (LC–MS), gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
(GC–MS), and immunochemical methods. The analysis of BPA in
environmental media is generally similar to that of the analysis of
food, except for the sample treatment process. Gong et al. (2009) set
up the analytical method for the analysis of BPA in surface waters by
using solid-phase extraction, MSTFA (N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)
trifluoroacetamide) derivatization and determination by GC–MS. In
another study (Peng et al., 2006), a method had been developed to
determine BPA in sediment by using ultra-sonicated extraction in
combination with silica gel fractionation, derivatization with penta-
fluoropropionic anhydride, and GC–MS. For atmospheric samples, Fu
and Kawamura (2010) used solvent extraction and concentration,
derivatization with BSTFA (N,O-bis-(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroaceta-
mide), and determination by GC–MS.
3. Main sources and use of BPA in the environment
About 95% of BPA produced in industry is used to make polycarbon-
ate and epoxy resins, with the remaining 5% used in a variety of produc ts.
These include phenoplast resins, phenolic resins, unsaturated polyester
resins, can linings, antioxidants and inhibitors for PVC manufacture and
processing, ethoxylated BPA, additives for thermal paper manufacture,
polyols, modified polyamide, compounding ingredient for the manufac-
ture of car tires, flame retardants (e.g., tetrabromobisphenol A),
automotive and other transportation equipment, optical media such as
DVDs, electrical/electronic equipment, construction, linings inside
drinking water pipes, thermal and carbonless paper coatings, foundry
casting, etc. (European Union, EU, 2003). Therefore, BPA-based materials
can be assumed to be pervasive in countries with rapidly developing
economies, particularly China.
Environ IntIn China, BPA, as well as most BPA-based polycarbonate
and epoxy resins, is manufactured by only a few companies, but
numerous companies manufacture BPA-based materials into final
goods. For example, China (mainly mainland and Taiwan) has become
the CD/DVD production center of the world (Yu and Jia, 2008).
Therefore, the consumption of electronics, automobiles, construction
and communication equipment (computers and in particular optical
media, which is made up of a BPA-based material), has been the
driving force of the growing BPA demand in China.
4. Production and consumption of BPA in China
There are fifteen countries and regions (especially in the USA,
Germany, Japan, and Taiwan) known to produce BPA commercially
(Table 1). The total production capacity of BPA in the world amounted
to about 4.7× 10
6
tonnes annually in 2007. The production capacity of
BPA in the Asia-Pacific region amounted to 2.043 × 10
6
tonnes, which
accounted for 43.5% of the global output. Changes in the global
demand for BPA will depend on the demand of Asian countries,
especially China (Jiao et al., 2008).
Tables 2 and 3 further list the total supply and demand volumes for
BPA during 2001–2007 for mainland China (Yu and Jia, 2008), and
total amounts of import and export of BPA during 1996–2004 for
Taiwan (Tsai, 2006), respectively. Table 4 lists several major
manufacturers of BPA in China, which include the mainland, Taiwan,
and Hong Kong. The strongest BPA market growth has been in China,
with an estimate of demand for BPA (mainly polycarbonate and epoxy
resins) of about 2.25× 10
6
tonnes in 2010 (Jiao et al., 2008).
Table 1
Global BPA production capacity (Jiao et al., 2008).
Country/region Production capacity (10
3
tonnes/year) Percentage
USA 1075 22.9
Brazil 27 0.6
Belgium 220 4.7
Germany 456 9.7
The Netherlands 410 8.7
Spain 280 6.0
Russia 165 3.5
Czechoslovakia 8.5 0.2
Poland 12 0.3
China Mainland 167 3.6
Taiwan 615 13.1
Japan 611 13.0
Korea 260 5.5
Singapore 230 4.9
Thailand 160 3.4
Sum 4696.5 100
Table 2
The supply–demand situation of BPA in the mainland China (10
3
tonnes) (Yu and Jia,
2008).
Year Output Net import Apparent volume of consumption
2001 12 94 106
2002 11 127 138
2003 20 176 196
2004 41 171 212
2005 50 269 319
2006 50 356 406
2007 110 460 570
Table 3
Data on the import and export of BPA in Taiwan (tonnes) (Tsai, 2006).
Year Import Export
1996 3514 11,405
1997 7589 14,148
1998 10,147 13,448
1999 3630 24,530
2000 3588 28,426
2001 2095 34,708
2002 24,298 54,634
2003 29,726 57,338
2004 49,013 94,797
Table 4
Main manufacturers of BPA in China (Jiao et al., 2008).
Manufacturer Location Production capacity (10
3
tonnes)
Mainland
Lanxing Epoxy Plant Wuxi 410
Shuangfu Fine Chemical Tianjin 160
Bayer (Shanghai) Polymer Shanghai 110
Taiwan
Chang Chun Petrochemical Gaoxiong 135
Nan Ya Plastics Yunlin 430
Taiwan Prosperity Chemical Linyuan 50
Hong Kong
Kingboard Chemical Huizhou 25
2Y.Q. Huang et al. / Environment International xxx (2011) xxx–xxx
Please cite this article as: Huang YQ, et al, Bisphenol A (BPA) in China: A review of sources, environmental levels, and potential human health
impacts, Environ Int (2011), doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.04.010
5. BPA in different environmental media and food
The presence of BPA in the environment is the result of anthropo-
genic activities as BPA is not produced naturally. BPA is released during
the manufacturing of polycarbonate/epoxy resin, and from many
products, and following their disposal in landfills after use. Traces of
BPA are directly released to receiving water bodies and the atmosphere
via discharges at its manufacturing facilities. It could also be indirectly
produced and released to the air during the processing and handling of
BPA for manufacturing of different commercial products (e.g., poly-
carbonates and epoxy resins) containing small quantities of un-reacted
or uncured BPA. Furthermore, it can also be released into the
environment from bottles, packaging, landfill leakages, paper, and
plastic plants (Furhacker et al., 2000; Yamamoto et al., 2001).
The weight of evidence suggests that BPA is not expected to be
persistent in the environment, and degradation is expected to occur.
The rate of atmospheric photooxidation is rapid. Hydrolysis is
expected to be negligible under environmental conditions since BPA
does not contain functional groups that are susceptible to hydrolysis
(USEPA, 2010). Despite a half-life of only 1–10 days in soil, its ubiquity
makes it an important pollutant (Fox et al. 2007). Any residual,
unreacted BPA remaining in polycarbonate products and epoxy resins
can leach out into food or the environment.
BPA is a high production volume chemical with a U.S. volume
estimated at 5.292 billion kg in 2007, and an estimated value of almost
US$2 billion. According to the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) database,
the total release of BPA in 2007 was 2,496,197 kg, with releases of
271,138 kg to air, 13,772 kg to water (direct), 33,013 kg released on-site
to land, and 1,509,627 kg transferred off-site to land (USEPA, 2010). No
such relevant information is available for China. However, BPA has been
detected in different types of media (soil, sediment, air, municipal
waste, biota samples, food, etc.) from China in recent years.
Table 5
Concentrations of BPA in aquatic environment in China, compared with other countries.
Location BPA levels (ng/L) Comments References
China (from north to south)
Harbin —Songhua River 29–64 River water Shao et al., 2008
15–63 Tap water
Dalian 23.1–714 River water Zhang et al., 2008
Tianjin —Haihe River 19.1–106 (8300 in 1 sample) River water Jin et al., 2004
Beijing 1194–1574 River effluents Zhou et al., 2009
38.9–55.8 Tap water
Qingdao —Jiaozhou Bay b3.8–161 River water Li et al., 2006
Shanghai —Huangpu River 170–3520 River water Ma et al., 2006
Hangzhou —Qiantang River 0.33–25.0 River water Zhang et al., 2004a
Wuhan —Changjiang River nd-198.7 River water Xue et al., 2005
Guangzhou —Pearl River 97.8–540 River water Gong et al., 2008
Guangzhou —Pearl River/Dong River 43.5–639 River water Gong et al., 2009
Guangzhou —Pearl River Estuary 950–3920 River water and pond water Dong et al., 2009a
Taiwan, in general 50–3000 Only detected in S Taiwan Ding and Wu, 2000
South Taiwan 59–228 River water Lin, 2001
623–16200 Industrial wastewaters from the industrial park
Other countries
Japan —Tokyo Bay b500–900 River waters Kang and Kondo, 2006
Japan —Tokyo Bay 20.2–30.1 Surface seawaters Hashimoto et al., 2005
Japan —Tokyo Bay 149–12300 Leachates —hazardous waste disposal sites Yasuhara et al., 1997
Japan —Shizuoka 8000–370,000 Effluents —8 paper recycling plants Fukazawa et al., 2001
Japan —Okinawa & Ishigaki Islands b5–58 Seawaters Kawahata et al., 2004
Korea 46 Coastal seawaters Li et al., 2001
Singapore 40–190 Seawaters Basheer and Lee, 2004
USA —Cape Cod 110–1700 Untreated septages Rudel et al., 1998
94–150 Untreated wastewaters
20–55 Treated septages/wastewaters
USA —Canals River 1.9–158 River waters Li and Li, 2004
USA —Bayou River 9–44 River waters Boyd et al., 2004
USA Max. 420 Drinking water treatment plant waters Stackelberg et al., 2004
USA 281–3642 Primary effluents —domestic wastewater treatment plants Drewes et al., 2005
6–50 Secondary effluents —domestic wastewater treatment plants
Canada —Southern Ontario 193–2440 Municipal sewage treatment plants influents Lee and Peart, 2000a
31–223 Municipal sewage treatment plants effluents
Canada —Toronto 80–4980 Influent sewages Lee and Peart, 2000b
10–1080 Effluent sewages
230–149200 Industrial effluents
Germany —North Sea b0.05–249 Seawaters Heemken et al., 2001
Germany —Elbe River 8.9–776 River waters
4–92 River waters Stachel et al., 2003
16–100 River waters Wiegel et al., 2004
Germany —Baltic Sea b0.04–5.7 Seawaters Beck et al., 2005
Germany —South-west b50–272 River waters Bolz et al., 2001
UK —Sussex b5.3–24 River waters Liu et al., 2004a
UK —East of Sussex 1105 Sewage treatment plant influents Hernando et al., 2004
19.2 Sewage treatment plant effluents
Spain —Granada 52.0–219 River waters Gonzalez-Casado et al., 1998
49.1–196 Sea waters
51.6–207 Underground waters
Spain —Catalonia 10–20 Freshwaters and seawaters Brossa et al., 2005
Spain 10–2500 Urban wastewaters Zafra et al., 2003
The Netherlands b10–330 Marine/estuarine waters Belfroid et al., 2002
3Y.Q. Huang et al. / Environment International xxx (2011) xxx–xxx
Please cite this article as: Huang YQ, et al, Bisphenol A (BPA) in China: A review of sources, environmental levels, and potential human health
impacts, Environ Int (2011), doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.04.010
5.1. In aquatic environment
Bisphenol A is discharged into the aquatic environment (both
freshwater and marine waters), not only from the migration from
BPA-based products, but also through effluent from wastewater
treatment plants and landfill sites. A substantial number of studies
have contributed to the survey and analysis of BPA in the aquatic
environment.
Table 5 lists the levels of BPA detected in the aquatic environment
in different parts of China (including the mainland and Taiwan)
compared with other parts of the world. The majority of studies
conducted in China showed that the concentrations of BPA detected in
river waters and coastal waters were lower than 1 μg/L, except for
three areas: Huangpu River (near Shanghai: Ma et al., 2006), Pearl
River Estuary (near Shenzhen: Dong et al., 2009a), and Kao-Pin River
(near Gaoxiong, Taiwan: Lin, 2001), with levels up to 4 μg/L. It seems
apparent that BPA concentrations are much higher in cities which are
located in highly developed industrial and commercial regions.
Compared with other countries, the BPA concentrations in the waters
of China were similar to the global levels of BPA (lower than 1 μg/L,
Table 5).
However, wastewater from an industrial park located in southern
Taiwan contained a rather high level of 16 μg/L BPA, which was16 times
higher than the global BPA level in environmental waters. With the
increasing consumption of BPA in Taiwan (Table 3), the concentrations
of BPA detected in the water bodies were obviously higher than those in
other areas of China. The data also showed that BPA in river waters may
receive discharges from industrial effluents and landfill leakages
without effective treatment; e.g. extremely high concentrations of BPA
were detected in the effluents (up to 370 000 ng/L) from eight paper
recycling plants in Japan (Shizuoka) (Fukazawa et al., 2001). Further-
more, BPA pollution of water bodies was not only found in surface
waters, but also in underground waters; e.g. in Spain, BPA was detected
in the range of 51.6–207.6 ng/L in underground waters (Gonzalez-
Casado et al., 1998), but no such data is available for China.
5.2. In soil and sediment
Table 6 lists some of the reported data on the levels of BPA
measured in sediment from different parts of China, in comparison
with other countries of the world. The concentrations (maximum
10,500 ng/g, dry mass) of BPA in Taiwan sediment were generally
Table 6
Concentrations of BPA in soil and sediment in China, compared with other countries.
Location BPA levels
(ng/g)
Comments References
China
Qingdao —Jiaozhou
Bay
b0.7–5.4 River sediments Li et al., 2006
Beijing —Wenyu
River
0.6–59.6 River sediments Lei et al., 2008
Guangzhou —Pearl
River Estuary
0.6–4.0 River sediments Peng et al., 2006
Guangzhou —Pearl
River Estuary
0.58–2.16 River sediments Dong et al., 2009b
Southern Taiwan 329–10500 River sediments Lin, 2001
Other countries
Korea —Masan Bay 2.70–50.3 Sediments Khim et al., 1999
Korea —Ulsan Bay b1.0–53.5 Sediments Khim et al., 2001
Japan —Okinawa &
Ishigaki Islands
b0.5–11 Sea sediments Kawahata et al.,
2004
Japan —Tokyo Bay 0.11–48.0 Surface sediments Hashimoto
et al., 2005
USA —Dever 40–800 Soil/sediment Burkhardt et al.,
2005
USA —Boston 1.5–5.0 Marine sediments Stuart et al., 2005
Canada —Toronto 33–36700 Sewage sludges Lee and Peart,
2000b
Germany —Baden–
Wurttemberg
b0.5–15 Riverine sediments Bolz et al., 2001
70–770 Municipal treatment
plant sediments
Germany —Elbe
River
10–380 Fresh deposited
sediments
Stachel et al., 2003
Germany —Elbe
River
7–1630 River sediments Stachel et al., 2005
Germany 10–190 River sediments Fromme et al., 2002
4–1363 Sewage sludges
UK b3.4–9 River sediments Liu et al., 2004b
Italy —Tiber River Max. 600 Suspended matter
(river)
Patrolecco
et al., 2004
The Netherlands 5.6–56 Suspended matter
(surface waters)
Vethaak et al., 2005
b1.1–43 Sediments
Table 7
Concentrations of BPA in the atmosphere in China, compared with other countries.
Location BPA levels
(pg/m
3
)
Comments
(sampling date)
References
China
Beijing 380–1260 Urban site (2007) Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Yufa 230–860 Urban site (2007) Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Mt. Tai 30–240 Rural site (2006) Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Guangzhou 70–2340 Urban site (2007) Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Zhaoqing 20–1980 Urban site (2007) Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Hong Kong 30–690 Urban site (2007) Fu and
Kawamura 2010
East China Sea 7–27 Marine region
(1990)
Fu and
Kawamura 2010
South China Sea 6 Marine region
(1990)
Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Other countries and regions
Osaka, Japan 10–1920 Urban site
(2000/2001)
Matsumoto et al.
2005
Sapporo, Japan 70–930 Urban site
(2008/2009)
Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Chennai, India 200–17400 Urban site (2007) Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Mumbai, India 100–9820 Urban site (2008) Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Auckland, New Zealand 4–1340 Urban site (2004) Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Christchurch, New
Zealand
95–1480 Urban site (2004) Fu and
Kawamura 2010
North Carolina, U.S. b100–2500 Urban site (1997) Wilson et al. 2001
NE-Bavaria, Germany 5–15 Rural site (2001) Berkner et al.
2004
North Pacific Ocean 1–2 Marine region
(1989)
Fu and
Kawamura 2010
California Coast 8–16 Marine region
(1989)
Fu and
Kawamura 2010
North Atlantic Ocean 4–6 Marine region
(1989)
Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Indian Ocean 6 Marine region
(1990)
Fu and
Kawamura 2010
ChichieJima Is. Western
North Pacific
2–23 Marine region
(1990)
Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Rishiri Is., North Japan
Sea
4–32 Marine region
(2003)
Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Alert, Canadian High
Arctic
1–11 Polar region (1991) Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Alert, Canadian High
Arctic
2–17 Polar region (2000) Fu and
Kawamura 2010
Syowa Station,
Antarctica
1–11 Polar region (1991) Fu and
Kawamura 2010
4Y.Q. Huang et al. / Environment International xxx (2011) xxx–xxx
Please cite this article as: Huang YQ, et al, Bisphenol A (BPA) in China: A review of sources, environmental levels, and potential human health
impacts, Environ Int (2011), doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.04.010
higher than those from mainland China (Lin, 2001). In addition, BPA
concentrations in sediment of southern Taiwan were associated with
the rather high levels detected in the water of the same area,
confirming the influence of discharges from the local chemical plants
associated with manufacturing and processing of BPA-based products
(Ding and Wu, 2000; Lin, 2001). The concentrations of BPA in sewage
sludge were generally higher than those in sea and river sediments
(Lee and Peart, 2000a,b).
5.3. In air
There are limited studies concerning BPA concentrations in air.
Studies conducted in China have mainly focused on the ambient air
concentrations of BPA in BPA or BPA-based factories. Xiao et al. (2005)
reported an average BPA level of 125.8 μg/m
3
in the workplace of an
epoxy resin manufacturer which dealt with raw material of BPA. He et
al. (2009) noted that the average concentration of airborne BPA in
resins factories (492 μg/m
3
) was much higher than that in BPA
factories (50.8 μg/m
3
). Nonetheless, Fu and Kawamura (2010)
provided several useful data of BPA concentrations in the atmosphere,
including China and other countries and regions (Table 7). These data
showed that the concentrations of BPA (1–17400 pg/m
3
) ranged over
four orders of magnitude in the world with a declining trend from the
continent (except for the Antarctica) to remote sites. In China, the level
of BPA was higher in Beijing (near Tianjin, Shuangfu Fine Chemical),
Guangzhou, Zhaoqing and Hong Kong (near Huizhou, Kingboard
Chemical) than in Mt. Tai which is not an industrial district and not a
densely populated area (Fig. 1). This is reasonable because these four
cities are nearby BPA manufacturers. At the same time, a positive
correlation was found between BPA and 1,3,5-triphenylbenzene, a
tracer for plastic burning, in urban regions, indicating that the open
burning of plastics in domestic waste should be a significant emission
source of atmospheric BPA.
There seems to be further evidence that the most significant
sources of BPA may come from combustion processes (Peltonen et al.,
1986). It had been estimated that a total amount of 79 000 kg/year is
emitted from barrel burns, with the concentration of BPA detected in
the open-air barrel burn sample reaching 58 mg/m
3
(Sidhu et al.,
2005). However, due to the low vapor pressure of bisphenol A,
inhalation exposures of the general population (except for associated
workers) is possibly only a minor contribution to the overall exposure
(European Union, EU, 2003). It had also been noted that the
concentrations of BPA in indoor air were significantly higher than
those in outdoor air, demonstrating that the potential emission
sources of BPA could come from household goods at home and
furnishing materials in the office (Wilson et al., 2001; Yasuhara et al.,
1997). No such data concerning BPA in indoor or outdoor air and dust
is available in China, but the potential health hazards associated with
the continued rise of BPA used indoors (e.g. electric equipment and
textiles), which may result in higher concentrations of BPA indoor air
and dust, requires more attention.
5.4. In food
Sources of human exposure to BPA include diet (e.g. release and
migration from food packaging and repeat-use polycarbonate con-
tainers such as baby bottles), environmental media (ambient air,
indoor air, drinking water, soil and dust), and use of consumer
products. Of the different exposure ways, dietary intake appears to be
the primary source of human exposure. It is therefore, very important
to monitor levels of BPA contamination in food.
There is a lack of information concerning concentrations of BPA in
foods in China. Limited data showed BPA present in different food
items: 5.31 ng/g dry weight in vegetables (Ren and Jiang, 2010),
9.18 ng/g dry weight in fish (Huang et al., unpublished data), 568 ng/L
in bottled water (Li et al., 2006), 17.0 ng/g in milk powder (Zhou et al.,
2007) and 1700 ng/L BPA migrating from nursing bottle (Xuan and
Chen, 2008).
Due to the physicochemical properties of BPA, it is expected that the
most significant oral intake sources probably comes from canned foods
lined with epoxy resins, drinking water in polycarbonate bottles and
saliva derived from dental sealants. BPA is even used as antioxidants in
cosmetics and foods. Therefore, it is expected that the permeation and
absorption of BPA through inhalation as well as skin contact are
additional human exposure pathways (Vom Saal and Hughes, 2005).
6. Potential threats to human health
6.1. Body burden of BPA
ComparingBPA occupational body burden with controls, Wang et al.
(2005a) showed that serum bisphenol A of the exposed group ranged
between 27.16 and 41.61 μg/L, while the level in the control group
ranged between 0.58 and 13.54 μg/L. He et al. (2009) also indicated that
workers in epoxy resin and BPA manufacturing factories, located in east
and central China, had higher levels of BPA in their body than the non-
occupationally exposed group. More than 90% had detectable BPA levels
in their blood and were exposed to a median personal airborne level of
6.67 μg/m
3
(or at the mean of 450 μg/m
3
).
In terms of occupational exposure, the “no observed effect level”
(NOEL) of the medium-term inhalation toxicity related to BPA (in the
form of particulates or dust) is estimated to be 10 mg/m
3
and a
maximum workplace concentration value for BPA was therefore
established at 5 mg/m
3
(measured as the inhalable dust fraction)
toxicity (German MAK Commission Germany, 1996). No relevant
occupational standards or limits on BPA have been set in China, and
therefore there seems to be an urgent need to establish occupational
Fig. 1. Spatial distribution of BPA concentrations in different environment media
(aquatic environment, soil and sediment, and air) from different locations in China.
Cities where BPA is manufactured are indicated with a box whereas cities contaminated
with BPA are indicated without a box (BJ: Beijing; TJ: Tianjin; YF: Yufa; SH: Shanghai;
WX: Wuxi; GZ: Guangzhou; ZQ: Zhaoqing; HK: Hong Kong; HZ: Huizhou; TW: Taiwan;
ST: Southern Taiwan; YL: Yunlin; GX: Gaoxiong; LY: Linyuan.).
5Y.Q. Huang et al. / Environment International xxx (2011) xxx–xxx
Please cite this article as: Huang YQ, et al, Bisphenol A (BPA) in China: A review of sources, environmental levels, and potential human health
impacts, Environ Int (2011), doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.04.010
standards, as effective preventive measures to protect workers from
the potential adverse effects of BPA.
Due to the wide range of food contact applications of BPA, many
food commodities may contribute to the human body loading of BPA,
depending on the age group and age group specific food consumption.
The European Union estimated that daily dietary exposures to BPA
ranged from less than 0.02 μg/kg body mass/day to 59 μg/kg body
mass/day in adults (European Union, EU, 2003). The European Food
Safety Authority estimated that the intakes of BPA from food ranged
from 0.2 μg/kg body mass/day (3-month old infant fed with breast
milk only) to 13 μg/kg body mass/day (6-month old infants fed using
polycarbonate bottles and commercial food), based on conservative
migration values of BPA in food and food consumption patterns
(European Food Safety Authority, EFSA, 2006).
Exposure assessment concerning BPA based on direct food analysis
and food consumption patterns generally resulted in estimates of
daily human exposures in the relatively low μg/person/day range:
between 0.005 and 0.37 μg/kg body mass/day (Goodson et al., 2002;
Miyakawa et al., 2004; Thomson and Grounds, 2005; Wilson et al.,
2007). Based on the results generated from different exposure
assessments (from different countries), an intake of less than 1 μg/
kg body mass/day was concluded for bisphenol A (Kang et al., 2006).
The migration (from containers to food) limit of BPA was set at the
maximum of 2.5 mg/kg in Japan (Japan External Trade Organization,
JETRO, 2008), while the migration limit of total phenolic contents
from food containers and packages manufactured by polycarbonate
resin in China was set at the maximum of 0.05 mg/kg (Ministry of
Health of the People's Republic of China, Ministry of Health PRC and
Standardization Administration of the People's Republic of China, SAC,
2003). The exact BPA limit for total intake has not yet been established
in China.
6.2. Potential environmental and human health impacts
Animals are known to swallow plastic bags as they resemble jellyfish
in mid-ocean, and it has been noted that about 44% of all seabirds eat
plastic, and 267 marine species are affected by plastic garbage (Moore,
2008). Exposure to BPA have resulted in adverse effects on the
reproduction of wildlife, including annelids (both aquatic and terres-
trial), mollusks, crustaceans, insects, fish, and amphibians, as well as on
the embryonic development and the induction of genetic aberrations in
crustaceans and amphibians (Oehlmann et al., 2009).
With regards to the toxicological effects of BPA on humans through
ingestion, the possible health hazards have mostly been deduced from
rat and mice studies. The first evidence of the estrogenicity of bisphenol
A came from experiments on rats conducted in the 1930s, but it was not
until 1997 that adverse effects of low-dose exposure on laboratory
animals were first reported. Table 8 lists several studies from 1997 to
2009, concerning effects of low-dose exposure in animals.
Based on studies conducted in animals, it is widely accepted that
exposure to BPA is potentially detrimental to human health; indeed,
many would argue that it is probable. BPA is an endocrine disruptor,
which can mimic the body's hormones. After entering the human body,
BPA can disrupt normal cell function by acting as an estrogen agonist
(Wozniak et al., 2005), as well as an androgen antagonist (Lee et al.,
2003), which may affect health. It has been suspected that BPA may
affect human developmentthroughout the fetal period (Rubin and Soto,
2009), and may be carcinogenic, potentially leading to the precursors of
breast cancer (European Food Safety Authority, EFSA, 2006). Due to its
estrogenic activity, it has been shown to reduce sperm count and sperm
activity, be toxic to liver, and may be even linked to obesity by affecting
fat-cell activity (European Food Safety Authority, EFSA, 2006). In
addition, exposure to BPA has been associated with chronic disease
conditions in humans such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and is a
serum marker of liver disease (Lang et al., 2008).
It has also been reported that BPA-containing products cause
occupational photosensitive dermatitis, and allergies when used as
dental composite resin (Kristiina et al., 2004; Riitta et al., 1995), and
these are also used in marble processing (Angelini et al., 1996), food
filling using polyvinyl chloride (PVC) gloves (Kristiina et al., 2003),
production of heat-sensitive facsimile paper (Akita et al., 2001),
adhesives for reinforcing circuit boards (Yokota et al., 2002), and
manufacturing of wind turbine systems (Rasmussen et al., 2005).
In China it has been shown that BPA can cause oxidative stress on
human embryo liver L-02 cells by damaging DNA, although vitamin C( an
antioxidant) can reduce DNA damage (Zhang et al., 2005). Many animal
studies also showed that BPA exposure decreases sperm production
(Zhang et al., 2004b), increases the stillbirth rate (Wang et al., 2005b),
affects embryonic development (Pei et al., 2003), and decreases the
viability of mesencephalic neuronal cell (Lin et al., 2006). In the latest
research by Li et al. (2010), it was found that BPA-exposed workers had
consistently higher risk of male sexual dysfunction across all domains of
male sexual function than the unexposed workers.
7. Management issues
Although there is disagreement about the interpretation of some
low-dose animal studies (Tyl, 2009), potential concerns for long-term
effects at similar concentrations have been a major public issue. Some
authorities, including Canada and some U.S. state and county govern-
ments, have taken interim risk management action to protect certain
sensitive populations, such as infants and toddlers (USEPA, 2010). As a
consequence, non-BPA-based materials have been used in some
products such as baby bottles, cups, and spoons, adult drink bottles,
and food can linings. These potential substitutes includeother epoxies, a
wide variety of plastics (some of them blended with polycarbonate),
glass, metals, and wood. In China, PPG Industries has introduced BPA-
free packaging coatings, and operates a packaging coatings production
plant in Suzhou (PPG Industries, 2010).
Due to the uncertainty of possible adverse health effects of low
dose BPA exposure, especially on the nervous system and on behavior,
and also the observed differences of exposure of very young children,
an expert consultation was organized by WHO in 2010 (International
Food Safety Authorities Network, INFOSAN, 2009). The WHO expert
Table 8
Effects of Low-dose exposure in animals.
Dose
(μg/kg/day)
Effects (measured in studies of animals) References
0.025 "Permanent changes to genital tract" Markey et al.,
2005
0.025 "Changes in breast tissue that predispose cells to
hormones and carcinogens"
Muñoz-de-Toro
et al., 2005
1 Long-term adverse reproductive and carcinogenic
effects
Newbold et al.,
2009
2 "Increased prostate weight 30%" Nagel et al.,
1997
2 "Lower bodyweight, increase of anogenital
distance in both genders, signs of early puberty
and longer estrus."
Honma et al.,
2002
2.4 "Decline in testicular testosterone" Akingbemi et al.,
2004
2.5 "Breast cells predisposed to cancer" Murray et al.,
2007
10 "Prostate cells more sensitive to hormones and
cancer"
Ho et al., 2006
10 "Decreased maternal behaviors" Palanza et al.,
2002
30 "Reversed the normal sex differences in brain
structure and behavior"
Kubo et al., 2003
50 Adverse neurological effects occur in non-human
primates
Leranth et al.,
2008
50 Disrupts ovarian development Adewale et al.,
2009
6Y.Q. Huang et al. / Environment International xxx (2011) xxx–xxx
Please cite this article as: Huang YQ, et al, Bisphenol A (BPA) in China: A review of sources, environmental levels, and potential human health
impacts, Environ Int (2011), doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.04.010
panel recommended that public health officials hold off on regulations
limiting or banning the use of bisphenol A, stating that “initiation of
public health measures would be premature”(Eryn Brown, 2010).
However, the USEPA declared BPA as a chemical of concern in March
2010, while the USA President's Cancer Panel argued for a precau-
tionary approach on BPA, among other chemicals, in April 2010
(Reuben, 2010). The European Union had prohibited the manufacture
of polycarbonate infant feeding bottles with BPA since 1 March, 2011,
and will ban their import and sale by 1 June, 2011 (von Reppert-
Bismarck, 2010).
8. Conclusion
Being one of the world's highest production and consumption-
volume chemicals, widespread and continuous exposure through
food and drinking water, BPA has become a public health concern.
Although some regulatory authorities around the world questioned
some of the low-dose animal studies, some evidence have shown the
possible linkage between BPA exposure and observed human health
effects.
There are a few BPA hotspots in mainland China, Hong Kong and
Taiwan. Firstly, according to the available data on BPA concentrations in
different environmental media (aquatic environment, soil, sediment and
air) in China, it revealed that highly polluted BPA areas were mostly
found at BPA manufacturing areas (Fig. 1). Secondly, the most serious
case of BPA pollution was in southern Taiwan, with concentrations of
BPA reaching 16.2 μg/L in water bodies , and 10.5 μg/g in river sediments.
In general, the sources of BPA in China were mainly derived from the
manufacturing and processing of BPA-based materials. Thirdly, high
concentrations of BPA have been found in drinking water i.e. 568 ng/L in
bottled water (Li et al., 2006), and 1700 ng/L BPA in the water of a baby
bottle (Xuan and Chen, 2008). With economic improvement in China,
bottled water is becoming a more popular source of drinking water,
therefore exposure to BPA contaminated watercould become significant
to this subpopulation. Due to the increasing demand for BPA and BPA-
based materials (e.g., polycarbonates and epoxy resins), it is anticipated
that BPA pollution will concomitantly become more serious in the future.
There is a severe lack of information concerning BPA contamina-
tion in different environmental media, in food and in the human body
in China, except for a few studies focusing on BPA pollution in the
Pearl River Delta. Henceforth, there is an urgent need to monitor
sources, fates and effects of BPA in different environmental media and
in food around China, and to set acceptable limits of BPA, in view of its
high demand in China.
Acknowledgments
Financial support from the Collaborative Research Fund (HKBU 1/
CRF/08), University Grants Committee, Special Equipment Grant
(SEG_HKBU09) and the Area of Excellence (CITYU/AOE/03-04/02),
both of the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong is gratefully
acknowledged.
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