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Snacks as an Element of Energy Intake and Food Consumption
Abstract and Figures
An increasing frequency of snacks has been observed in meal pattern studies. Snacks can alter the diet because of their high-energy density and low-nutrient content or on the contrary.
The prominence of snacks in energy intake and food consumption was assessed.
Dietary data were collected for 2007 adults by using a computer-assisted 48-h dietary recall in the national FINDIET 2002 survey. Energy intakes and food consumption were aggregated for snacks and for main meals.
Daily energy was mostly derived from main meals comprising traditional mixed dishes, milk and bread. However, a snack-dominating meal pattern was observed in 19% of men and 24% of women. This meal pattern was associated with urbanization in both genders and with physical work in men. Higher sucrose intake and lower intake of micronutrients were typical of the snack-dominating meal pattern compared to the others.
As snacks appear to have a higher energy density and a lower content of micronutrients than main meals, a snack-dominating meal pattern is inadvisable. However, further studies are needed to examine the association between meal pattern and health status.
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... The Brazilian population's daily food consumption pattern is generally structured around three main meals, namely breakfast, lunch and dinner, and the food intake episodes between these main meals, namely snacks. 35,36 Generally, the main meals concentrate the greatest energy and nutrient intake of the diet because of the large volume of these meals commonly comprising a greater proportion of unprocessed and minimally processed foods. On the other hand, snacks are often made up of ready-to-eat, low-priced foods with low nutritional value, and the consumption of UPF is common at these times. ...
... On the other hand, snacks are often made up of ready-to-eat, low-priced foods with low nutritional value, and the consumption of UPF is common at these times. [35][36][37] We did not find any other studies investigating this pattern of UPF consumption according to the meals eaten throughout the day. It is reasonable to assume that this pattern of UPF consumption can be partially justified by the poverty that would lead to food insecurity, thus affecting the dietary quality of these women. ...
Background
The present study aimed to investigate the type and timing of ultra‐processed foods (UPF) consumption and its association with dietary intake (DI) and physical activity (PA) in women with obesity living in poverty.
Methods
A cross‐sectional study was employed. Obesity was defined by at least two criteria (body mass index, waist circumference or % fat mass). Poverty was defined as the three lowest classes of the Brazilian Economic Classification Criterion. PA was measured with triaxial accelerometers and DI was assessed with three 24‐h dietary recalls. Foods were categorised according to the NOVA classification, with UPF classified into five subgroups, as well as the timing of consumption into six meals.
Results
In total, 56 adult women were included. Overall energy intake was 1653.21 (503.22) kcal/day. UPF intake was 21.62% (11.94%) kcal/day, being higher at breakfast (4.91% kcal/day), afternoon snack (5.39% kcal/day) and dinner (5.01% kcal/day). Only UPF subgroup 4 (sandwich biscuits, sweets, or treats) showed a positive association with energy intake (β = 54.40 [27.6, 81.10] kcal/day) and a negative association with protein intake (β = −0.31% [−0.48%, −0.14%] kcal/day). UPF consumption in morning (β = −0.41% [−0.79%, −0.02%] kcal/day) and afternoon (β = −0.18% [−0.33%, −0.04%] kcal/day) snacks was associated with lower protein intake. Furthermore, lunchtime UPF consumption was positively associated with walking time (β = 0.16% [0.02%; 0.30%]) and steps/hour (β = 8.72 [1.50; 15.94] steps/h).
Conclusions
Women with obesity living in poverty consume more UPF during breakfast, afternoon snack and dinner. Physical activity is positively associated with UPF consumption at lunch. UPF, such as sandwich biscuits, sweets or treats, contribute to increasing energy intake and reducing protein intake.
... Significant associations were observed between snack consumption and depression scores in adolescent girls [7]. Besides, an increasing frequency of snacks has been observed in meal pattern studies, and the harmful effects of snacks on a diet have been verified because of their high energy density and low-nutrient content [8]. Overall, dietary habits and snacks are closely related to school children's health, which significantly affects their adulthood's health. ...
... Hence, the frequency of snacking behaviour in closed boarding management school students was more frequent at weekends than on weekdays. The increasing frequency of snacks has been observed in meal pattern studies, and the effects of snacks on a diet have been verified [8]. The growing frequency of snacks was closely associated with total energy intake and Fig. 2. The percentile distribution of mineral elements of students in two management methods schools. ...
This study's main objective was to investigate the difference between snacking behaviors and dietary nutrient intake in boarding system students. A cross-sectional study was conducted at Beijing's closed and semi closed boarding management school. The snack consumption questionnaire collected snack consumption behaviors; three-day recall periods for food consumption data were collected through the canteen weighing method and 24-h dietary recall of students' intakes. For closed and semi closed boarding management schools, the percentage of never having snacking behaviors was 12.95% and 2.69% on weekdays and 2.16% and 4.19% on weekends. A higher proportion of respondents chose unhealthy snacks in closed boarding management schools. The main problems in closed boarding management schools were the excessively low percentage of energy from carbohydrates and the excessively high percentage of energy from fat. Both deficiency and excess energy supply ratios of protein, carbohydrate, and fat were present in semi-closed boarding management schools. There was a high risk of calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, and selenium deficiency for most students in both management schools. The closed-school girls had the highest risk of suffering from iron deficiency. Vitamin A, vitamin B1, vitamin B2, vitamin C, and vitamin E deficiencies were severe in both schools, especially vitamin C, vitamin A, and vitamin B2 deficiencies in semi-closed boarding management schoolboys. Effective nutritional interventions should be taken to improve the nutritional status of both boarding management and school students.
... On the contrary, studies showed that snackers were less likely to be overweight or obese and less likely to have abdominal obesity [13][14][15]. The odds ratio associated with childhood overweight/obesity for eating snacks ≥4 times/week was 0.84 (CI 0.71, 1.00) [11]. ...
Obesity has grown worldwide owing to modern obesogenic lifestyles, including frequent snacking. Recently, we studied continuous glucose monitoring in obese/overweight men without diabetes and found that half of them exhibit glucose levels less than 70 mg/dL after a 75-g oral glucose load without notable hypoglycemic symptoms. Interestingly, people with “subclinical reactive hypoglycemia (SRH)” snack more frequently than those without it. Since the ingestion of sugary snacks or drinks could further induce SRH, a vicious cycle of “Snacking begets snacking via SRH” can be formed. Glucose effectiveness (Sg) is an insulin-independent mechanism that contributes to most of the whole-body glucose disposal after an oral glucose load in people without diabetes. Our recent data suggest that both higher and lower Sg are associated with SRH, while the latter but not the former is linked to snacking habits, obesity, and dysglycemia. The present review addresses the possible role of SRH in snacking habits in people with obesity/overweight, taking Sg into account. It is concluded that, for those with low Sg, SRH can be regarded as a link between snacking and obesity. Prevention of SRH by raising Sg might be key to controlling snacking habits and body weight.
Context
Obesity has emerged as a global health issue for the pediatric population, increasing the need to investigate physiopathological aspects to prevent the appearance of its cardiometabolic complications. Chrononutrition is a field of research in nutritional sciences that investigates the health impact of 3 different dimensions of feeding behavior: regularity of meals, frequency, and timing of food intake.
Objective
We carried out a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the association between chrononutrition in children and adolescents and the risk of overweight/obesity or a cluster of metabolic abnormalities related to glucose and lipid metabolism, blood pressure, and cardiovascular disease risk.
Data Extraction
A literature search was performed using PubMed, EMBASE, and The Cochrane Library for relevant articles published before August 2022.
Data Analysis
A total of 64 articles were included in the narrative synthesis (47 cross-sectional and 17 cohort studies), while 16 studies were included in the meta-analysis. Meta-analysis showed that non–daily breakfast consumers (≤6 d/wk) had a higher risk of overweight/obesity (odds ratio [OR], 1.45; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.08–1.82] compared with daily breakfast eaters (7 d/wk). Similarly, irregular breakfast consumption (only 0-to-3 times/wk) increased the risk of abdominal obesity (waist-to-height ratio ≥ 0.5) compared with regular consumption (5-to-7 times/wk) (OR, 1.38; 95% CI, 1.26–1.49). There was evidence to suggest that a regular frequency of meal consumption (≥4 times/d) is preventive against overweight/obesity development compared with fewer meals (≤3 times/d) (OR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.70–0.97). In the narrative synthesis, snacking habits showed controversial results, while food timing was the most understudied dimension.
Conclusion
Overall, our data indicate a potential implication of chrononutrition in affecting pediatric metabolic health; however, the evidence of this association is limited and heterogeneous. Further prospective and intervention studies with a consistent approach to categorize the exposure are needed to elucidate the importance of chrononutrition for pediatric metabolic health.
Previous research has linked obesity with an altered perception of rewards. This study aimed to contrast frontal cortical activities across body mass index (BMI) groups, in responding to differential rewards (monetary versus food). A total of 60 male participants (27.43 ± 6.07 years of age; 21 normal weight [BMI: 18.5-24.9 kg·m-2]; 20 overweight [BMI: 25.0-29.9 kg·m-2]; and 19 individuals with obesity [BMI ≥ 30 kg·m-2]) were tested for their response bias towards food and money rewards using the Probabilistic Reward Task (PRT), while their frontal cortical responses were recorded using electroencephalography (EEG). The feedback-related negativity (FRN), a reliable measure of reward valuation and learning, was calculated for food (FRN(Food)) and money (FRN(Money)). Results indicate a left-lateralised frontal cortical activity associated with the food reward condition, in the group of overweight and obesity. In contrast, a right-lateralisation was observed in the money reward condition only in the group with obesity. More specifically, FRN(Food) was shown to significantly differ between left and right frontal cortical areas among individuals with obesity (p = 0.035) and overweight (p = 0.012), but not in normal-weight individuals (p = 0.153). Additionally, results revealed that FRN(Food) and FRN(Money) were significantly different for individuals with obesity (p = 0.019), but such a significant difference was not evident in the overweight and normal-weight individuals (p ≥ 0.05). These findings offer intriguing new insights into neuropsychological differentiation across BMI groups, adding to the understanding of obesity-related behaviour.
Background: Balanced dietary intake is needed to prevent malnutrition which is one of the nutritional problems faced by adolescents. Aim: To study the association between predominant dietary intake and nutritional status of female adolescent students in boarding schools in Tasikmalaya, Indonesia. Method: This cross-sectional study was conducted on 323 female adolescent students residing full-time in eight boarding schools in Tasikmalaya, West Java. Students' dietary intake was measured using the 3-non-consecutive-day 24-h recall method. The association between the predominant dietary intake and nutritional status was evaluated using binary logistic regression. Results: Of the 323 students, 59 (18.3%) were overweight/obese (OW/OB) and 102 (31.6%) had stunted growth. The predominant dietary intake in the OW/OB group was snacks, whereas, in the stunted group, it was main meals. Snack-predominant dietary intake was a risk factor for overweight and obesity (p = 0.008; adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 2.276; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.244-4.164), but it was a protective factor against stunting (p = 0.008; AOR: 0.521; 95% CI: 0.322-0.842). Conclusion: The predominance of main meals and snacks as components of total dietary intake affected the nutritional status of female adolescent students living in boarding schools. Therefore, the dietary intake interventions should tailor and design the nutritional contents of main meals and snacks according to the nutritional status of the targeted individuals.
Введение: Современная хлебопекарная промышленность Союзного Государства является одной из ведущих отраслей пищевой промышленности, а по объемам производства в натуральном выражении она занимает одно из первых мест в мире. Ее состояние и перспективы развития обуславливают множество как внутренних, так и внешних факторов. Цель: Целью исследования является выявление закономерностей и особенностей функционирования рынка хлебопечения Российской Федерации и Республики Беларусь в динамике последних десяти лет и установление перспективных направлений его развития в современных реалиях XXI века.
Материалы и методы: Аналитические исследования проведены с использованием данных Росстат и Белстат, Минсельхозпрод Беларуси, КУП «Минскхлебпром», Белкоопсоюз. Результаты: В представленной работе отражена сравнительная характеристика изменений потребления хлебобулочных изделий, их объемов и структуры производства в Республике Беларусь и Российской Федерации за 2010–2020 гг. Рассмотрены основные причины, обуславливающие динамику названных процессов. Уделено внимание проблемам формирования стоимости и розничных цен на хлебобулочные изделия и пути их решения в современных условиях функционирования хлебопекарной отрасли двух стран. Представлены совместные достижения научных организаций, учреждений высшего образования и предприятий хлебопекарной отрасли в области технологий хлебобулочных изделий в дискретном режиме, в том числе и повышенной пищевой ценности. Определены общие направления в совершенствовании хлебопекарной промышленности на основе ее цифровизации, базируемой на комплексной взаимосвязи потребителя, производителя, науки и образования. Выводы: Результаты исследования позволят оперативно реагировать на тенденцию изменения спроса на хлебобулочные изделия, разрабатывать и реализовывать новые направления в технологии с учетом современного состояния хлебопекарной отрасли и функционирования отдельных хлебопекарных предприятий.
The aim of this study was to examine the trend of workplace cafeteria use among Finnish adults between 1979 and 2001. Data from annually collected cross-sectional surveys on health behaviour, conducted since 1978, were used. Subjects were 24 292 employed men and 24 746 women aged 25–64. Frequency of workplace cafeteria use has been stable in Finland over the two decades under study. Women used the cafeterias more often than men. Differences by years of education and place of residence have remained relatively stable. People living in the capital area and having more years of education used the cafeterias more often. The Finnish habit of having a mid-day lunch at the cafeteria of one's respective workplace has resisted major changes in working and living conditions and social structures during the past two decades.
Background:
Underreporting of energy intake is associated with self-reported diet measures and appears to be selective according to personal characteristics. Doubly labeled water is an unbiased reference biomarker for energy intake that may be used to assess underreporting.
Objective:
Our objective was to determine which factors are associated with underreporting of energy intake on food-frequency questionnaires (FFQs) and 24-h dietary recalls (24HRs).
Design:
The study participants were 484 men and women aged 40-69 y who resided in Montgomery County, MD. Using the doubly labeled water method to measure total energy expenditure, we considered numerous psychosocial, lifestyle, and sociodemographic factors in multiple logistic regression models for prediction of the probability of underreporting on the FFQ and 24HR.
Results:
In the FFQ models, fear of negative evaluation, weight-loss history, and percentage of energy from fat were the best predictors of underreporting in women (R(2) = 0.09); body mass index, comparison of activity level with that of others of the same sex and age, and eating frequency were the best predictors in men (R(2) = 0.10). In the 24HR models, social desirability, fear of negative evaluation, body mass index, percentage of energy from fat, usual activity, and variability in number of meals per day were the best predictors of underreporting in women (R(2) = 0.22); social desirability, dietary restraint, body mass index, eating frequency, dieting history, and education were the best predictors in men (R(2) = 0.25).
Conclusion:
Although the final models were significantly related to underreporting on both the FFQ and the 24HR, the amount of variation explained by these models was relatively low, especially for the FFQ.
Data collected from a sample of working individuals lunching at staff cafeterias were analysed to characterise contemporary food habits in terms of meal structure, eating outside meals, and other aspects of the organization of the daily food intake. Discrepancies were found between individuals' ideas of a proper meal and their actual practices. This brings to light some contradictions between conceptions underlying the contemporary diet and the more traditional idea of a structured meal. Analysis of the eater's search for a balanced diet from a cultural and historical viewpoint opens avenues of research common to both the social sciences and food science. (C) 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
This chapter describes two methods: the 24-hour dietary recall and food record method. Topics covered include data collection methods, strengths and limitations of the two methods, reducing error in data collection, analysis of food intake data, and sources of error in nutrient calculation. The two short-term methods serve important functions in describing mean values for groups and in validating food frequency questionnaires, which are not the most commonly used method for measuring dietary exposures in epidemiologic studies.
Discusses various definitions of a natural classification of food and introduces a measure intended to indicate several aspects about the social uses of food, including the extent to which the people are using discriminations in food to respond to a range of cultural events, the range of variation that food is used to express, and the cultural use of food to create structure in social events. Cultural differentiation made through food is discussed in terms of the following: (1) system of signs, (2) food as ritual, (3) complexity of information, (4) the analogy with dress, (5) units of analysis, (6) reliance on ethnography, (7) intricacy of behavior, (8) components of intricacy, (9) consistency of behavior, (10) social predictability, and (11) training the palate. It is concluded that this approach should serve to direct the thoughts of welfare agencies away from measuring the material conditions of poverty and turn them toward measures of social integration and social isolation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Several epidemiological studies have observed an inverse relationship between people's habitual frequency of eating and body weight, leading to the suggestion that a ‘nibbling’ meal pattern may help in the avoidance of obesity. A review of all pertinent studies shows that, although many fail to find any significant relationship, the relationship is consistently inverse in those that do observe a relationship. However, this finding is highly vulnerable to the probable confounding effects of post hoc changes in dietary patterns as a consequence of weight gain and to dietary under-reporting which undoubtedly invalidates some of the studies. We conclude that the epidemiological evidence is at best very weak, and almost certainly represents an artefact. A detailed review of the possible mechanistic explanations for a metabolic advantage of nibbling meal patterns failed to reveal significant benefits in respect of energy expenditure. Although some short-term studies suggest that the thermic effect of feeding is higher when an isoenergetic test load is divided into multiple small meals, other studies refute this, and most are neutral. More importantly, studies using whole-body calorimetry and doubly-labelled water to assess total 24h energy expenditure find no difference between nibbling and gorging. Finally, with the exception of a single study, there is no evidence that weight loss on hypoenergetic regimens is altered by meal frequency. We conclude that any effects of meal pattern on the regulation of body weight are likely to be mediated through effects on the food intake side of the energy balance equation.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between meal pattern and diet. Nutrient contents of meals, snacks and other eating occasions were compared and differences in dietary intake analysed between respondents following a conventional meal pattern and others. A random sample of 1861 adults aged 25–64 from four regions of Finland completed a mailed questionnaire and 3-day food record in the spring of 1992. A conventional meal pattern was defined on the basis of national dietary guidelines as including breakfast, warm lunch and warm dinner, and subjects were identified with the help of the questionnaire. Meals and snacks were defined according to the respondents subjective criteria. Forty-four percent of all respondents followed the conventional meal pattern. Meal pattern has no effect on nutrient intake in men and small effects in women. Women following the conventional meal pattern had higher energy and cholesterol intake and lower alcohol and vitamin C intake than other women. Meals contributed to energy, protein and fat intake, and snacks to sugar and alcohol. Meal pattern had only a small effect on diet and conventional meal pattern cannot be considered healthier than other meal patterns.
The hypothesis that meal frequency is associated with plasma cholesterol was tested in a population-based sample of 2034 white men and women aged 50-89 y. Total, low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density-lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and triglycerides were measured after a 12-h fast in a Lipid Research Clinic laboratory and meal frequency was obtained by questionnaire. The age-adjusted total cholesterol concentrations for men and women reporting greater than or equal to 4 meals/d averaged 0.23 mmol/L lower than for those who reported 1-2 meals/d (P = 0.01). Similarly, LDL concentrations were lower in those reporting higher meal frequency (0.16 mmol/L, P = 0.06). These associations persisted after adjustment for smoking, alcohol, waist-to-hip ratio, systolic blood pressure, body mass index, and dietary nutrients. These results suggest that cholesterol reductions might be achieved by modest increases in meal frequency without an increase in caloric intake.