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*Corresponding author: eka_candra@agr.unand.ac.id
Nanoemulsion of the Mixture of Citronella Grass
Distillation Waste and Piper aduncum Essential Oil
to Control Spodoptera frugiperda
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Eka Candra Lina1*, Henny Sonia Febrianty Holeng1,
Novri Nelly1, Rein1, and Gustria Ernis2
1Plant Pest and Disease Science Department of Graduate Study Program,
Andalas University, Padang, West Sumatra 25163 Indonesia
2Department of Science Laboratory, Bengkulu University,
Bengkulu, Bengkulu 38371 Indonesia
Corn production in Indonesia is challenged by the attack of the new invasive pest fall armyworm
(Spodoptera frugiperda, Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). This pest is known to be resistant to many
synthetic insecticides. Botanical insecticide with nanoemulsion formulation is an option to
solve this problem because it was relatively eco-friendly, and the various active components
delay insect resistance and insect resurgence. The objectives of this research are to determine
the characteristics of the nanoemulsion of the mixture of spiked pepper (Piper aduncum) and
citronella grass distillate waste (Cymbopogon nardus) and to test the insecticidal activity of
nanoemulsion against Spodoptora frugiperda. The nanoemulsion formulation is made with the
spontaneous emulsification method. The leaf dipping technique is applied at the nanoemulsion
toxicity test on S. frugiperda larvae. Then, the nanoemulsion formulation is analyzed with
PSA and Zetasizer Nano Malyern to measure the particle size and zeta potential. The result
of the research shows that the nanoemulsion of the mixture of citronella grass waste and P.
aduncum fruit oil has insecticide activity with LC50 = 0.53%. Additionally, it causes mortality
and developmental delay in S. frugiperda larvae. The nanoemulsion particle is 273.1 nm. It has
homogeneity and an even distribution.
Keywords: botanical insecticide, fall armyworm, integrated pest management, nanoemulsification,
particle size
INTRODUCTION
Corn is believed as one of the strategic food and feed
commodities. Both rice and corn are used as the main food
commodities to achieve food self-sufficiency (Indonesian
Food Security Agency 2018). However, plant-disrupting
organisms such as pests, pathogens, and weeds have been
hindering corn production. The pest becoming a current
issue in Indonesia is the recent invasive fall armyworm
(Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith). This fall armyworm
for the first time has been found attacking corn crops in
West Pasaman, West Sumatra (Nelly et al. 2021).
Today, this pest already spread throughout Indonesia
(BBPOPT 2021). S. frugiperda can be found in more than
100 species of host plants; consequently, it causes more
intense attacks than the oligophagous and monophagous
pests on plants (Sharanabasappa et al. 2018).
Philippine Journal of Science
152 (3): 1131–1137, June 2023
ISSN 0031 - 7683
Date Received: 23 Aug 2022
1132
The average population of S. frugiperda in Solok (West
Sumatera, Indonesia) is 1.05 larvae/ 2 corn plants,
whereas the average population of S. litura is 0.24 larvae/
2 corn plants (Nelly et al. 2021). Thus, appropriate pest
management is indispensable to handle this pest, one of
which is to prevent resistance. The law in the Republic of
Indonesia (Number 12, 1992) on crop cultivation system
states that Indonesia applies integrated pest management
(IPM) in order to minimize the negative impact on the non-
target organisms and environment (Sodiq 2000; Yuantari
et al. 2015). One of the available alternative options in
IPM is the use of botanical insecticide utilizing chemical
substances from plants, which can repel or cause toxicity
to the insects. The advantage of using this botanical
insecticide is that it decomposes easily. Therefore, the
residual effect on the harvest is significantly small and
safe for non-target organisms, and it does not cause pest
resistance (Prijono 2006).
There are 235 families with 2,400 species whose active
components can be used as botanical insecticides (Grange
and Ahmed 1988). One of them is spiked pepper (Piper
aduncum). The main component of P. aduncum is dillapiole,
which belongs to the phenylpropanoids group (Lina 2014).
According to Bernard et al. (1990) and Perry et al. (1998),
dillapiole derived from P. aduncum is able to inhibit
cytochrome P450 enzyme activity in microsomal preparations
of the digestive tract cells of Ostrinia nubilalis corn stalk borer
larvae. Another example of plants with active components
is citronella grass also contains saponins, flavonoids,
polyphenols, and terpenoids that have insecticidal activity
(Syamsuhidayat and Hutapea 1991).
Lina et al. (2021) reported the selling price of citronella
oil in Indonesia is very low – namely, IDR 140,000/L and
a low yield of 0.5–1.2% of the total refined raw materials
are serious problems for citronella farmers in general. In
the distillation process, a large amount of liquid waste
(hydrosol) is produced as much as 50–60%. Hydrosol is
an essential oil emulsion that is bound to water and still
contains 0.02% essential oil. When botanical insecticide
is formulated in its extract form, botanical insecticide
has weaknesses – including short shelf life, sensitivity to
the sun, and the need to repeat spraying (Wiratno et al.
2013). One of the solutions to improve the performance
of botanical insecticide formulation is nanotechnology,
which is material manipulation on the atomic scale.
The nanotechnology-based formulation is beneficial
in improving the application surface area, facilitating
systematic activity, reducing the waste of organic solvents,
protecting the active components from decompositions by
microorganisms and sunlight, increasing the solubility,
prolonging the persistence of active components, and
improving the stability of physicochemical formulation
(Sasson et al. 2007).
The use of citronella distillation waste as a water phase
in the nanoemulsion formulation of botanical insecticide
can increase the activity of nanoemulsion against insect
tests. Its hydrosol potency as a botanical insecticide can
be developed further to improve its performance and sale
value (Lina et al. 2021).
This study aims to develop botanical insecticide formula,
which is more effective and efficient in the form of
nanoemulsion. Specifically, the objectives of this research
are [1] to identify the characteristics of nanoemulsion and
[2] to determine the activity of nanoemulsion against S.
frugiperda such as larvae mortality, development delay,
and antifeedant activity of P. aduncum nanoemulsion
against S. frugiperda.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This research was conducted at the Insect Bio-ecology
Laboratory of Agriculture Faculty of Andalas University in
Padang, Indonesia from June–August 2021. The research
was conducted in a laboratory room with a temperature
of 23–31 ℃. The research was supported by the research
facility of Andalas University and was scientifically
and technically assisted by the Bandung Advanced
Characterization Laboratory of the Indonesian Institute
of Sciences (Indonesian: Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan
Indonesia; further will be referred to as LIPI).
Procurement of Spodoptera frugiperda Larvae
Larvae of S. frugiperda were collected from corn
plantations in the Belimbing Area, Kuranji District,
Padang City, Indonesia. The larvae were taken to the
laboratory and reared in plastic containers and covered
with gauze. Plastic containers are plinthed using tissue
paper. Feeding larvae in the form of leaves of corn
plants and replacement of tissue paper were carried out
every 2 x 24 h. Larvae that have become instar 3 were
transferred to a separate container with a population
of 5 heads/container to avoid the cannibalistic nature
of the larvae. The larvae were reared to the point of
becoming pupae. Every day, the pupae that appear
were transferred into gauze cages that have been
coated with tissues as places to lay eggs on the inside
of the cage and covered with a cloth. The imago that
appeared was fed with a feed in the form of 10% honey
liquid, which was dripped on a cotton swab and hung
in cages. Eggs laid imago in cages were transferred
into plastic containers for breeding into larvae. The
larva used as the object of study is the larva of the 2nd
instar because it is the weakest phase and the easiest
phase to handle as a research object to control with
botanical insecticides.
Philippine Journal of Science
Vol. 152 No. 3, June 2023
Lina et al.: Nanoemulsion of the Mixture of Citronella
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Production of Piper aduncum Essential Oil
P. aduncum fruits obtained from Bukit Lampu Padang-
Painan (Indonesia) were picked directly by hand and
stored in plastic bags. The scissors were used to cut
200-g plants into small sizes (± 2 cm) and were placed
into the 1 L boiling flask. Next, 1 L aquadest was added
to the flask containing P. aduncum (1:5 ratio). The fruit
obtained was immediately distilled directly for 4 h after
the water in the flask had boiled and the rest of the fruit
was stored in the refrigerator and used for subsequent
distillation. The dripping oil in the receiving flask was
then carefully moved into a glass bottle. Magnesium
sulfate was added to remove the water that remained in
the produced essential oil.
Nanoemulsion Synthesis
There were two phases in the making of 100-mL
nanoemulsion by using the spontaneous emulsification
method for both the organic phase and the water phase.
First, the water phase (hydrosol 78.3 mL: 2.7 mL Tween
80) was homogenized with the magnetic stirrer for 30
min at 2,500 rpm, whereas constant stirring was done
using the magnetic stirrer model 79-1. Next, the organic
phase (5 mL bioethanol: 5 mL P. aduncum essential oil)
was placed and homogenized in the Erlenmeyer flask
(50 mL). The organic phase consisted of Piper aduncum
and ethanol 96% (1:1 ratio), whereas the water phase
consisted of citronella grass distillate waste/hydrosol and
tween 80 (87:3 ratio). After 30 min, the organic phase was
mixed with the water phase by dripping it slowly. It was
continually homogenized using a magnetic stirrer for 45
min (Erlina et al. 2020). The nanoemulsion was kept in a
refrigerator until used for the test.
Characterization of Insecticide Nanoemulsion Using
Particle Size Analyzer (PSA)
The nanoemulsion was observed to determine the size of
its particles. The size of these particles was determined
based on the droplet size measured by the particle size
analyzer (PSA) of Delsa™Nano in PT. NanoTech Herbal
Indonesia. PSA is a measuring method in nanotechnology
research, which can analyze the particles of a sample
to determine particle size and distribution in the
representative samples. The zeta potential was analyzed by
using zetasizer Nano ZS Malvern in Bandung Advanced
Characterization Laboratory of the Indonesian Institute
of Sciences (Indonesian: Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan
Indonesia, or LIPI).
Nanoemulsion Testing
Testing of nanoemulsion of P. aduncum fruit was carried
out by preliminary tests and follow-up tests. Preliminary
tests were carried out with treatment in the form of
concentrations of P. aduncum fruit essential oil of 0
(control), 0.5, and 1% with three replications for each
treatment. Each test contained 10 larvae of 2nd instar S.
frugiperda. Further tests were carried out with a level of
five concentrations and five replications. Each test used 15
S. frugiperda larvae. The concentrations of advanced tests
used were 0, 0.33, 0.54, 0.89 1.46, and 2.40%. The larvae
of the 2nd instar were put into Petri dishes welded with
tissues in an inverted position, each of which contained
10 larvae. The test was carried out using the method of
leaf dipping. Corn leaves were cut to a size of 4 cm x 4
cm and dipped one by one in a solution of nanoemulsion
until evenly distributed and dredged. Each Petri dish was
given two leaves that have been treated. Treatment feeding
is carried out every 2 x 24 h. On the third day, larvae on
Petri dishes were given two untreated leaves. Furthermore,
the larvae that turned into the 3rd instar were separated
into other plastic containers, with a larval population of
five heads per container and labeled according to treatment
and given untreated leaf feed up to the 6th instar.
Feeding Inhibitor Activity Test (Antifeedant)
This observation was made to determine the feeding
inhibition of S. frugiperda larvae by measuring
the area of the treatment leaves for 2 x 24 h after
treatment. The area of the treatment leaves was
measured by plagiarizing the treatment leaves on
millimeter paper. The part of the leaves that the
larvae did not eat was shaded using a pencil. The
area of the eaten leaves was calculated from the
unshadowed parts. Anti-eating activity is measured
by calculating the index of food inhibition with the
formula (Prijono 2006):
AF = (Cl – Tl)/ Cl × 100%
Information:
AF = antifeedant effect
Cl = area of the control leaf eaten by the larva
(mm2)
Tl = area of the treatment leaf eaten by the
larvae (mm2)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results of Nanoparticle Characterization Test
Characteristics of nanoemulsion include the particles’
z-average, distribution, polydispersity index (PdI), and
zeta potential. The size and distribution of the particles
were measured using the PSA. The results of the particle
size characterization are shown in Table 1.
Philippine Journal of Science
Vol. 152 No. 3, June 2023
Lina et al.: Nanoemulsion of the Mixture of Citronella
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Physical properties can be observed to identify a
compound with nano-sized particles. Phase separation
should not be found in the observation. On the other
hand, homogeneity and clear look (like transparency of
water) should be able to be observed. Costa et al. (2012)
argued that good nanoemulsion has clear visual and high
transmittance.
The particle size of P. aduncum essential oil nanoemulsion
was 273.1 nm, and its polydisperity index was –0.215. It
shows that the nanoparticle size enables the particle to
get into a cell easily. According to Jaiswal et al. (2015),
nanoemulsion is an emulsion that has droplet submicron
size of > 2–200 nm. The PdI describes the particle size
distribution. The PdI is categorized into monodisperse
and polydisperse. The size range of monodispersity is
0.01–0.6, whereas that of polidispersity is > 0.6 (Nidhin et
al. 2008). The essential oil nanoemulsion of P. aduncum
produced in this study had homogenous or uniform particle
size distribution with PDI close to zero, which was –0.215.
Taurina et al. (2017) stated that a PdI close to zero indicates
a homogenous or uniform particle size distribution, whereas
a PdI of > 0.6 indicates significant heterogeneity. The data
shows that the particle had a physically stable particle size
distribution, which does not cause aggregations of particles.
According to Blackman et al. (2018), the stirring duration
in the nanoemulsion production affects the size of the
nanoparticles. The longer the stirring process is, the smaller
particle size is produced since there are more particles that
break down into nano size.
The zeta potential value is used to determine the particle
potential. It is affected by the composition of the particle
and the medium where the nanoparticle is dispersed. As
reported by Mannuela (2016), a nanoparticle that has a
zeta potential value > ± 30 has higher stability. The test
result of the nanoemulsion of P. aduncum extract showed
a negative surface charge of –29.53. If all particles have
a high negative or positive zeta potential charge, the
repulsion between particles happens, and the dispersion is
stable. On the contrary, if the zeta potential charge is low,
there is not enough power to prevent particle aggregation,
and the dispersion is unstable. The negative zeta potential
indicates that the nanoparticle formula has a negative
surface charge.
Results of Nanoemulsion Toxicity Test
The preliminary test result of the nanoemulsion of
the mixture of citronella grass waste (hydrosol) and
Piper aduncum essential oil shows that the increasing
concentration and the mortality number of tested insects
are directly proportional. Nanoemulsion with 0.5%
concentration caused 60.00% mortality in the larvae,
whereas nanoemulsion with 1% concentration caused
86.67% mortality. The data in Table 2 can be used as a
reference to conduct the confirmatory test so that five
levels of concentration are collected.
Table 1. Results of Piper aduncum essential oil nanoemulsion test.
Nanoemulsion Particle size
(nm)
Polydispersity index (PdI) Zeta /PZ (mV) potential
Pdi PdI standards Uniformity PZ PZ standards Stability
√ √
P. aduncum essential oil 273.1 –0.215 < 0.5 √–29.53 –30 < x < 30 √
Figure 1. Nanoemulsion mixture of citronella grass waste (hydrosol)
and P. aduncum essential oil.
Table 2. Mortality of S. frugiperda larvae results from the treatment
of nanoemulsion mixture of citronella grass waste
(hydrosol) and P. aduncum essential oil in preliminary test
Concentration (%) Mortality (% ± SD)
0.00 (control) 0.00 ± 0.00 c
0.5 60.00 ± 1.00 b
1 86.67 ± 0.57 a
The result of confirmatory test on the mixture of
citronella grass waste (hydrosol) and P. aduncum
essential oil shows that there was a positive relation
between the increasing concentration and the mortality
of tested larvae. In the lowest concentration (0.33%), the
mortality of S. frugiperda was 32.00%. The mortality of
tested larvae increased as the concentration went higher.
The highest number of mortality (88%) was observed
at the highest concentration of 2.40%, which did not
significantly differ with the concentration at 1.46%. The
mortality of S. frugiperda larvae was also affected by the
active components in citronella grass waste. The main
active components of citronella grass essential oil were
Philippine Journal of Science
Vol. 152 No. 3, June 2023
Lina et al.: Nanoemulsion of the Mixture of Citronella
1135
30–45% aldehyde compound (citronellal or C10H18O),
55–65% alcohol compounds (citronellol or C10H20O
and geraniol or C10H18O), and other compounds such as
geraniol, citral, nerol, metal, heptanone, and dipentene
(Khoirotunnisa 2008). In addition, citronella grass
contains saponin, flavonoid, polyphenol, and terpenoid,
which also contributed to the mortality of the tested larvae
(Syamsuhidayat dan Hutapea 1991).
Furthermore, the nanoemulsion affects survived larvae
development time. The higher the concentration is, the
longer the time needed for the larvae to develop. This was
in agreement with that of Lina et al. (2018), who reported
that the different levels of concentration can extend the
survived tested larvae when compared to the control. The
additional time to develop from instars 2–3 was about
0.02–1.76 d longer than the control. Time development
from instars 2–4 was 0.04–2.34 d. The delay from
instars 2–5 was about 0.04–3.84 d. Likewise, the delay
of development from instars 3–6 was about 1.56–3.78 d
compared to the control (Table 3). Table 3 shows that the
development time of the larvae from instars 2–3 was not
significantly affected compared to control. Lina (2014)
claims that even though the insignificant increase in
concentration results in significant mortality, it does not
create a similar effect on the development delay of the
survived tested insects. Another possible factor affecting
the development time of the tested larvae is the active
components in P. aduncum and citronella grass waste,
which reduce feeding activity. The lower the feeding
activity is, the longer the time they need to develop.
The mortality pattern of S. frugiperda larvae in Figure 2
indicates that the mortality of larvae started on the first
day of treatment and increased abruptly on the second
day of treatment. Moreover, there was further increase in
mortality on the third and fourth day. Since the leaves with
treatment were replaced to the leaves without treatment,
the survived tested larvae recovered as a result of feeding
on the leaves without treatment. This finding demonstrates
that the nanoemulsion works better on toxicity than on
nhibition of growth and development. Furthermore, the
mortality pattern of S. frugiperda on the first day shows
that when the higher concentration level is applied,
Table 3. Mortality and development time of S. frugiperda larvae resulting from the treatment of nanoemulsion mixture of citronella grass waste
(hydrosol) and P. aduncum essential oil in confirmatory test.
Concentration (%) Mortality
(% ± SD)1
Development time (day) (X ± SD)1
Instars 2–3 Instars 2–4 Instars 2–5 Instars 2–6
0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 e 2.24 ± 0.08 4.76 ± 0.33 6.16 ± 0.08 7.22 ± 0.08
0.33 32.00 ± 0.83 d 2.26 ± 0.16 5.28 ± 0.59 6.20 ± 0.23 8.78 ± 0.26
0.54 48.00 ± 0.44 c 3.16 ± 0.37 5.04 ± 0.08 6.85 ± 0.31 9.78 ± 0.17
0.89 72.00 ± 0.83 b 3.50 ± 0.70 5.20 ± 0.27 7.18 ± 0.29 10.58 ± 3.03
1.46 84.00 ± 0.54 a 3.80 ± 1.03 7.10 ± 0.41 9.10 ± 0.22 11.00 ± 0.77
2.40 88.00 ± 0.44 a 4.00 ± 0.00 7.10 ± 0.22 10.00 ± 0.00 11.00 ± 0.00
1Numbers followed by the same letters are not different from LSD results (α = 0.05)
[X] average; [SD] standard deviation
Figure 2. Mortality of S. frugiperda larvae results from the treatment of nanoemulsion mixture of citronella grass waste
(hydrosol) and P. aduncum essential oil.
Philippine Journal of Science
Vol. 152 No. 3, June 2023
Lina et al.: Nanoemulsion of the Mixture of Citronella
1136
the greater mortality percentage of the tested larvae is
attained. The results of probit analysis for nanoemulsion
formulations at LC50 and LC95 were 0.53 and 2.69%,
respectively, with regression slope values equal to 2.34
(Table 4).
Active components contained in P. aduncum and citronella
grass also affected the antifeedant activity. The test result
shows that there was a significant difference in antifeedant
activity between every treatment and the control (Table
5). The average leaf area consumed at the lowest level
concentration (0.33%) was 260.70 mm2 with antifeedant
effect at 21.23%, which was directly proportional with
the highest-level concentration (2.14%). The average of
leaf area consumed at the highest-level concentration was
17.40 mm2, and the antifeedant percentage was 96.74%.
This result implies that the higher-level concentration
is given, the smaller the average leaf area is consumed,
and the higher antifeedant occurred on the tested larvae.
Schoonhoven et al. (2005) maintains that the better the
quality and quantity of insect feed is, the less delay is
found in insect development. In contrast, when the feed
is antifeedant, the insects do not have any options but
keep feeding on the improper feed in order to survive.
The consequences happened on insects – specifically the
growth and developmental delay, the insect mortality,
and the antifeedant effect on S. frugiperda larvae – were
presumably caused by the active components in P.
aduncum on the treatment leaves.
Table 4. Nanoemulsion probit analysis of a mixture of citronella
grass waste (hydrosol) and P. aduncum essential oil against
S. frugiperda larvae.
Treatment b ± SE LC50 LC95
P. aduncum essential oil 2.34 ± 0.41 0.53% 2.69%
[b] regression slope; [SE] standard error
Table 5. Antifeedant effect of the nanoemulsion of citronella grass
waste (hydrosol) and P. aduncum essential oil mixture on
S. frugiperda.
Concentration
(%)
Average of leaf area
consumed (mm2) ± SD1
Antifeedant eect
(%)
0.00 (control) 331.00 ± 75.89 a –
0.33 260.70 ± 22.90 b 21.23
0.54 150.80 ± 44.28 c 54.44
0.89 113.30 ± 20.53 c 65.77
1.46 32.90± 22.86 d 90.06
2.14 17.40 ± 18.10 d 96.74
1Numbers followed by the same letter is no different from LSD results (α = 0.05)
CONCLUSION
Nanoemulsion formulation of the mixture of citronella
grass waste and P. aduncum essential oil is categorized
as nanoemulsion because its particle size is 273.1 nm.
The nanoemulsion toxicity test on S. frugiperda showed
88.00% mortality at the highest-level concentration
(2.40%). The mortality rate of the tested larvae at
concentration of 0.53% was 50%, and a 95% mortality
was found at concentration of 2.69%. In addition to
toxicity, the nanoemulsion also caused developmental
delay on the survived larvae and affected the antifeedant
activity on S. frugiperda larvae with antifeedant effect
percentage of 94.74.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks to the Andalas University for the academic
and technical support to complete this research, as well
as to Reputable Publication Research (T/6/UN.16.17/
PT.01.03/Pangan-RPB/2021).
STATEMENT ON CONFLICT OF
INTEREST
There is no conflict of interest to declare.
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