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Culture and Creativity in Urban Development!
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Place Attachment and Place Identity: Their Contribution to
Place Branding
Gilberto Marzano
(Rezeknes University of Applied Sciences,
Ecoistituto del Friuli Venezia Giulia)
Abstract
Attachment to the place is generally considered to be a complex emotional set of feelings
about the geographic location. The personal dimension and experiences of life seem to play a
fundamental role in place attachment. “Wild Strawberries”, the film written and directed
by Ingmar Bergman (1957), is one of the most known icons of the personal and sentimental
value for a place. This article aims to explore the multiple dimensions related to the notions
of place attachment and place identity focusing on their relationship with place branding.
Recently, many researchers have been persuaded that place attachment and place identity
influence place brand, intended as a network of associations (visual, verbal, behavioural)
concerning the place in the people’s mind. In this regard, a clarification of place identity
notion represents a meaningful point for the advancement of refining place branding
theory.
Keywords: place identity, place attachment, place marketing, place branding,
participative branding.
Introduction
The appeal of a place not only reflects the subjective emotional attachment of an
individual, but it is the result of multifarious elements that form the place perceived
identity. Place identity is a moot notion, which encompasses a large heterogeneous set of
components including personal cherished aspects, physical facets, such as an
environmental condition and landscape, social aspects, such as lifestyle, social
attribution, social status, and other less precise terms, such as spirit of place, soul of
place and cultural landscape.
The identity of a place often presents remarkable and sometimes contradictory
discrepancy among groups of individuals and local communities living in the same
place. In this regard, a recent research (Górny and Toruńczyk-Ruiz, 2013) not only
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indicates, as one might expect, that migrants do not demonstrate strong attachment to
their new city of residence, but sometimes, in certain areas, it seems that they tend to be
more strongly attached to their neighbourhood than were the natives.
Place attachment has received recently some attention in social science literature and
is considered strictly interrelated with place identity. Place attachment is claimed to be
both a functional and an affective relationship. In fact, there are utilitarian and practical
bonds to the place, but, at the same time, the relationship to the place goes beyond
people’s cognition, preference or judgment (Riley, 1992).
This paper discusses the notions of place attachment and place identity as factors
which contribute in forming the place brand. In particular, some findings from recent
researches on the place identity and place attachment are analysed. The author’s
opinion is that in contemporary society the elitist idea that a place is a holistic entity that
should be valued as an end in itself no longer makes sense. Place identity is the result of
an interactive process, which involves many actors and is culturally sensitive.
Exploring the multiple dimensions related to the notion of place identity (Williams
et al, 1992; Giuliani and Feldman, 1993; Dallago et al., 2009; Scannell and Gifford, 2010;
Mihaylov and Perkins, 2013), it is focused on the relationship among place attachment,
place identity and place branding (Hernández et al., 2007; Ashworth and Larkbam, 2013;
Flint, 2013). The aim was to clarify the role of place identity in the place brand
construction, intended place brand as a network of association (visual, verbal,
behavioural) in the people’s mind concerning the place (Zenker and Braun, 2010).
1. Place Branding
Some years ago, Keith Dinnie carried out an overview of the literature about place
branding by highlighting its multifaceted nature (Dinnie, 2004). The author identified
three principal landmark texts which have made a major contribution to the place
branding literature:
• First, Destination Branding: Creating the Unique Destination Proposition (Morgan et
al., 2002). The key argument of the book is the notion that the places currently
offer the greatest untapped brand opportunities. Written by an international
mixture of marketing professionals, branding consultants and leading academics,
this book argues that “marketers must be in the business of delivering impactful
experiences, not merely coordinating media relations and constructing media
brand identities” (Morgan et al., 2002, p. 6).
• Second, the special issue on nation branding that appeared in the April 2002
edition of the Journal of Brand Management, comprising ground breaking articles
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on nation branding by some of the world’s most eminent academics and
practitioners.
• Third, Simon Anholt’s (2003) seminal text Brand New Justice: The Upside of Global
Branding, in which the author addresses the issue of how emerging market
economies can brand both their exports and their countries in order to compete
more effectively in the global economy.
It prompts from Dinnie’s literature analysis that the nature of place branding
appears complex, transcending the narrow confines of any single industry sector
including that of tourism.
In recent years, the interest on place branding is growing both in academic and
marketing field. The proliferation of place branding studies (Lucarelli and Berg, 2011)
and the rising number of place branding consultancies indicate its popularity. New
investigations have enriched the place branding concept presenting positive and
negative factors which influence place promotion (Braun, 2008; Kavaratzis, 2008).
The lack of clear political priorities for place marketing has evidenced one of the
main obstacles in big cities and underlining that it could get worse by the lack of
financial resources (Popescu and Corboş, 2010; Lennon, 2014).
The literature on place marketing highlights the conflicts between the particular
nature of places and their users, since the interests of non-residents often conflict with
those of residents. It is well-known that in big historical cities, the tourists’ interests are
not the same of the ordinary travelling people. The interest on local communities and
their role in economic development is mainly shared by the researchers studying the
rural area development and social business.
Many authors who are engaged in sustainable development and social researchers
and educators who are following the critical tourism ideas (Ateljevic et al., 2013) argue
that the application of market rules to improve the place attractiveness can produce
disastrous results, especially if one does not take into account the environment and
social sustainability. Tourist marketers often ignore the resident needs and the
environmental limits that they would strive to attract tourists in a place without
worrying about ecological effects and local communities deterioration. A quick
investigation about tourism business in the Third World shows that it is set up by the
agreements between foreign image-makers/investors and the local elites excluding local
communities and generating leakages (payments made outside the destination
economy) (Hampton, 2014; Lacher and Nepal, 2010).
Nevertheless, in a globalized world, the strategic application of place branding is
supposed to provide a mandatory means to nations, regions, provinces and cities for
competing among them and attracting business. Place branding is presented as a new
general container of strategies aimed to promote a place in the global market, an
umbrella term which encompasses place marketing and place promotions.
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Municipalities and regional authorities, which aim to increase their competitiveness and
attract target groups, such as tourists, new residents and investors, hire the place
branding experts and consultants (Bennett and Savani, 2003; Braun, 2008; Hospers,
2006).
Place branding may include either positive image promotion of a place, exploiting
and valorising its peculiarities, e.g., historic heritage, arts, spectacle offers, etc., or the
promotion of commodities and services that responds to the demand (proven or
expected) of specific target groups (Kotler and Gertner, 2002; Greenberg, 2008;
Kavaratzis, 2004). The phenomenon of place branding is generally considered an
organic process of image communication which combines marketing strategies and
governance objectives finalized to allure investors, tourists and valuable human capital.
It also appears as a business opportunity for marketing companies, which claim
themselves specialized in helping small urban, rural and coastal cities, resorts and
regions and promise to transform their tourism and economic development
performance.
Media, either traditional or new, play a remarkable role in place branding. Cultural
products such as films, books and music seem to have a major part in determining the
country’s reputation and image, although this is surprisingly ignored by the academic
researchers in the vast majority of their place branding investigations. However,
something is changing in place branding, and new forms of representation of places
transcending the mere advertising could be handy (Ashworth and Kavaratzis, 2010).
It is quite clear that all people are more and more conditioned by and dependent
on the new technologies (Genco and Sorce, 2010). Nowadays, they enter in everyday life
by connecting people to worldwide networks and allowing peer communication. It is
also clear, that new media have an extraordinary ability to create and maintain a
favourable/unfavourable reputation and competitive position of a place in the
international marketplace. It can be easily seen how new media are globally
transforming tourist habits. Web-based communities, such as Facebook, Twitter,
Instagram, YouTube, Tripadvisor and globally diffused services of online booking for
flights and hotels, have changed market conditions by influencing the strategies of
tourism agencies and destination marketing organizations. Accordingly, these changes
are affecting the destination branding process itself (Buhalis et al., 2011; Leung et al.,
2013).
2. Place Attachment and Place Identity
In the investigation of collective memory among inhabitants of two twin cities, Lviv
(Ukraine, previously Lwów, Poland) and Wroclaw (Poland, previously Breslau,
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Germany), Polish psychologist Maria Lewicka argues that place attachment and place
identity are two different although related phenomena (Lewicka, 2013). Other
researchers, especially in the past, claim on the contrary; namely, they consider that
place attachment, and place identity expresses the same concept and use both terms
synonymously (e.g. Brown and Werner, 1985). These divergences depend on that the
people-place bonding is a multifaceted and complex phenomenon. Indeed, the factors,
such as emotional bonds, affiliation, behavioural commitment, satisfaction and
belonging, are loosely associated in several theoretical studies (Pretty et al., 2003).
The distinction of place attachment and place identity is not an easy question. It is
doubtless that these notions express the people’s bonds with places. However, these
bonds can be the result of different factors and their combination.
Studies about place attachment and place identity are mostly restricted to the
neighbourhood (Casakin et al., 2015). The deep-seated familiarity with the environment
has been always considered as a crucial attribute of place identity (Rowles, 1983), and
place attachment has been operationalized in terms of place identity (Stedman, 2002).
About the relation between the place attachment and place identity, it has been
suggested that place attachment focuses on evaluations of places, while place identity
focuses more on the way in which places form part of one’s identity (Moore, 2000).
Many researchers share the Setha M. Low and Irwin Altman opinion (Low and Altman,
1992) that the place attachments may not only be landscapes solely as physical entities
but may be primarily associated with the meanings and experiences in place, which
often involve relationships with other people (Moore, 2000; Manzo, 2003; Casakin et al.,
2015).
Leila Scannell and Robert Gifford, authors of the interesting tripartite model of
place attachment, claim that place attachment occurs at both individual and group levels,
although definitions of the term tend to emphasize the “personal connections one has to
a place” (Scannell and Gifford, 2010). The tripartite model is based on three dimensions.
The first is the actor dimension that represents who is attached (an individual or
collectivity). The second dimension is the psychological process through which affect,
cognition and behaviour occur in the attachment. The third dimension is the object of the
attachment, the place, including its social and physical characteristics.
There is, however, a need for a more general model, which would encompas
individual and collective relationships. In this direction moves the Place entity model of
the author. Place entity is a complex entity which includes physical and social
attributes/properties. Place entity is an abstraction from the real world that can be
uniquely identified and represented by its attributes/properties. Place entity can be seen
as a mosaic of physical and social settings, these latter consisting of individual and
collective meanings (Figure 1).
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Figure 1. Place entity
Social settings should include individual and collective knowledge and
experiences too. Place entity should be viewed as the result of stratified interactions
among human beings, a specific physical space and the physical and social settings
related to this space. The author agrees with the broad idea that the place is a “space
endowed with meanings” (Relph, 1976; Tuan, 1977; Low and Altman, 1992; Cresswell,
2013), although these meanings are not given once for all and are layered along the time.
It must be noted that Place entity properties are not static, since they are continuously
modified either by Human beings (that is another entity representing an individual,
group, community, nation or other people aggregations) or sometime by the nature
itself.
Place identity is a coherent subset of properties/attributes which more than others
distinguish a Place entity-type instance under a specific view. Place identity expresses
the physical and social settings, included positive and negative appreciations, which
more than others characterize the Place entity-type instance. Place identity can be
considered as the result of a sort of casting performed on the whole property set of a
Place entity-type instance deciding on its properties peculiarity (Figure 2).
Figure 2. The place identity process
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From the above assumption, it follows the issue of how the casting criteria should
be decided and may the choice of different criteria produce different place identities. In
this regard, Proshansky et al. claimed that place identity would be theoretically
conceived as an individual’s strong emotional attachment to a particular place or
environmental setting (Proshansky et al., 1983). Although, the author of the paper does
not agree with the above provided interpretation, it is accepted that there could be
different place identities for the same Place entity-type instance associated with the
different Human being entity-type instances. Accordingly, the place attachment is one
of the possible relationships that a Human being entity-type instance can establish with
a place identity belonging to the Place entity-type instance. However, affirming that
place identities are subsets of the Place entity remains a generic assumption, since subset
components are not detailed, and their membership rules are not given. The model is
only preparatory, rough and operative, it is a first preliminary attempt to depict a
complex phenomenon enfolding in a whole heterogeneous components (emotional,
cultural, physical, personal, collective, etc.) related to the physical space (or a virtual
one, since there exist many places that are the outcomes of legends or even have been
destroyed along the past centuries).
If this idea that all the possible place identities of a place are part of its
corresponding Place entity-type instance is accepted, the complexity of the problem is
not reduced, but, at least, there is a way to try to tackle it. In fact, Place entity was
introduced to underline that the place is a whole of physical and social settings and that,
as a consequence, the efforts should be focused on representing and labelling these
settings.
Finally, it should be noted that many questions raised by researchers about place
identity and place attachment result from a dualistic conception of the place notion,
where physical and social settings are separated. It justified that place-identity has been
theoretically conceived as clusters of “positively and negatively valenced cognitions of
physical settings” (Proshansky et al., 1983, p. 62). This and other similar assumptions
does not take into account that place identity is influenced not only by the physical
settings related to the physical space, but also by its related social settings. Nowadays,
social settings should include virtual images, impressions, advices, comments, posts and
rumours circulating on the Internet. It is very likely that the changes in social
communication are now affecting the place identity and place attachment dynamics,
and accordingly, the new dimensions of place identity and place attachment could
influence the place branding dynamics too (Govers and Go, 2009; Arora and Khazanchi,
2014).
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3. Place Branding Dynamics
In general, the cultural heritage and tourism bid get people to visit the place. Many
efforts are made to reinforce the place brands by building warm and charming cultural
images and promoting place identities, which encounter the consumer expectations.
However, behind the official identity of a place, the less virtuous identity of a
sexual tourist destination can hide. It could be the real cause of the attractiveness of a
place. This is the case of many East European capitals. On account of international
tourism and business trips, prostitution has become extremely well-paid in most poor
countries, and the girls who prostitute themselves in the hotels of famous historical
cities earn twenty times more what a university professor or the head physician of a
hospital earns each month (Jaurand and Leroy, 2011; Möller, 2010; Campani, 1998).
From long time, sex tourism is a flourishing, prosperous industry, especially in places
where the prostitution is legal. Cultural and historic heritage is a secondary factor of
attraction.
Of course, the above mentioned dark and prurient aspects cannot be present in the
official place branding of a city, but they are a part of its whole real image. It is well
known that Amsterdam is a beautiful city filled with historic buildings and an
abundance of culture, but many tourists are attracted by the city’s reputation for the sex,
drugs and the famous Red Light District.
Another interesting aspect of place branding is how the marketers employ the
place identity. They sometimes try to exalt the place through the place identity
competitive comparisons: “Riga has a stronger visual identity than Latvia – Riga looks
like itself. It is more internationally – minded than Latvia. It is more modern than
Latvia. It is a place of acknowledged international consequence – by historical and
geographical right” (Dripe, 2012). However, the brands that stakeholders attempt to
manage or at least influence escapes from their control. In fact, the idea of a
manipulating holistic brand for a place is unlikely.
In the previous paragraphs, it was argued that place identity depends on many
factors, and accordingly, the place branding construction should take into account the
multifarious nature of place identity and the different target groups expectations and
habits. Furthermore, if it is accepted that place identity results from a dynamic process;
then, the traditional place marketing approach could be inefficacious. In fact, it
presupposes that place identity is something of static that can be uniquely defined and
manipulated. For this perspective, the place branding essentially consists in
communicating the place identity in an easy and manageable way.
In their identity-based approach to place branding, Mihalis Kavaratzis and Mary
Jo Hatch observe that place identity and place branding are complex processes that
encompass partial sub-processes. The authors claim that place brand is the result of a
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process, which involves groups of stakeholders. They argue that brands are built out of
the ‘raw material’ of identity and identity emerges in the conversation between
stakeholders and what brings them together. Although practitioners and policymakers
continue to spend time, money and effort on traditional place marketing, recent studies
are demonstrating the relative insignificance of traditional marketing view applied to
place branding. The irrelevance of logos and slogans in place branding is often asserted
in the literature (Mayo, 2013), while the role of stakeholders and their participation in
co-creating the place brand have been recently shared by many researchers (Aitken and
Campelo, 2011; Zenker, 2014).
However, technologies are changing the nature of stakeholders and prompt
towards new forms of participative branding. Many on-line organizations, such as
Amazon and e-Bay, and social networking sites encourage people to express their
opinions about products, while travel websites Tripadvisor and Bookinkg.com publish
peers evaluations providing reviews of travel-related content and host interactive travel
forums.
On account of social media, new online brand builders are present on the Internet,
and they have largely eschewed traditional forms of marketing communication. They
increase their power through a seemingly transparent approach, the opinion sharing
and word of mouth engagement.
Conclusions
The basic clarification of moot, arguable concepts, such as place identity and place
attachment, is a fundamental task of the cities investigations and essential for the
advancement of research in this social field.
Nowadays, many researchers share the opinion that the place identity and place
branding are closely related. They agree that place branding links place identity with
projected and perceived images though communication and experience and they are
largely persuaded that place brands are representations of place identity building a
favourable internal (public, private and civil society stakeholders) and external (tourists,
investors, traders, migrants) image.
This paper provides an attempt to manage the complexity of such concepts as place
and place identity through the Place entity model that might have the advantage of a more
detailed analysis of the multiple and heterogeneous factors underlying these notions.
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