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Truffles, Timber, Food, and Fuel: Sustainable Approaches for Multi-cropping Truffles and Economically Important Plants
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Truffles are the fruiting bodies produced by a number of sequestrate fungi, the majority of which are ectomycorrhizal. Most edible truffle species belong to the Pezizales. The greatest successes in cultivating edible ectomycorrhizal fungi have been within the truffle genus Tuber. Traditionally, hazelnut and oak are used as host plants in truffle cultivation, yet there are other economic host taxa that also hold promise as truffle hosts. These include trees being planted for timber and fiber (e.g., Pinus spp., Pseudotsuga spp.), food [Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch, Corylus spp.], and fuel (e.g., Populus spp., Salix spp.). When planted in their native range, various economic truffle species are found associated with these particular host taxa. Truffle harvests provide a shorter-term revenue source while longer-term timber investments mature, and together provide long-term annual income from standing forests. Nonmarket benefits of ecological multi-cropping with truffles include carbon sequestration, soil stabilization, and wildlife habitat.
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... Along their natural distribution, truffles are not only harvested in the wild but also in plantations using truffle inoculated seedlings (Reyna & García-Barreda 2014). Truffles not only harbor and economical value but also important social and ecological value (Benucci et al. 2012a) living in mycorrhizal symbiosis with the roots of suitable host plants (Paolocci et al. 2006;Zambonelli et al. 2012a;Bonito et al. 2013). Tuber spp. ...
... Truffles naturally grow in areas with a particular weather, soil and vegetation, like those of the Mediterranean Europe , Sáez & De Miguel 2008. The loss and deterioration of their natural habitats (Benucci et al. 2012a) due to the reduction of traditional practices, overharvesting, deforestation, successive wildfires and prolonged droughts have substantially decreased their production in the last decades (Moreno-Arroyo et al. 2005;Honrubia et al. 2006;Reyna 2007). As a consequence of this decline, establishing plantations of inoculated tree seedlings, compatible with Tuber spp., has allowed their culture (Meotto & Bassi 1994;Chevalier & Frochot 1997;Reyna & Colina 2007;Bencivenga et al. 2009;Benucci et al. 2012b;Zambonelli et al. 2015). ...
... This species is distinct from other Tuber species for the unique aroma of its ascomata, its limited distributional range, and the difficulties of its cultivation (Mello et al. 2001;Riccioni et al. 2016). Much effort has been devoted to the artificial culture of T. magnatum, but without success (Gregori 2007;Bencivenga et al. 2009;Benucci et al. 2012a). ...
Truffles are highly demanded edible fungi. They belong to the genus Tuber and have very high economic value, with Tuber magnatum being one of the most expensive and gastronomically used. This study evaluates the potential of five introduce tree species as mycorrhizal hosts for T. magnatum in Chile. Seeds from Quercus cerris, Q. robur and Corylus avellana were harvested from adult trees. Cuttings from Populus nigra and Salix caprea were harvested in the field and asexually propagated under greenhouse conditions. After two months, they were transplanted to 260 cc pots containing sterilized composted pine bark. A spore suspension (106 spores/plant) of T. magnatum was injected directly into plant roots. Three months after inoculation we observed spore germination and the presence of mycelium around the roots in some seedlings. After seven months, we observed mycorrhizae from T. magnatum only in Q. cerris, Q. robur and C. avellana, characterized by their epidermoid mantle and awl-shaped, bristle-like cystidia. The identification the mycorrhizal structures was confirmed by sequencing of the nuclear ITS- rDNA region. This study provide the first advances for the domestication of this highly valuable truffle in Chile and South America and the successful mycorrhized plants could be used in further field assays. Some Quercus, Populus and Salix species have been used as ornamental plants and are naturalized in Chile for over 100 years. Additionally, hazelnut (Corylus avellana) is currently grown in the country under intensive silviculture. These tree species could act as a non-intentional host for truffles, dispersed from production sites.
... Considered delicacies in many cuisines globally, they also play integral roles in local cultures and folklore [34]. For these reasons, monitoring macrofungi can support the assessment of important ecosystem services as valuable natural food resources and the efficiency of natural environmental benefits [35]. ...
... Considered delicacies in many cuisines globally, they also play integral roles in local cultures and folklore [34]. For these reasons, monitoring macrofungi can support the assessment of important ecosystem services as valuable natural food resources and the efficiency of natural environmental benefits [35]. Most of the observations in the current checklist belong to Basidiomycetes, with a smaller portion belonging to Ascomycota. ...
The checklist serves as an informative method for evaluating the diversity, geography, and ecology of established and reproducing macrofungi. Additionally, considering macrofungi as bioindicator species, their census should be incorporated into efforts to monitor the state of health of ecosystems and directly applied to conservation policies. Between 2019 and 2023, a census of macrofungal species was conducted in Taburno-Camposauro Regional Park (Campania, Italy) across nine distinct habitats. A total of 453 fungal taxa were identified, including several new records for the Campania region. The fungal diversity exhibited significant variations based on the dominant plant species in each habitat. Fagacean tree species and Carpinus spp. shared similar fungal communities. Equally, coniferous tree species displayed a comparable fungal composition. In Abies alba and mixed broad-leaved forests, low levels of ectomycorrhizal taxa were observed alongside a concurrent increase in saprotrophs, indicating a disturbed habitat and a reduction in the Gadgil effect. Notably, lower fungal diversity was documented in the grassland habitat, suggesting the potential implications of wildlife imbalance and excessive grazing. The provided checklist constitutes a valuable resource for local management authorities, providing insights to formulate specific management policies.
... Their value depends on the species, geographic origin, size, seasonal availability, and quality seen as the integrity of ascomata and pest-free status (Benucci et al. 2012). Truffles are not able to actively discharge their spores in the environment and depend on mycophagous animals for reproduction. ...
... For example, Tuber melanosporum shows a higher host preference for Northern Hemisphere angiosperms (e.g., Quercus spp., Corylus spp.) but a lower host preference for Pinus spp. In contrast, Tuber borchii has a wider host range, including angiosperms (e.g., Quercus spp., Populus spp.) and gymnosperms (e.g., Pinus spp., Picea spp., Cedrus spp.) [3]. The selection of host plants affects mycorrhiza formation [4], and the rate of mycorrhizal root colonization varies depending on the host plant [5]. ...
Truffles are ectomycorrhizal fungi that belong to the genus Tuber. They exhibit symbiotic relationships, particularly with oak (Quercus spp.) and hazel (Corylus spp.) trees. We performed an inoculation using a spore suspension to synthesize mycorrhizae between European truffles, Tuber borchii and Tuber melanosporum, and an indigenous oak species, Quercus acutissima. This resulted in the formation of mycorrhizae within 2 months after inoculation. Despite having the same host plant, differences in features were observed between Tuber species, including color and mantle type. These results indicate that Q. acutissima is a suitable host plant for truffle cultivation in Korea and provide a better understanding of the mycorrhization of T. borchii and T. melanosporum.
... The cultivation of truffles has been increasing worldwide, partly due to the positive impact on the natural environment. Truffle plantations can also effectively promote local biodiversity because of the different tree species that are planted (Benucci et al. 2012). They also do not require pesticides or artificial fertilizers, and due to welldesigned, safe, and sustainable methods, a good cultivation effect can be achieved. ...
In 2017, the presence of the fly Suillia gigantea (Meigen, 1830) was noted in Poland, after many years of research related to the ecology of insects associated with the fruiting bodies of hypogeous fungi. Finally, in 2020, after further studies, the distribution of the truffle fly in Poland was confirmed. Six adults were reared from larvae inhabiting the fruiting bodies of Burgundy truffle (Tuber aestivum Vittad. (1831)). The fungi were harvested in southern Poland. Morphological and genetic analyses of the insect specimens were performed. For the first time, the DNA sequence of this fly species was isolated. This is the first record of S. gigantea in Poland, although it has already been reported from neighbouring countries. The development of S. gigantea, also known as the truffle fly, is associated with hypogeous fungi, mainly belonging to the genus Tuber P. Micheli ex F.H. Wigg. (1780). The diptera larvae develop inside the fruiting bodies. This type of damage causes great losses in truffle production. Containment of these losses is of great interest to the truffle industry. Knowledge of truffle-inhabiting insects is crucial for the development of effective methods to protect truffle crops in Europe.
... Truffles usually prefer well aerated, calcareous soils with an alkaline pH and an appropriate amount of organic matter (e.g., about 7.5 ± 3% for T. aestivum) [14,48]; however, moisture and temperature preferences vary depending on the truffle species. For example, T. melanosporum is a thermophilic species and prefers highly-drained soils, while T. macrosporum can grow in colder climates and in periodically flooded soils [49]. Truffle species also differ as a result of preferences in soil pH. ...
The aim of this study was to enable searches for truffles (Tuber spp.), particularly the Burgundy truffle (T. aestivum Vittad.), to be carried out in forests based on a method that has been constantly developed since 2007 by the Forest Research Institute. The method is termed “Virtual Truffle Hunting” and it takes 12 parameters into account: bedrock, soil pH, Ca+ and CaCO3 content in soil, C/N ratio, soil structure, altitude of terrain, type of forest site, forest structure, the Burgundy truffle host trees, and the presence of particular species including orchids and insects. A simple “Virtual Truffle Hunting” software has also been developed, which makes the use of the method easy, fast, and effective. This method is to ascertain the truffle potential for all areas in which digital maps are not available. In 2015, the method was tested in 20 sites, representing forests in 5 Polish macroregions. Hunting for hypogeous fungi was conducted from June to October with the help of trained dogs. Thanks to this method, 14 new truffle sites were found. The knowledge of environmental conditions conducive to the Burgundy truffle growth enabled us to form an effective tool in order to identify new sites of truffle presence. View Full-Text
Keywords: bioindicators; hypogeous fungi; soil parameters; software; Tuber aestivum; valorization
... Cultivation of desert truffles may represent ex situ conservation 46 , despite a specific cares should be followed in this activities. Evaluation of soil and environmental characteristics of the plantation site are crucial, especially in semi-arid areas where climate conditions are critical 47,48 . Ex situ conservation of desert truffles can constitute a new branch of ecotourism for local population in Middle East and North Africa. ...
... Cultivation of desert truffles may represent ex situ conservation 46 , despite a specific cares should be followed in this activities. Evaluation of soil and environmental characteristics of the plantation site are crucial, especially in semi-arid areas where climate conditions are critical 47,48 . Ex situ conservation of desert truffles can constitute a new branch of ecotourism for local population in Middle East and North Africa. ...
The sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa) could potentially be used as a host for the Périgord truffle (Tuber melanosporum) in multi-cropping plantations to promote rural or marginalized economies by providing farmers with a valuable source of income from both the truffle and the chestnut. Black truffles are known to associate to sweet chestnut trees in the wild. However, inoculation of chestnut seedlings with this highly appreciated edible fungus has not been attempted so far under greenhouse conditions. In this study, we tested the suitability of C. sativa as a host for T. melanosporum using a substrate containing high levels of active calcium (Ca²⁺) to enhance truffle growth. We found that C. sativa seedlings can be successfully colonized by T. melanosporum in the nursery and that T. melanosporum appears to have a strong influence in its host’s physiology, growth, and nutritional processes. The inoculated plants showed a greater root dry weight, water potential values and higher Ca²⁺ content. Under these conditions and using a substrate containing limestone seems to favour the fungus in the mutualistic symbiosis.
The first detailed characterization of volatile compounds from Tuber canaliculatum, a truffle newly grown in Quebec, Canada, was performed with headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). A total of 30 compounds were identified, making up more than 98% of the volatile extract. The volatilome of T. canaliculatum is dominated by (E)-1-methylthio-1-propene, (Z)-1-methylthio-1-propene, dimethyl disulfide, and 1-octen-3-ol. It also includes six compounds identified for the first time in truffles, namely, 4-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-pentanone, pentyl propanoate, (Z)-1-methyl-2-(prop-1-en-1-yl)disulfide, (E)-1-methyl-2-(prop-1-en-1-yl)disulfide, (Z)-1-methyl-3-(prop-1-en-1-yl)trisulfide, and (E)-1-methyl-3-(prop-1-en-1-yl)trisulfide. With the growing interest in gastronomy in truffles in North America, it is becoming important to gather knowledge for identification purposes and to delineate the key volatile compounds responsible for the aroma of North American truffles, especially the newly harvested T. canaliculatum.
The hazelnut tree has a great social an economic value in the NE of Spain, nowadays sunk in economic crisis. 15000 Hectares of these groves lay on potential truffle producing areas. Tuber melanosporum and Tuber brumale fruit in some of them naturally. We studied the ecology and soil parameters on hazel truffieres. No significative differences were found on the fine and coarse oxidable organic materia between T. melanosporum and T. brumale soils. Our aim is to develop inoculation techniques in mature groves and later to coordinate the truffle and hazelnut cultivation, trying to get an added value to the traditional crop. In this work, large inoculations using the Mycoforest Technology® have been carried out in mature hazels with Tuber brumale on 3230 hazels, and Tuber melanosporum on 1300 hazels, in a total area of 11,3 hectares. They were carried out two inoculations with sporal inoculum in all the trial fields, spring-fall within the same year or spring-spring with one year delay. Percentage of trees that got mycorrhizae of Tuber melanosporum one year after the first inoculation are between 28,6% and 45,2% of the inoculated hazels. The hazels that present mycorrhizae of Tuber brumale are between 24,1% and 56,2% after the first inoculation. In both cases, two years later infection degree raised.
The roots of most plants are colonized by symbiotic fungi to form mycorrhiza, which play a critical role in the capture of nutrients from the soil and therefore in plant nutrition. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis is recognized as the definitive work in this area. Since the last edition was published there have been major advances in the field, particularly in the area of molecular biology, and the new edition has been fully revised and updated to incorporate these exciting new developments. . Over 50% new material . Includes expanded color plate section . Covers all aspects of mycorrhiza . Presents new taxonomy . Discusses the impact of proteomics and genomics on research in this area.
This study is the first report on the presence of Tuber macrosporum Vitt. in Serbia (Yugoslavia). Also an early finding of T. melanosporum Vitt., T. aestivum Vitt. and T. magnatum Pico ex Vitt. in this region was confirmed. The identification was made according to size, structure and odour of fruiting bodies, size, shape and scanning microscopy of asci and ascospores. Also the type of soil, ectomycorrhizal associations and season of collecting the fruiting bodies were taken into account.
A glasshouse experiment was conducted to observe the behavior of the artificial Tuber melanosporum-hazel symbiosis after outplanting in soil infected with the same Tuber species (104 spores cm-3 soil) or T. brumale (102 and 104 spores cm-3 soil). Despite a low level of Tuber-infection at planting, infection with T. melanosporum was maintained or increased, whereas infection by other mycorrhizal species remained low. In contrast, in non-inoculated control soil, infection with T. melanosporum declined and was almost completely replaced by other species. This investigation emphazises the importance of the intensity of T. melanosporum infection at planting. The effects of the diversity of mycorrhizal species and density of the soil fungal-inoculum, including indigeneous Tuber species on the spread of the introduced symbiosis after outplanting are reported. Intra- and interspecific competition for infection within the genus Tuber are discussed.
The roots of most plants are colonized by symbiotic fungi to form mycorrhiza, which play a critical role in the capture of nutrients from the soil and therefore in plant nutrition. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis is recognized as the definitive work in this area. Since the last edition was published there have been major advances in the field, particularly in the area of molecular biology, and the new edition has been fully revised and updated to incorporate these exciting new developments. . Over 50% new material . Includes expanded color plate section . Covers all aspects of mycorrhiza . Presents new taxonomy . Discusses the impact of proteomics and genomics on research in this area.
Pecan [Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) C. Koch] is indigenous to the Mississippi River drainage system of the United States. Climate in the native pecan region ranges from humid to semiarid and from mild to harsh winters. Rainfall is bimodal with peaks in March to April and in August to September. Pecan is site specific and is the climax tree species on loamy, well drained, first bottom river land with a relatively high water table. Detrimental effects from pecan's shade intolerance from its more vigorous, sympatric species are minimized as these species are specific to differ sites. Pecan's deep and phreatophytic rooting habit ensures soil moisture during drought periods and facilitates pecan's survival in semiarid regions. Root development in the humus-surface layer ensures nutrient uptake from the most nutrient rich layer of the soil and, when the lower soil profile is saturated, aeration for the roots and water and nutrient uptake. The bimodal rain pattern replenishes soil profile moisture and its timing ensures seed germination, stand establishment, well-developed seed, and minimal drought stress. Natural selection for freeze tolerance and for minimum fruit development time allows survival in areas with harsh winters and short growing seasons. Regulation of seed germination and budbreak by heating and chilling results in pecan being native in cold and warm climates, greatly increasing the native range. The northern limit for pecan is dictated by heat units; the southern limit is restricted by lack of bimodal rains and vivipary. Reproductive stress is caused by the high lipid content of seed, but is counteracted by a long juvenile growth period of the seedling, by a small nut size and low percentage kernel, and by "off" production years of the tree. Nut and percentage kernel decrease as the growing season decreases which contributes to species survival in geographical regions with a short growing season. Selection for small nuts with low percentage kernel is enhanced by predators. Tree reserves are depleted by heavy production during "on" years and are replenished during "off" years. Perpetuation of pecan forests is apparently from sib/half sib seedlings following predator satiation while dissemination into new areas may be mainly by predators. Pecan and its pests successfully co-exist. Major defense against fruit feeders is escape in time, leaf feeders by biological associations and accommodation, and leaf diseases by confrontation. Heterozygous progenies from cross-pollination provide ample genetic diversity for continuous pecan selection to endure pressures imposed throughout a wide climatic range. Ecological adaptions within native pecan forests should be used in developing and maintaining commercial pecan orchards.