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Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 2017, 34, 421–441
https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.2016-0127
© 2017 Human Kinetics, Inc. ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Sport Participation for Elite Athletes
With Physical Disabilities: Motivations,
Barriers, and Facilitators
Gabriella McLoughlin, Courtney Weisman Fecske,
Yvette Castaneda, Candace Gwin, and Kim Graber
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
There are many reasons why individuals are motivated to participate in sports.
Less attention, however, is given for studying motivation and athlete develop-
ment in adapted sport. The purpose of this study was to identify the motivations,
facilitators, and barriers to sports participation of elite athletes with a physical
disability. Participants (N= 23, 17 males, six females, mean age: 24.3 years) were
recruited through online listservs, e-mails, and snowball sampling. A semistruc-
tured interview guide was employed. Analysis was conducted and grounded in
self-determination theory and literature surrounding barriers and facilitators of
sports participation. Through coding by multiple researchers, six themes
emerged. Themes indicated that athletes attributed participation to constructs
of self-determination theory as well as overcoming specific barriers such as cost,
time constraints, and lack of opportunity. Among facilitators to their athletic
development, there were empowerment and advocacy, increased health, college
scholarships, and achieving performance-related goals.
Keywords: athletes with physical disabilities, self-determination theory, elite
sport participation
There are limited sporting opportunities for individuals with physical dis-
abilities, which may potentially affect participation. The Department of Health and
Human Services found that 56% of individuals with disabilities do not engage in
daily physical activity, and just 23% are active for at least 30 min for at least three
times per week (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2007). In addition,
based on survey findings from Disabled Sport USA, only 30% of adults with
disabilities in the United States regularly participate in sport-based physical
McLoughlin, Weisman Fecske, Castaneda, and Graber are with the Dept. of Kinesiology and
Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL. Gwin is with the
Wiley Elementary School, Urbana, IL. Address author correspondence to Gabriella McLoughlin at
gmcloug2@illinois.edu.
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activity (four or more times per month), which is significantly less than those
without physical disabilities (Disabled Sports USA, 2009).
Adapted physical activity in today’s context is conceived as “adaptations that
could facilitate physical activity across a wide range of individual differences”
(Reid, 2003, p. 22). Reid (2003) argued that adapted physical activity through
sport participation should promote self-determination and provide choice to
augment self-regulation. To increase the number of individuals who participate
in adapted sport, it is beneficial to understand the motivations and athletic
development of those who do participate and who have risen to an elite level.
Although the field of adapted sport is growing, there is a paucity of research on
motivations, facilitators, and barriers for sport participation among individuals
with physical disabilities competing at an elite level. Furthermore, less is known
about how barriers are negotiated to achieve success in adapted sport, and the role
motivation plays in this process. Learning what motivates successful athletes with
physical disabilities (AWPD) to reach the elite level offers insights into how others
who participate recreationally can progress, as well as encourages those who do
not currently participate in adapted sport to do so.
Self-Determination Theory
Self-determination theory (SDT) has been used as a framework for understanding
motivation and behavior of individuals. Motivation has three main aspects: amotiva-
tion (lack of intent to engage in a certain activity), intrinsic (autonomous enjoyment
of engaging in a certain activity), and extrinsic (engaging in an activity to appease
others or for an external reward; Deci & Ryan, 1985;Ryan & Deci, 2000). Extrinsic
motivation can be drawn from external sources such as monetary rewards, winning
competitions, and teachers or coaches and is often considered to be a less potent form
of motivation than intrinsic motivation. For the purpose of this study, intrinsic
motivation has been chosen as the main tenet of SDT due to the linkages between
intrinsic motivation and athletic performance (Banack, Sabiston, & Bloom, 2011).
Pelletier et al. (1995) conceptualized three forms of intrinsic motivation: to
know, to accomplish, and to experience stimulation (Deci & Ryan, 1985;
Vallerand et al., 1992) within an elite sport environment. They described intrinsic
motivation to know as the motivation that leads an individual to participate in a
certain activity to learn skills and knowledge. Intrinsic motivation to accomplish is
described as the desire to reach performance goals, thereby giving an individual a
sense of satisfaction. Finally, intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation is
conceived as an individual’s inclination to perform an activity for the fun or
excitement that is gained during participation in sport (Pelletier et al., 1995;Ryan
& Deci, 2000). Although an individual may participate in an activity for these
reasons, the individual does not need to demonstrate all three to be considered
intrinsically motivated (Deci & Ryan, 1985;Vallerand et al., 1992).
Motivation and Elite Sport
Although the literature on coaching in an elite sport climate has developed
considerably in recent years, there is a comparatively limited evidence-based
surrounding coaching AWPD (Banack et al., 2011). Researchers have suggested
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that the approaches to recruitment, coaching, and mentoring of AWPD are not
entirely dissimilar to those of able-bodied athletes (DePauw & Gavron, 2005).
From research with able-bodied athletes, findings show that supportive coaching
practices augment an athlete’s fulfillment of the basic psychological needs for
intrinsic motivation: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Adie, Duda, &
Ntoumanis, 2008;Tawse, Bloom, Sabiston, & Reid, 2012). According to Mageau
and Vallerand (2003), autonomy supportive coaching can be conceptualized as
behaviors that promote an individual’s sense of agency. They indicated that
autonomy supportive behaviors that are prevalent in the literature include the
provision of constructive feedback (Vallerand, 1983), providing rationale for
activities and coaching practices (Deci, Eghrari, Patrick, & Leone, 1994), and
promoting athletes to be task oriented by setting performance goals (Ryan, 1982).
Maintaining a consistent leadership style is also efficacious for developing
intrinsic motivation in one’s athletes (Banack et al., 2011;Mageau & Vallerand,
2003;Tawse et al., 2012), particularly because athletes draw a significant amount
of motivation from their coaches and are heavily influenced by coaching practices.
Although there is an extant body of literature on the motivations of AWPD, many
researchers have utilized quantitative measures such as surveys, potentially
limiting the depth of information gathered. Accordingly, more in-depth qualitative
inquiry may elucidate connections between motivations to participate in adapted
sport with the facilitators and barriers experienced by this population.
Barriers and Facilitators to Adapted Sport
Successful implementation of policies such as the introduction of the Americans
with Disabilities Act (1990) may help attenuate the negative effect of physical
barriers to sport participation experienced by individuals with physical disabilities.
This act states that organizations providing sporting and leisure activities should
make their facilities more accessible to individuals with a physical disability.
Despite these changes, barriers situated within society such as stereotypes and
attitudes prevent individuals from participating in adapted sport (French &
Hainsworth, 2001). For use within this study, the operational definition of a
barrier is anything that prevents or hinders participation in adapted sport. For
individuals with a physical disability, barriers to participation in adapted sport
include financial burden of participating (i.e., equipment costs and coaching), lack
of transportation, a dearth of programs within reasonable proximity, and the
absence of support from individuals without a physical disability (Jaarsma,
Geertzen, Jong, Dijkstra, & Dekker, 2014;Wu & Williams, 2001).
Facilitators of sports participation for individuals with and without a physical
disability appear to be similar. Both groups participate for purposes of enjoyment,
health benefits, and the social aspects associated with sport (Kämpfe, Höner, &
Willimczik, 2014;Wu & Williams, 2001). In AWPD, personal factors such as
motivation and increasing physical and mental health appear to be particularly
important facilitators (Jaarsma, Dijkstra, Geertzen, & Dekker, 2014;Kämpfe et al.,
2014). Hutzler and Bergman (2011) stressed the importance of the coach’s ability
to empower athletes, and found that for retired Paralympic athletes, the main
facilitators to participation (retrospective) were empowerment, the notion of
belonging to an elite group of athletes, as well as the enjoyment associated with
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participation. Barriers cited were related to health complications, deselection, and
lack of time and financial support to continue with training. Similar to Hutzler and
Bergman (2011), Wu and Williams (2001) found that having fun, enhancing one’s
level of physical fitness and health, the social components of sport via making
friends and connections, and competition were major facilitators to participation
for British elite athletes with spinal cord injury. They also found that those who
were active prior to their injury were more likely to train as elite athletes after
injury compared with those who were not involved in sports or training before
acquiring their impairment (Wu & Williams, 2001).
Taub, Blinde, and Greer (1999) examined how participation in sport could
attenuate the negative social stigma that AWPD encounter. It was found that
participation in a sport or physical activity facilitates “(a) physical competence and
(b) enhanced bodily appearance”(Taub et al., 1999, p. 1474). Other researchers found
that the primary motivating factors for participation in sports for individuals with
intellectual disabilities were the need for communication with others with intellectual
disabilities, creating connections by making friends within a sports team, and to gain a
sense of independence (Farrell, Crocker, McDonough, & Sedgwick, 2004).
Researchers have also examined how motivation facilitates participation in
adapted sports (Page, O’Connor, & Peterson, 2001). Athletes attribute motivation
to the presence of other people (taking part in something that gives a person close
contact with others) and to having opportunities for socialization with other
AWPD. Those participating in team sports believed that they could connect with
their teammates and rely on them for support (Page et al., 2001). Participants
indicated that improvement of physical fitness served as motivation to continue
training and improve one’s performance. They also felt that training was a physical
process, which became a means of ameliorating some of the secondary conditions
that may accompany physical impairment (Page et al., 2001).
Despite the important research that has been conducted in the area of elite-
adapted sports and competition, very little qualitative research exists to investigate
motivations and experiences for elite AWPD using SDT as a guiding framework.
Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to identify the motivations,
facilitators, and barriers to participation in sport for elite AWPD. Specifically, the
researchers sought to understand what motivates these athletes to engage at the
elite level and to examine their perceptions of the barriers and facilitators that
impact participation. The findings of this study can provide insights that may lead
to increased participation and enhance the field of elite-adapted sport for indi-
viduals with physical disabilities. Specifically, the research questions were:
(a) What motivates AWPD to participate in elite-level sport?
(b) What are the facilitators to competition and success, the barriers to
participation, and how are these barriers negotiated to continue perfor-
mance at the elite sport level?
Methods
Being that motivation is a complex and difficult to articulate concept, semistruc-
tured, open-ended interviews (Patton, 2002) were the primary data collection
method used in the investigation to obtain a rich description of elite athletes’
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motivations for and experiences when participating in an adapted sport. All
research was performed with the approval of the Institutional Review Board
(IRB Protocol #13565) at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
For the purpose of this study, SDT and the social model of disability served as
the grounding frameworks, using a thematic analysis approach (Braun & Clarke,
2006). The social model of disability identifies systemic barriers, negative
attitudes, and exclusion by society (purposely or inadvertently) as negative factors
that impact the experiences of those with disabilities (Oliver, 2004). The social
model takes into consideration interpersonal factors such as relationships and
societal influences and does not solely define an individual by his or her disability
(Oliver, 2004). In addition, SDT contends that autonomy (feeling in control of
one’s decisions and actions), competence (feeling one has the knowledge and
ability to succeed), and relatedness (being part of a supportive community) are
important factors impacting participation in sport for this population (Ryan &
Deci, 2000).
Participants
Interviews were conducted with 23 elite athletes who compete in a variety of
adapted sports in the Paralympic Games, Parapan Games, NCAA Division 1
competitions, or are training to do so in the future. In total, there were six females
and 17 males with ages ranging from 19 to 58 (average age 23.3). The oldest
athlete (age 58) was previously an able-bodied college athlete and is currently an
AWPD who holds numerous regional titles. The athletes in this study participated
in wheelchair basketball (n= 13), wheelchair track/road racing (n= 9), and
swimming (n= 1). Physical disabilities varied and included spinal cord injury
(n= 11), cerebral palsy (n= 4), spina bifida (n= 3), limb amputations (n= 2),
osteogenesis (n= 1), and transverse myelitis (n= 1). One participant did not wish
to provide his or her disability. Demographic information about race and ethnicity
was not requested.
The investigation examined motivations, facilitators, and barriers beginning
with adapted recreational sport in youth to current elite-level sport pursuits.
Participants were recruited via e-mail and flyer solicitations at a large public
university in the Midwest United States as well as through e-mail solicitations
from an adapted sport organization in the Northeast. Initial participants provided
additional participants through snowball sampling and word of mouth.
Research Tools
Researchers examining factors such as motivations, barriers, and facilitators in
adapted athletics have employed different methodological approaches such as
surveys (Banack et al., 2011), individual interviews (Farrell et al., 2004), and
qualitative focus group interviews (Hutzler & Bergman, 2011). Although surveys
provide surface-level data for a larger population, it has been argued that richer
information can be gleaned when examining underserved populations through the
use of interviews (Page et al., 2001).
A semistructured interview guide (Patton, 2002) was developed to enable
interviewers to explore participants’responses in greater depth and without the
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constraints of a rigid standardized interview protocol. Prior to data collection, the
interview guide was piloted with two AWPD. In addition to ask participants to
share their perceptions about the barriers and facilitators to participation, questions
focused on their sense of autonomy, relatedness, and competence in relation to
their experiences and motivations for participation. For example, to address
relatedness, researchers asked participants about their interactions with coaches,
mentors, and teammates, and how those interactions affected their participation.
Questions covered their lifespan, including childhood, and before and after the
acquired impairment (if applicable).
Interviews were conducted in a classroom or other location on a university
campus at a time that was convenient to participants. The principal investigators,
who have extensive experience with qualitative inquiry as it relates to adapted
sport and kinesiology research, conducted all interviews. Interviewers obtained
informed verbal consent from each participant prior to interviews. Interviews
lasted between 35 and 70 min (46 min on average) and addressed each partici-
pant’s personal motivations for pursuing elite-level adapted sport as well as the
participant’s athletic career trajectory. All interviews were audio recorded and
transcribed verbatim prior to data analysis. Participants were given pseudonyms,
and any schools, organizations, and names of coaches, teammates, or other
individuals were referred to with fictitious names.
Data Analysis
To accommodate the theoretical framework of SDT and the social model of
disability while maintaining an inductive approach, a thematic analysis framework
was employed (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This form of analysis not only accom-
modates theoretical thematic analysis but also allows for a rich description of the
data. Braun and Clarke (2006) stated that thematic analysis, “involves the
searching across a data set-be that a number of interviews or focus groups, or
a range of texts-to find repeated patterns of meaning”(p. 86).
Data were thematically analyzed inductively and deductively using manual
open and axial coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Open coding involved reviewing
the data as a whole as well as the responses of each participant, comparing
responses by similar question or concept, labeling concepts, and organizing
concepts into general categories. Axial coding focused on elucidating connections
between concepts, linking similar concepts together under a broader theme
(Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Codes were placed into overarching first-order themes
through inductive analyses, placing similar codes together, and creating second-
order themes. Following inductive analyses, the emerging themes were examined
deductively in relation to SDT and the social model of disability (Patton, 2002). To
ensure consistency during the coding process, two of the principal investigators
coded the interview transcripts individually, meeting once per week to establish
first (six themes) and second-order themes (between three and five second-order
themes during 14 meetings in total). After initial themes were determined, the
research team met as a whole to collaborate for consensus building and peer
debriefing to ensure reliability of the final themes (three meetings in total).
To establish the credibility and trustworthiness of the analysis, a number of
procedures suggested by Lincoln and Guba (1985) were followed. First, member
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checking of individual participants’interview transcripts was carried out, followed
by individual coding of all data prior to comparing emerging themes and coding
collaboratively. In addition, negative case analysis was conducted to locate any
exceptions to themes as they developed. Finally, data were triangulated by
comparing individual responses against responses of others, particularly in
relation to similarities such as years of experience and type of disability.
Results
Six themes and multiple subthemes emerged from the transcribed and coded
interviews that address how AWPDs became engaged in and committed to
adapted sport and elite athletics (see Table 1). The data demonstrate that
participants are highly motivated to train and compete and gained an early start
in recreational activities prior to becoming active at the elite level. Participants
discussed negotiating barriers and facilitators such as support systems, traveling,
Table 1 Major Themes and Subthemes From Interview Data
Theme Subtheme Relation to theory/literature
Early bird gets the
worm
Early start in recreational
activities
Facilitators and barriers literature
Early recruiting by coaches Facilitators and barriers literature
Playing sports with
able-bodied peers
Facilitators and barriers literature
Negotiating
barriers
Overuse injuries Facilitators and barriers literature
Cost Facilitators and barriers literature
Location, location, location Facilitators and barriers literature
Time management Facilitators and barriers literature
Lack of awareness Facilitators and barriers literature
Lean on me: Sup-
port networks
Support networks Facilitators and barriers literature
SDT: intrinsic motivation
Coach impact Facilitators and barriers literature
Empowerment and
advocacy
Paying it forward Facilitators and barriers literature
Perks Facilitators and barriers literature
Transition from nondisabled
to disabled
SDT: intrinsic motivation
Physical and men-
tal motivations
Being active and loving it SDT: intrinsic motivation
Love of competition SDT: intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation
Staying the course:
Achieving goals
Goals as facilitators SDT: intrinsic motivation
Training SDT: intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation
Note. SDT = self-determination theory.
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and recruitment. Empowerment, advocacy, and giving back to others were also
evidenced in the data. Positive health outcomes and the joy achieved through
competitive involvement were perceived as additional facilitators of elite sport
participation. Both short-term and long-term goals were discussed in detail.
Physical and Mental Motivations
Many participants were initially active recreationally but then elected to narrow
their focus to become more competitive. Motivation for participating at the elite
level included an increase in physical health and the mental enjoyment of
engaging in physical activity.
Being Active and Loving It. Participants shared feelings similar to Blake, who
stated that he “fell in love with activity”and found “adapted sports better fit for
[my] physicality.”Likewise, Michael and Lizzy both felt that “physical health”
was important. Lizzy stated, “One of the main benefits is my overall physical
health and for me it’s just the idea of looking toward a goal which is bigger than
anything I have ever worked for.”Abigail said, “I absolutely love physical
activity. It just brings me a lot of joy, and I’ve just been blessed with the ability
to use it at an elite level ::: .”
In general, all of the athletes lived an active lifestyle during childhood and
participated in both unorganized and organized recreational activities. These
lifestyle behaviors served as a catalyst for their continued participation and
advancement into competitive activities. Stacey, who spoke about her family
promoting an active lifestyle while growing up, said,
I love the feeling of exercise. I wouldn’t say I love the feeling of competing,
sometimes I do but that’s not what really motivates me. I just really love the
feeling of pushing my body as hard as I can, and it makes me feel really
accomplished while I’m out there.
Billy stated, “I have a disability (so) the more important it is to stay active and
strong enough to keep myself going ::: part of it is just pragmatic like I really
need to stay healthy and strong.”
Love of Competition. A common characteristic among AWPD was the self-
described competitiveness that motivated them to excel. James summarized it best
when he stated,
I’m a very competitive person so when they (trainers) give you a goal or they
say, “We can see you being one of the best point guards or one of the best
players”at my level, that really motivates me and makes me want to be
whatever they want, whatever they get us to do ::: it just makes me focus on
more and gives me that incentive like I wanna strive for that championship,
and I wanna be the best
Stay the Course: Achieving Goals
Being strongly focused on both short-term and long-term goals was evident during
all conversations. Participants’goals were used to motivate their achievement.
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Goals as Facilitators. When asked about long-term and short-term goals,
participants shared thoughtful perspectives that they had developed over time.
Many of the wheelchair basketball and track athletes were training for the
Paralympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The majority of participants spoke
about wanting to improve their personal best performances, and all of the
participants were highly motivated to achieve aspirations. Michael conceptualized
his goals as a lifestyle and shared that
Tomorrow I wanna be able to hit a layup while being fouled, (goals) keep
(me) having a constant motivation throughout my mind and that’s what keeps
me going, that’s what I love so much about being an athlete, I always have
something to do ::: you know whatever you put your mind to and whatever
you love, do it! Don’t let anything physical hold you back. Don’t put yourself
aside because you think your bodies gonna hold you back or that someone
says you can’t do something. You do it because you know you can do it and
you’re gonna prove those people wrong.
Training. To gain a competitive edge over other elite athletes and reach their
goals, participants committed to extensive training schedules. Jesse’s training
schedule started at 6:30 a.m. with 2 hr of pushing. He said that “it’s really intense”
and involves “lots of strategy, lots of defense.”He also shared that his schedule
was “insane.”Many athletes participated in practice 5 days per week and in
tournament play during the weekends. Their mechanism for improvement was
through intensive training regimes. Most of the athletes made training a top
priority to achieve such goals as qualifying for the Paralympic Games. Several
who had already competed at one or more Paralympic Games continued to
maintain a high level of training to further improve and maintain their status as
elite world-class athletes. Those who had not previously qualified for the
Paralympics were likewise committed to achieve that status through intensive
training. During interviews, athletes spoke extensively about both their long- and
short-term goals, and how they were working with their coaches to achieve them.
The Early Bird Gets the Worm
The first theme to emerge from the data was that participants began engaging in
recreational activities prior to becoming competitive athletes. They also discussed
how they were recruited by coaches at a young age and described their experiences
participating in sports with able-bodied peers.
Early Start in Sport and Recreational Activities. The data clearly indicate that
recreational and sport participation at a young age was critical to participants’later
interest and success in sport. The importance of an early start was clearly
expressed by Darrel, who said, “That’s one of the big things for people with
(physical) disabilities. If they’re not introduced to sports at a young age, they don’t
have the opportunity to do things.”In fact, most participants were involved in
multiple recreational activities throughout their childhood. Participants subse-
quently became more serious and competitive in a specific activity during
adolescence and throughout their mid to late twenties. Some of the recreational
and sporting opportunities described included but were not limited to softball,
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wheelchair basketball, swimming, wheelchair track, road racing, wheelchair foot-
ball, and adapted scuba diving. One such example was Lizzy, a 28 year old, who
stated that she “became competitive with swimming just in the last two years and
cycling in the last four,”but she has been involved in some type of recreational
activity since the age of 4 or 5. Similarly, Roger, who is 23 years old, started playing
wheelchair basketball 7 years ago but has been active in sports since the age of 8.
Abigail, an elite wheelchair basketball athlete began participating in sport when she
was in fifth grade and subsequently progressed into competitive sports. She stated
Then that summer (I) joined the wheelchair track team and so I did both of
those sports from 5th grade through my senior year and then I went to
college ::: and there were no sports teams over there so I just trained every
morning on my own, either swim or lift weights or push my race chair and then
I came to (a new university) last year, so 2011, and I joined the racing team.
Early Recruiting by Coaches. Coaches who recruited athletes were critical for
helping participants to gain awareness of recreational opportunities. Michael
shared a story about his first coach approaching his mother at a shopping mall
and suggesting that he participate in sports at the age of 5 because he seemed to
enjoy pushing his chair around the store. Later that week, he began participating in
sports with that coach. Stacey stated
I was growing up I had an absolutely amazing coach. She was also an
occupational therapist and so her job and her passion in life was like putting,
like instilling the belief in people that when they’re injured they can still live
life, like teaching them that they can do that. So I think having her as a coach
she really motivated me to see through a disability and to like continuing,
striving to do the best that my body could do like in anything that I ever did
and that she really instilled that in me.
Sports With Able-Bodied Peers. Many of the participants explained that, before
beginning organized recreation and sport for athletes with disabilities, they first
engaged in physical activities with their able-bodied peers. For those who had not
yet encountered their physical disability, their early participation in sport continued
after their injury. For those who already had a physical disability, they would at
times participate in sports with their able-bodied counterparts. For example, Stacey
shared, “I grew up playing with my friends who are able-bodied and I played right
alongside them ::: . I was really included in everything.”In relation to playing
basketball,”she stated, “(I was) definitely the slowest down the court and things like
that, but I still loved it!”Prior to becoming a wheelchair basketball athlete, Theo
played pick-up games with his neighbors and brothers. He said itwas “difficult,”but
he was still able to join his peers in a game at the age of six or seven.
Jerry also played able-bodied tennis in high school with some adaptations to
the game that were discussed and advocated for by his head coach. Likewise,
Jesse, who has a spinal cord injury, participated in his middle school able-bodied
wrestling team. He also played lacrosse as the goalie. Both of these athletes
participated in sport with some adjustments to the rules. Brenner stated, “Having
the opportunity to compete alongside my other teammates really made me feel like
a member of the team, and it was a lot of fun.”
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Negotiating Barriers
Barriers were mostly successfully negotiated by participants and were not
necessarily perceived to be highly problematic for involvement in elite competi-
tive sports. While largely described as positive, participation in sport was not
without issues that necessitated some navigation.
Overuse Injuries. One of the more serious constraints cited by athletes was that
they often encountered injuries during training and competition. George shared
that although participating in physical activity made him fit and healthy, it also
strained his body due to the rigors of competing at the elite level. Other
participants shared that they also acquired overuse injuries or pain from training
with intense schedules and continuously pushing their bodies. Jamie and Ann both
discussed that physical health could be an issue, as they had to have surgeries that
affected their physical functional abilities and required a long recovery. An
extreme case is Anne, who underwent cortisol injections into her spinal cord to
alleviate back pain that was intensified through her high level of training leading
up to the Paralympic Games. Brenner cautioned that with the high level of training
required for elite athletes that, “Even if you have a little ache and pain, that could
turn into something bigger.”
Rene spoke about shoulder injuries that are common for elite wheelchair
athletes. Rene shared that training “::: puts a lot of stress on your shoulders ::: .
(Training) has been known to really lead to people needing shoulder surgeries and
stuff like that.”Proper training and access to trainers and physical therapists do
reduce training injuries, but these types of injuries are common in the elite
wheelchair athletic community.
Cost. Another factor considered in participation in adapted sports is cost,
particularly for those needing specialized equipment. Samuel and George both
discussed that a properly fitted sports chair can cost thousands of dollars even at
the recreational level, and the chairs become even more expensive as one’s skills
develop. Darrel shared,
At the beginning every sport you begin to play, you need adapted equipment
and that all requires money to get it to fit to your body, and chairs run about 4
or 5 grand each so you have to find that money to do that ::: once you get
really into it you realize it (is) an expensive hobby.
Although funding is available through scholarships and grants, elite athletes
need to know how and where to obtain financial assistance. Theo played sports in
his regular wheelchair when he began because he did not know how to obtain a
sports chair. He stated it was “very difficult to play in that chair.”Many of the
athletes, however, including Theo, eventually found ways to obtain appropriate
sports chairs through funding, scholarships, grants, and sponsors.
Location, Location, Location. In addition to the barriers described, commuting
to practices also created complications in terms of time and distance because there
are often fewer opportunities for participation in adapted sport. Specifically, Ann
discussed how she had to coordinate rides to get to her activities that were often
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more than a 1-hr drive from her home, and Abigail’s mom had to drive 1 hr for
practices when she was younger.
The location of programs or where specific activities could be practiced also
presented challenges. Darrel discussed that, “It’s really hard. It’salotof
resources that you need because some people in a small town do not have
the resources like someone in a big town. It just depends on where you live.”
Darrel resided in a large town with an active physical disability community but
acknowledged that some of his peers did not have the same opportunities
for participation in sports because they were not living near large sporting
communities.
In relation to schools, whether private or public, there was a lack of
programming offered. Thus, some participants trained and competed alongside
their able-bodied peers, but specific programming for those with physical dis-
abilities was not available. Theo stated that he attended a small private school, but
even if he went to a large public school, he would not have had equal opportunities
to participate in sports. This limited access to opportunity meant that travel was a
necessity to participate.
Time Management. The most commonly described difficulty was time manage-
ment. Having time to train, practice, work, be a student, and socialize was
something that required careful planning. Ann spoke about needing to effectively
maintain motivation so she could be successful as an athlete while simultaneously
achieving success in other aspects of her life. Jake spoke about needing to manage
his time effectively to wake up early, be well rested for practice, juggle homework,
and maintain a social life with his peers; some of whom were not athletes. Michael
stated
You know, it’s just like trying to find a balance in life because basketball’s
always been my life but then there’s friends, there’s school, you know and
maybe work but that’s who you are and honestly if it were up to me I’d play
basketball all the time. But you know, just trying to find a balance between
other parts of life and just trying to keep it all in line together so it’s just I
guess time management I think.
Learning how to balance a busy schedule at the elite level was a shared
experience for many.
Lack of Awareness. Several of the participants felt that, although they were
classified as elite-level athletes, they were treated less equitably than other athletes
in the United States. Roger disclosed that when he was younger, his physical
education teacher forced him to participate in the Special Olympics, which was not
the proper organization as he had physical, not intellectual disabilities. In addition,
Roger was conflicted about having to use a regular chair as opposed to a sports
chair and felt there was a lack of recognition by others about adapted sports. Jesse
stated that
Able-bodied sports definitely have more support because people think
(adapted sports are) not actual sports, or they’re just helping us out. I’m
not doing this for help. I’m doing this for sport. I’m doing it to be a part of a
sport and I want that competitive edge.
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Elite athletes who participated in international competitions/meets or played
abroad professionally felt that they received more respect than those who did not
travel and were treated similarly to top athletes in their respective fields. In the
United States, however, they believed adapted sports are less valued than able-
bodied sports.
Lean on Me: Support Networks as Facilitators
All participants discussed having effective support systems in place as a significant
factor in their success and continued motivation in elite athletics. These support
structures involved multiple parties coming together to be supportive.
Support Networks. Having supportive peers, friends, teammates, teachers,
family members, and coaches was a common positive attribute to one’s partici-
pation in athletic activities. Michael shared that his family, friends, peers, and
teammates were all important supports to him.
My family, they’ve always supported me growing up. I’ve never really had a
normal childhood I was always traveling and playing sports, and I would
never even really see my family as often (as most kids) ::: . My old
teammates, basically all my past teammates, you know they support me and
everything I do, and honestly I’ve been blessed with great friends and family
basically and just people that are there for me and they understand the needs
that I have.
David emphasized the importance of a strong support network and said “All
my really close friends are on the track team or the basketball team here. It really
helps to have people that go through the same things that you do as someone
who’s disabled.”Being around individuals with similar goals, motivations,
schedules, and lived experiences enabled David to have a support group that he
perceived understood him and from which he gathered strength. Others also
referred to peer athletes as extended family, who assisted in their success.
The one outlier was Bill, the oldest participant in the study, and the only one
who was married. He perceived that he had the support of his children but
indicated that his wife was less engaged in his athletic activities than he would
like. A lack of spousal support, however, did not discourage his participation.
Coach Impact. Coaches played an important role both within and outside of the
sport setting. Many participants shared that they have maintained relationships and
continue to communicate with former coaches from their youth. For example,
Jamie continued to communicate with her former coach about athletics and her life
even though she is several years older, living in a different state, and currently
working with a different elite level coach.
Another example of the influence of coaches on the personal lives of
participants was evidenced when Roger stated
The main reason for me to go here (university) was that we had one of the best
coaches in (specific sport given) in the world ::: he taught us many things
outside (the sport), how to approach life, how to approach school, how to treat
people with respect and integrity.
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Participants also held their coaches’technical knowledge and coaching style
in high esteem. Paul stated
He’s one of the greatest coaches I have ever had because he puts all this effort,
effort into it, and he gives you feedback all the time about what you are doing.
But it’s not the type of feedback where it’s yelling at you or anything like that.
He’s kinda soft spoken ::: .He’s always there no matter how good you are.
He’s always gonna be there to try and make you better.
Empowerment and Advocacy
Awareness of one’s participation in adapted sports enabled a level of empower-
ment to develop. This sense of empowerment allowed for a platform to advocate
for and educate others about disability and sport.
Paying It Forward. To illustrate the opportunity of advocacy, Lizzy stated that
“I have a responsibility to younger people with disabilities especially in the
areas where I grew up where there wasn’t a lot of exposure to adapted
athletics.”This desire to help others was shared by Bill, who practiced
motivational speaking
I’m in the church so I preach and will often preach from the concept of
suffering and brokenness and how we can be made strong in broken places,
and I have credibility, you know people know that I have done this and if I can
they can too ::: . I have written two books about adjusting to disability.
Giving back was a prevalent concept among participants regardless of their
chosen activity. Samuel spoke about a recent experience he had during a
sport camp
I just went and did a camp for wounded vets in San Francisco, and it was
awesome. They had never seen wheelchair basketball before but they picked
up so much they worked so hard and it’s our ability to give back to the sport
that gave us so much.
Overall, many of the participants, while focusing on their participation as elite
athletes, also managed to incorporate a larger understanding of what their
participation could mean to others, and how they could use their voice to help
their community. For many, this sense of giving back to the disability community
and educating others about opportunities stemmed from the examples set by their
elite coaches.
Perks. Further enhancing a feeling of empowerment through sport participation
included gaining access to educational opportunities that participants might not
otherwise have received. The majority of participants within this study were
student athletes simultaneously training at an elite level and achieving a postsec-
ondary education. Brenner shared
We refer to ourselves as student athletes and I think the distinction is that
you’re a student first and an athlete second ::: at the end of the day my
education is very important to me, something very valuable ::: . I would like
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to continue and enrich my learning experiences–so I am never going to take
that for granted.
Brenner was not alone in appreciating his educational experiences. For some
participants, an education may not have been affordable if not for being recruited
as an athlete.
Among the opportunities allotted to top athletes were travel and playing
professionally abroad. Jerry added that he enjoyed, “::: traveling and experienc-
ing all these different cultures and meeting all types of people :::”Travel
opportunities also contributed to raising participants’awareness about disability
throughout the world.
Other AWPDs stated that they hoped to pursue sport after graduation at the
professional level and plan to play on teams in Europe. Jerry excitedly shared that
several of his past and current teammates have played in Germany and Italy on
professional teams, and it is something he aspires to do as well.
Transition From Nondisabled to Disabled. For several participants who ac-
quired their disability as a child or adult, participating in adapted sports assisted
them during the transition from an able-bodied life to one with physical impair-
ments. Mark stated, “I had to get over the fact that I couldn’t play able-bodied
basketball anymore,”but once he started playing wheelchair basketball he never
looked back. Billy shared that after his injury, he continued playing most of his
previous sports. He emphasized, “I’m actually competing at a much higher level
than I was before I was injured.”In Billy’s case, participating in adapted sports
helped him perceive of himself as a serious athlete. For Rene, who injured himself
at the age of 17, after the idea of walking again “eventually passed,”he realized he
needed to work on being “functional”by becoming more physically active. He is
currently a racer working with an elite coach.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to identify motivations, facilitators, and barriers to
sport participation for elite AWPD. Of specific interest were factors that motivated
these participants to persist with sport and their experiences with facilitators and
barriers throughout their careers. Scholars have argued that elite AWPD develop-
ment is highly variable in nature, and the facilitators and barriers to participation
must be studied extensively to increase the prevalence of adapted sport (Hutzler &
Bergman, 2011).
Motivation
Examining the constructs of SDT, intrinsic motivation to know was demonstrated
by participants when they expressed their passion for learning new skills and new
strategies in their respective sports (Pelletier et al., 1995). In addition, coaches
helped provide athletes with autonomy to realize what they were physically
capable of performing and increased perceived competence to learn new skills.
These findings are also reflected in other research, which has demonstrated that
coaches who adopt an autonomy-supportive approach have a substantial positive
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impact on the perceived competence of athletes (Banack et al., 2011;Tawse
et al., 2012).
Pertaining to intrinsic motivation to accomplish, athletes emphasized the
feeling of satisfaction when reaching their goals, such as being selected to
represent their team or reaching an increased level of physical fitness. This type
of intrinsic motivation has also been demonstrated in previous research that
assessed intrinsic motivation on AWPD and the positive mediating effect that this
achievement had on their increased participation (Page et al., 2001). Goal setting
has been shown to be a potent tool in increasing motivation and commitment in
able-bodied athletes (Burton, Pickering, Weinberg, Yukelson, & Weigand, 2010),
and it appears that this effect is also prevalent in AWPD.
Finally, intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation was addressed when
participants emphasized their feelings of satisfaction when active and their ability
to overcome the constraints of their disability when working with others. These
findings are supported by other researchers who found that the main motivations
for participation in adapted sports (among athletes with an intellectual disability)
were the need for communication with others and to gain a sense of independence
(Farrell et al., 2004). In addition, in the present study, a considerable number of
athletes expressed their love of competition, which falls under this construct. This
love of competition was also found to be a significant motivator of performance in
another study involving AWPD with varying levels of physical disability, who
valued the competitive aspect of elite sports and the sense of stimulation they felt
when participating (Kämpfe et al., 2014). Although these findings may appear
obvious, it is important to strengthen the evidence-based around intrinsic motiva-
tion for AWPD. Furthermore, a deeper understanding of the motivations of elite
AWPD generates awareness for those involved in recreational adapted sport.
In addition to demonstrate intrinsic motivation, some participants also
attributed their efforts and motivations to external, more tangible factors. One
example was James who spoke of wanting to impress his coach or be “the best”at
his position. While displaying high levels of intrinsic motivation to succeed and
experience stimulation, this participant, among others, displayed facets of both
intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Farrell et al. (2004) found
similar results during their study of Special Olympians, and Deci and Ryan (1985)
argued that extrinsic and intrinsic motivations are not mutually exclusive.
Individuals can be motivated by both internal and external sources.
Facilitators and Barriers
The results indicate that most participants were introduced to recreation at an early
age and had participated in multiple activities prior to deciding to specialize in a
specific sport as an elite athlete. Previous athletic experiences prior to injury have
been found to facilitate sports participation of individuals with physical disabilities
(Jaarsma, Geertzen, et al., 2014;Wu & Williams, 2001). Throughout their athletic
journey, many individuals served as facilitators for participants. Banack et al.
(2011) emphasized that coaches and mentors contribute significantly to the
development of athletes. In the present study, the role of the coach did not end
with sport guidance. Instead, coaches played a significant role as recruiters,
mentors, role models, and personal supports. Participants expressed that having
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a good coach was a meaningful and self-fulfilling experience. Other supports
included teammates, who served as an extended family, friends who supported
goals and training commitments, and family members who assisted with trans-
portation and provided emotional support. This presence of dependency on
significant others is also reflected in Dutch Paralympic athletes (Jaarsma,
Geertzen, et al., 2014). It has been demonstrated that the presence of significant
others in a sporting environment provides important social support for athletes
regardless of whether or not they have a disability (Anderson, Wozencroft, &
Bedini, 2008;Kämpfe et al., 2014;Vallerand & Losier, 1999), further increasing
the evidence based justifying the need for a strong support system for all athletes.
Similar to the findings from other researchers (Jaarsma, Geertzen, et al., 2014;
Wu & Williams, 2001), an overall theme of fun and enjoyment was established in
the present investigation. Enjoying sports participation was the initial reason that
many participants provided for becoming involved in and persevering with
adapted sport. A theme that has not been explored empirically in this field,
however, is empowerment of athletes with disabilities and the impact that giving
back to their community has on their performance and participation. Further
inquiry is, therefore, warranted to understand how AWPDs make connections in
the community and serve as role models to others with a physical disability.
Despite their enthusiasm, there were barriers that the athletes negotiated. The
most commonly discussed factor was time management because all athletes had to
balance an intensive training schedule with work, school, and other personal
commitments. In a systematic review of individuals with visual disabilities, time
was not found to be a prevalent barrier for engaging in sports (Jaarsma, Dijkstra,
et al., 2014); however, it has been cited as a barrier in studies with collegiate
athletes without a physical disability (Denny & Steiner, 2009). Another barrier
was related to financial costs, yet most participants were able to maneuver around
cost barriers to participate in the sport of their choosing. This barrier was also
prevalent among individuals with a physical disability who participate at a
recreational level (French & Hainsworth, 2001).
The literature in leisure constraints suggests that serious leisure, such as
participating in athletic competitions, is significantly associated with self-
determination, negotiation of intrapersonal constraints (such as time and financial
impact of sport), and the skill level that an individual possesses (Heo, Lee,
Lundberg, McCormick, & Chun, 2008). In other words, barriers such as time and
financial cost can significantly impact participation in serious leisure activity, but
those who perform at higher levels may not be impacted to the same extent as
those who take part in recreational sports or leisure activity. This may be due to a
higher probability of financial aid through sponsorship, as those who were college
athletes received support from their respective institutions.
The evidence surrounding specific coaching behaviors and attributes shows
that the coach has a strong influence on motivation and persistence in adapted
sport (Banack et al., 2011;Tawse et al., 2012). Many participants in this study
were college athletes, and thus, their coaches were instrumental in recruitment and
obtaining athletic scholarships. One of few qualitative studies conducted with
elite AWPD, however, shows that they tend to attribute certain traits such as
low competence, deselection from competition, and reclassification (of their
disability), as barriers to their participation (Hutzler & Bergman, 2011). In the
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present study, only one athlete spoke about these barriers as he specifically
referred to deselection from a team. This negative case may have arose because the
average age of participants was much lower in our study compared with that of
Hutzler and Bergman (2011). Based on the limited research available, the
relationship between the coach and athlete needs to be more fully explored in
relation to successful coaching behavior with AWPD.
Participants mentioned that they enjoyed competing and appreciated the
health benefits associated with participation. Other AWPD have reported feeling
empowered by increased perceived quality of life obtained through participating in
adapted sport (Groff, Lundberg, & Zabriskie, 2009). In the present investigation,
intrinsic motivation to know, to accomplish, and to experience stimulation may
have counteracted other barriers such as cost, time, overuse injuries, and com-
muting. It is noteworthy that the majority of participants in the present study were
members of elite sports teams that had access to the resources necessary for their
specific sports. Most are members of a community that cultivates a peer support
system of camaraderie among athletes competing in a variety of different sports.
For example, many of the elite wheelchair track athletes who compete individually
still train with others within their community who might be participating in a
different sport. In some cases, they shared the same coach, resources, and
facilities.
Although this study adds important information to the field of adapted sport, it
is not without limitations. Despite reaching data saturation when developing
themes, the possibility that different themes could emerge when looking at athletes
without access to the same number of resources as those in the present study
cannot be disregarded. In addition, because data regarding race and ethnicity were
not explicitly obtained from participants, it is unclear whether this was a
representative sample of the greater elite-adapted sporting community. Although
the small number of females in this study is also of concern, lack of female
participation in elite-adapted sport is a common phenomenon, and the adapted
sporting community must work to increase female participation (Anderson et al.,
2008). Furthermore, although this qualitative investigation shed important and in-
depth insight into the lives of elite AWPD, the small number of participants does
not allow for global generalizability of findings. Additional research is necessary
to extrapolate findings to other age groups, sports, and geographical locations.
There are several practical implications that emerged from the study. First,
AWPD had active lifestyles that included sport participation from an early age that
enabled them to develop skills and an appreciation for sport. For those who did not
have a physical disability during childhood, their participation in sport at a young
age encouraged them to continue their involvement with sport after the onset of
their disability. Second, athletes expressed their frustrations about not being
treated similar to those elite athletes without a physical disability and the lack
of awareness regarding adapted sport. The athletes acknowledged that they have a
duty to give their time and advocacy efforts to the greater disabled community,
which in turn may encourage other AWPD to do the same to raise awareness of
adapted sport. Third, those who experienced the greatest success at the elite level
(i.e., selection for the Paralympic Games and travel opportunities) were recruited
early, increasing the likelihood of receiving scholarships and specialized equip-
ment. Thus, expanding the number of opportunities for those with physical
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disabilities to participate in sport at a young age is critical to help them achieve at
the elite level. Unfortunately, there are limited adapted sport opportunities
available to children and youth in K-12 schools and local communities, particu-
larly in rural locations.
Conclusion
The purpose of the present study was to identify the motivations, facilitators, and
barriers to participation in sport for elite AWPD. Themes emerged, which
described participants’motivations to participate in elite-adapted athletics. Per-
ceived facilitators to athletes’experiences were competition, achieving goals,
social support, and their coaches. Barriers expressed related to time constraints,
cost, lack of awareness, and overuse injuries. The results from the study should
encourage educators, coaches, and parents to provide adequate support to more
individuals with physical disabilities, regardless of current ability level.
This qualitative analysis provided insights into the development of elite AWPD
yet also raised further questions. Although sport was overwhelmingly viewed and
experienced as a positive experience, less is known about the sociological phe-
nomenon surrounding athletic experiences for AWPD, particularly those without a
strong support structure or adequate resources. Thus, further investigations that
examine different forms of social supports, goal setting, and advocacy are warranted
to further advance this field of study and evidence-based practice.
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