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JAVMA | JUL 15, 2019 | VOL 255 | NO. 2 183
For hundreds of years, veterinarians have played
a critical and widespread role in society, from
overseeing the health of horses—the primary mode
of transportation into the beginning of the 20th cen-
tury—to ensuring the safety of animal-based foods
consumed by humans. Today, almost 60% of veteri-
narians are employed in the companion animal sector
of veterinary medicine,1 and with > 56% of US house-
holds owning pets,2 veterinarians continue to have a
central role in the health of humans and animals.
In the United States, the role of household pets
has been evolving over the past several decades. In-
creasingly, owners consider their pets to be part of
the family, and this change in attitude has resulted in
an increased need for veterinarians, as evidenced by
increases in annual veterinary expenditures for com-
panion animals.2 Yet, even as the strengthening of the
human-animal bond has increased the demand for
veterinarians, several challenges face the profession.
High on this list is the rapid increase in educational
debt new veterinarians face following graduation.
Of course, high educational debt is not unique
to veterinary college graduates. Medical doctors, for
instance, graduate with educational debt comparable
to that reported for new veterinary college graduates
(Figure 1). However, veterinarians earn just a frac-
tion of what medical doctors do. According to the
2018 AVMA Report on the Market for Veterinarians,1
the median annual income for all veterinarians was
$92,000, with only 9.3% of the profession earning >
$200,000 annually. Meanwhile, the 2018 Physician
Compensation Report3 states that “[t]he average over-
all physician salary, including specialties and primary
care, is $299,000.”
Facts & Figures
A census of veterinarians in the United States
Frederic B. Ouedraogo phd
Bridgette Bain phd
Charlotte Hansen ms
Matthew Salois phd
From the Veterinary Economics Division, AVMA, 1931
N Meacham Rd, Schaumburg, IL 60173.
Address correspondence to Dr. Ouedraogo (fouedraogo@
avma.org).
This article has not undergone external peer review.
Analysis of the AVMA’s electronic membership database provided in-
formation on 113,394 veterinarians living in the United States in 2018.
At 39% , Millennials represented the highest percentage of the US vet-
erinary workforce, and women (61.7%) outnumbered men (38.2%).
Mean age at the time of graduation has increased since 1975, raising
concerns that career length for veterinarians may be decreasing, po-
tentially exacerbating veterinarian shortages. Overall, 83.9% of vet-
erinarians were in private clinical practice, and substantial increases
between 2008 and 2018 were seen in the numbers of veterinarians
in emergency and critical care medicine and in referral or specialty
practice.
Figure 1—Mean educational debt for US medical school graduates (blue line) and for graduates of US veterinary medical col-
leges who reported having debt (orange line).
184 JAVMA | JUL 15, 2019 | VOL 255 | NO. 2
High educational debt combined with low start-
ing salaries, compared with salaries for physicians,
can put high levels of stress on veterinarians. Further-
more, the combination could potentially reduce the
influx of new veterinarians into the market as indi-
viduals opt to pursue alternative career paths likely
to be more financially rewarding. Adding to the con-
cern is the fact that many veterinarians applying to
the Public Service Loan Forgiveness Program are be-
ing turned down,4 even as the AVMA reaches out to
federal officials for explanations.
Meanwhile, the number of pets in the United
States continues to increase, with the number of dogs
alone increasing approximately 10% over 5 years,
from almost 70 million in 2011 to approximately
77 million in 2016.2 But, this comes at a time when
more and more pet owners are priced out of veteri-
nary services. In fact, the price of veterinary services
has been increasing steadily since 1996 and has since
outpaced the US consumer price index.5 According
to the 2018 AVMA Pet Ownership and Demographic
Sourcebook,2 nearly 30% of pet owners do not see a
veterinarian at least once a year, and an inability to
pay for veterinary services was a leading reason for
why they did not.
Current legislative battles over reauthorization of
the Higher Education Act are also a source of concern
for veterinarians.6 In particular, the AVMA is worried
that by removing loan options tailored to graduate stu-
dents like veterinarians, lawmakers could inadvertent-
ly cause more veterinarians to forgo careers in public
service or rural veterinary medicine because of an in-
ability to manage their educational debt on the lower
salaries typically associated with these jobs. As stated
in the AVMA Report on the Market for Veterinarians,1
no more than 5% to 7% of veterinarians are employed
in the food animal sector, and this percentage has not
changed much over the past 2 decades.7
To ensure that sufficient numbers of veterinar-
ians are available to provide animals the care they
need and to inform advocates and stakeholders about
the current and future needs of the veterinary profes-
sion, information is needed on current trends in the
veterinary population. Therefore, we set out to ana-
lyze information from the AVMA membership data-
base to create a census of veterinarians in the United
States.
Methods
Data used in the analysis were obtained from the
AVMA electronic membership database. Individuals
were assigned an identification number when they
were added to the database, allowing them to be fol-
lowed throughout their careers. Existing members
were able to log into the platform and update their
information at any time.
Information maintained for individuals recorded
in the database included demographic data (ie, age,
gender, race and ethnicity, and address), educational
background (ie, year of graduation from veterinary
college, veterinary college attended, and other de-
grees obtained in addition to the veterinary degree),
and work experience (ie, employment type, employ-
ment function, hours worked, position type, profes-
sional discipline, specialty certifications, and species
treated).
Employment type was grouped into 5 categories:
private clinical practice, academia, government, in-
dustry or commercial organization, and not-for-profit
organization. Within each category, individuals in the
database could select an employment subtype that
fit their current occupation. Choices in private prac-
tice, for instance, were general medicine and surgery,
production medicine, referral or specialty medicine,
emergency and critical care medicine, and all other
types of private practice employment.
Inputting missing values
One of the challenges we faced was the large
number of individuals included in the database for
which 1 or more pieces of information were missing.
For example, about 25% of veterinarians did not pro-
vide any information about their type of employment.
To account for this missing information, 2 techniques
were used. The first consisted of using the last re-
ported data (eg, using the last reported employment
type). This technique was used for individuals whose
membership had recently lapsed. However, this tech-
nique was considered unsuitable for individuals who
had not been an AVMA member since graduation from
veterinary college or whose membership had lapsed
more than a few years previously. In such instances,
a second technique was used. This second technique
consisted of segmenting observations with known
information (eg, by age group, gender, geographic
location, and year of graduation), then computing de-
scriptive statistics for each of these segments. These
estimated statistics were then applied to the popula-
tion with unknown information. This technique has
been used previously8 to study specialty information
for primar y care physicians in the United States.
For missing information on age, median age of
the graduate cohort was used as a proxy. For exam-
ple, for an individual in the database who graduated
in 2000 but whose age was not included, the median
age of all other individuals who graduated in 2000
was used for the missing value. The median was used
instead of the mean because the distribution for age at
graduation is typically skewed to the right. Although
the percentage of new graduates with extreme age
values is typically < 5%, these extreme values would
increase the mean age, but would have little effect on
the median age.
Results and Discussion
Information on 113,394 active, US-resident vet-
erinarians was obtained from the AVMA electronic
membership database ( Table 1) . Of these, 72.4%
were AVMA members, and 61.7% were women. Grad-
uation year ranged from 1956 to 2018. Given a me-
JAVMA | JUL 15, 2019 | VOL 255 | NO. 2 185
dian age at graduation of 26 years for individuals who
graduated in 1979, we assumed that most individuals
in this graduation class were at or near the official age
of retirement (65 years). However, veterinarians may
remain in active practice for many years after the of-
ficial age of retirement. Therefore, for some analyses,
only veterinarians who were ≤ 65 years old or only
veterinarians who were ≤ 75 years old were included.
Demographic shifts
Millennials (ie, individuals born between 1981
and 1996) are expected to outnumber Baby Boom-
ers (ie, individuals born between 1946 and 1964) by
2019 to become the largest generation in the United
States.9 As their share of the population increases,
Millennials will become the leading group in terms
of consumption of goods and services and, more im-
portantly, in terms of the nation’s workforce. Millen-
nials can be expected to reshape the workplace en-
vironment, ethic, and culture through “their career
aspirations, attitudes about work, and knowledge of
new technologies,”10 and the veterinary profession
will not be an exception.
Analysis of the US population of veterinarians by
generation showed that in 2008, Baby Boomers rep-
resented 48% of the veterinarian population and Mil-
lennials represented only 11% (Figure 2). In 2018,
just 10 years later, however, Millennials represented,
at 39%, the highest percentage of the US veterinary
workforce.
The veterinary profession has also seen a sub-
stantial gender shift. In 2008, men and women rep-
resented equal shares of the veterinarian population.
Since then, the female share has increased by 2.2%
annually and the male share has decreased by 2.7%
annually. The percentage of the US veterinary popu-
lation that was women increased from 48% in 2007 to
> 60% in 2018. This trend is expected to continue as
the proportion of women at veterinary colleges con-
tinues to increase.
Another major change in the US veterinary popu-
lation has been an increase in the mean age at gradu-
ation (Figure 3). For both male and female veterinar-
ians, mean age at graduation increased from 1975 un-
til the mid-1990s by approximately 1 y/decade, after
which it plateaued at around 29 years. Mean age at
graduation started to decrease for women in 2002 but
remained the same or increased for men. A potential
consequence of the increasing age at graduation is
that it may reduce the typical career length for veteri-
narians, possibly increasing the risk of veterinarian
shortages.
Changes in the supply of veterinarians
The US population of veterinarians ≤ 65 years of
age increased from 78,400 in 2007 to 102,000 in 2018,
representing an overall 30% increase in the number
of veterinarians in the United States (Figure 4).
In 2006, 2,253 new veterinarians graduated from the
28 colleges of veterinary medicine then present in the
United States. In 2018, however, 3,142 new veterinarians
graduated from the now 30 US veterinary colleges. Ac-
cording to the Association of American Veterinary Medi-
cal Colleges, 99.3% of students currently enrolled in US
veterinary colleges are US citizens. In addition, 2,300 US
citizens are currently enrolled at veterinar y colleges lo-
cated in the Caribbean that have been accredited by the
AVMA Council on Education, 141 US citizens are studying
at accredited veterinary colleges in Canada, and > 650 US
citizens are studying at accredited veterinary colleges lo-
cated in other countries. Therefore, every 4 years approx-
imately 3,000 new veterinarians (approx 750/y) graduate
from foreign institutions, with most intending to return
No. of
Characteristic veterinarians Percentage
Membership status
AVMA member 82,114 72.4
Non-AVMA member 31,280 27.6
Gender
Male 43,345 38.2
Female 69,908 61.7
Year of graduation from
veterinary college
1956–1969 150 0.1
1970–1979 8,519 7.5
1980–1989 21,681 19.1
1990–1999 23,444 20.7
2000–2009 28,245 24.9
2010–2018 31,344 27.6
Type of employment
Private clinical practice 70,249 62.0
Academia 5,935 5.2
Government 3,333 2.9
Industry or commercial organization 2,837 2.5
Not-for-profit organization 1,257 1.1
Nonveterinary sector 1,677 1.5
Type of position
Owner 24,159 21.3
Associate 33,207 29.3
Other position type 12,349 10.9
No position type 301 0.3
Geographic location
Other territories 543 0.5
Pacific 16,921 14.9
Mountain 9,919 8.7
West north central 10,197 9.0
West south central 11,757 10.4
East north central 16,185 14.3
East south central 6,811 6.0
Middle Atlantic 12,113 10.7
South Atlantic 22,939 20.2
New England 6,002 5.3
Veterinary college of graduation
US based 96,437 85.0
Canadian 1,500 1.3
Caribbean 6,209 5.5
Rest of the world 9,248 8.2
Data were obtained from the AVMA’s electronic membership data-
base. Percentages do not sum to 100 for some characteristics because
of missing information.
Table 1—Demographic information for 113,394 veterinarians
living in the United States in 2018.
186 JAVMA | JUL 15, 2019 | VOL 255 | NO. 2
to the United States to find jobs and practice veterinary
medicine. In total, therefore, the US veterinary market is
adding > 3,750 new veterinarians annually, and this num-
ber is projected to rise as new schools emerge here in the
United States and around the world.
Shifts in practice ownership
Among practice owners and associates, the percent-
age of veterinarians ≤ 39 years of age who identified as
owners (vs associates) dramatically decreased between
2008 and 2018 (Figure 5). For veterinarians who identi-
fied as practice owners or associates, 14.5% of those ≤ 39
years of age indicated in 2008 that they owned a prac-
tice, but only 9.0% did in 2018. In 2008, 69.8% of practice
owners and associates who were ≥ 50 years of age indi-
cated that they owned a practice, and 60.7% did in 2018.
In 2008, about 62% of male veterinarians who
identified as practice owners or associates owned a
practice, whereas only about 29.7% of females did. In
2018, the percentage of males who owned a practice
had decreased to 59% but was still higher than the
percentage of females who did (29.3%).
Figure 2— Generational distribution of vet-
erinarians in the United States during 2008
and 2018. Silent = Individuals born between
1928 and 1945. Boomers = Individuals born
between 1946 and 1964. Generation X = In-
dividuals born between 1965 and 1980. Mil-
lennials = Individuals born between 1981 and
1996.
Figure 3—Mean age at graduation for male
and female veterinarians in the United States.
Figure 4—Number of veterinarians ≤ 65
years of age living in the United States.
JAVMA | JUL 15, 2019 | VOL 255 | NO. 2 187
Employment types
Information on employment type was available
for 99,784 US veterinarians who were ≤ 75 years of
age. Of these, veterinarians in private clinical prac-
tice represented the largest share, with 83,757 veteri-
narians working in private clinical practice in 2018
(Ta b l e 2 ) . The number of veterinarians working in
private clinical practice increased by 13.6% between
Figure 5—Percentages of veterinarians (ie,
practice owners and associates) in the United
States, by age group, who owned a practice in
2008 and 2018.
Percentage change
No. of
Employment type and subtype veterinarians (2018) 2008–2013 2013–2018
Private clinical practice 83,757 13.6 13.0
Emergency and critical care medicine 3,636 133.5 63.3
General medicine and surgery 70,526 11.1 10.8
Production medicine 3,413 –15.5 –17.0
Referral or specialty medicine 4,988 98.4 49.1
Other 1,194 68.1 52.7
Academia 7,731 20.6 5.0
Animal science department 122 140.9 87.3
Veterinary medical college 6,325 15.0 –0.2
Veterinary science department 107 48.8 1.2
Veterinary technician program 269 75.3 48.8
Other 908 72.7 34.8
Government 3,692 11.0 2.4
Air Force 80 13.9 –0.2
Army 682 68.9 –4.4
Foreign governmental agency 20 –6.1 80.6
Local governmental agency 249 9.9 56.7
Public Health Commission Corps 37 21.7 23.5
State governmental agency 676 –4.6 0.5
US federal governmental agency 1,763 8.1 4.4
Other 185 –18.9 –25.8
Industry or commercial organizations 2,997 6.1 7.3
Agriculture or livestock production 201 173.8 74.0
Business or consulting services 273 –14.6 –2.7
Feed or nutrition company 164 39.1 35.6
Laboratory services company 270 73.0 35.0
Pharmaceutical or biologics company 1,301 32.4 16.8
Other 788 –21.0 –18.1
Not-for-profit organization 1,607 51.9 55.2
Foundation or charitable organization 113 223.1 130.4
Humane organization 962 94.7 83.8
Membership association 100 –2.0 1.2
Missionary or service 19 12.7 –35.1
Wildlife 125 –9.6 –15.5
Zoo or aquarium 288 74.6 54.0
Table 2—Employment type and subtype during 2018 for 99,784 veterinarians living in the United
States who were ≤ 75 years of age and percentage change in number of veterinarians in each em-
ployment type and subtype between 2008 and 2013 and between 2013 and 2018.
188 JAVMA | JUL 15, 2019 | VOL 255 | NO. 2
2008 and 2013 and by an additional 13.0% between
2013 and 2018. Emergency and critical care medicine
had the largest increases, with a 133.5% increase be-
tween 2008 and 2013 and a 63.3% increase between
2013 and 2018. The number of veterinarians in refer-
ral or specialty medicine increased by 49.1% between
2013 and 2018.
Veterinarians in academia represented the
second largest sector behind private clinical prac-
tice (Table 2). In 2018, 7,731 veterinarians (7.7%)
were employed in an animal health–related field in
academia. The largest share of veterinarians in aca-
demia were employed by veterinary medical colleges
(6,325/7,731 [81.8%]), followed by veterinary techni-
cian programs (269/7,731 [3.5%]), animal science de-
partments (122/7,731 [1.6%]), and veterinary science
departments (107/7,731 [1.4%]). The remaining vet-
erinarians in academia were employed by a variety of
other sectors. For 4 of these 5 employment subtypes,
the number of veterinarians increased between 2013
and 2018, with the largest increase in animal science
departments (87.3%). There was a slight decrease
(–0.2%) in the number of veterinarians employed by
veterinary medical colleges between 2013 and 2018,
but overall, the number of veterinarians in academia
increased by 5.0% during this period.
Federal, state, and local government agencies em-
ployed 3.7% of the veterinary workforce in 2018 (Table
2), with federal government employees representing
47.8% (1,763/3,692) of all veterinarians employed by
government agencies and state government employ-
ees representing 18.3% (676/3,692). The number of
veterinarians employed by government agencies in-
creased by 11.0% between 2008 and 2013 and by 2.4%
between 2013 and 2018. The Air Force, the Army, and
other governmental agencies all saw decreases in the
number of employed veterinarians during this period.
Industry and commercial organizations employed
3.0% of US veterinarians in 2018. The largest industry
employers were pharmaceutical and biologics compa-
nies (1,301/2,997 [43.4%]). The number of veterinar-
ians employed in industry and commercial organiza-
tions increased by 6.1% between 2008 and 2013 and
by 7.3% between 2013 and 2018. The largest increase
came from the area of agriculture and livestock pro-
duction, with a 173.8% increase between 2008 and
2013 and a 74% increase between 2013 and 2018.
Finally, 1.6% of US veterinarians were employed
by not-for-profit organizations in 2018. Humane orga-
nizations employed 59.9% (962/1,607) of veterinar-
ians in the not-for-profit sector, followed by zoos and
aquaria (288/1,607 [17.9%]) and wildlife organiza-
tions (125/1,607 [7.8%]). Although veterinarians em-
ployed by not-for-profit organizations represented the
smallest group in the veterinary workforce, this em-
ployment type had the highest percentage changes
between 2008 and 2013 (51.9%) and between 2013
and 2018 (55.2%).
Specialty board certification
There are currently 22 veterinary specialty orga-
nizations recognized by the AVMA. Veterinarians pur-
sue board certification for a number of reasons, with
an increased skill set likely being the most common.
However, the higher compensation for many board-
certified specialists likely also plays a role.
In 2008, approximately 20% of board-certified
veterinarians were between 50 and 54 years old (Fig-
ure 6). In 2018, approximately 24% of board-certified
veterinarians were ≥ 60 years old, most likely repre-
Figure 6—Age distribution of veterinarians in the United States who were diplomates of AVMA-recognized veterinary specialty
organizations in 2008 and 2018.
JAVMA | JUL 15, 2019 | VOL 255 | NO. 2 189
senting the same veterinarians in the 50- to 54-year-
old cohort in 2008. Compared with 2008, higher per-
centages of veterinarians in their 30s to mid-40s were
board certified in 2018. Worryingly, a large number of
board-certified veterinarians are nearing retirement
within the next 15 years, which may increase the
shortage of board-certified veterinarians unless there
is a substantial increase in the number of younger vet-
erinarians pursuing board certification.
Examining the percentage change in the number
of board-certified veterinarians for the various rec-
ognized veterinary specialty organizations, the larg-
est increases were seen in the number of veterinar-
ians board certified in emergency and critical care,
with a 31.7% increase between 2008 and 2013 and a
62.8% increase between 2013 and 2018 (Figure 7).
This group saw the largest growth over the 10-year
period (an increase of 96.1%), followed by veterinar-
ians board certified in zoological medicine (44.1%),
dentistry (42.3%), and radiology (36.7%).
Geographic distribution of veterinarians
Not surprisingly, the number of veterinarians in
the various states reflected the state population, with
the most populous states such as California, Texas,
Florida, and New York having the highest numbers
of veterinarians (Figure 8). To compensate for dif-
ferences in state population, we also looked at the
distribution of veterinarians in relation to the number
of housing units in the state (Figure 9). Most states
had a ratio of 1,000 to 1,500 housing units for every 1
veterinarian. States with the lowest number of hous-
ing units per veterinarian were mainly located in the
West Central and Mountain Regions. The states with
the highest number of housing units per veterinarian
were West Virginia and Delaware.
The AVMA’s Veterinary Career Center is an ex-
cellent resource for candidates looking for veterinary
positions in the US workforce; therefore, we also
analyzed the ratio of total veterinary job applicants
listed with the Veterinary Career Center to the total
number of veterinary jobs listed in each state. The
states with more applicants applying than jobs posted
(ie, a ratio > 1) were generally those states that had
the lowest number of housing units per veterinarian
(typically, 500 to 1,000 housing units for every 1 vet-
erinarian; Figure 10).
Conclusions
Our analysis provided a comprehensive overview
of some key demographic and employment-related
information for veterinarians in the United States.
As the popularity of pets and companion animals
continues to grow, the role of veterinarians in pro-
viding quality health care will continue to grow as
well. Veterinarians will also play a vital role in the
area of one health, the integrative effort of multiple
disciplines working locally, nationally, and globally to
attain optimal health for people, animals, and the en-
vironment. This interconnection of people, animals,
and the environment becomes more important and
more impactful as the human population continues
to increase and expand across our world. Veterinar-
ians are a critical element, as veterinary medicine is
the only profession that routinely operates at the in-
terface of these 3 components of one health.
Figure 7—Percentage change in number of diplomates of
AVMA-recognized veterinary specialty organizations between
2008 and 2013 and between 2013 and 2018. Data are not pro-
vided for the American College of Veterinary Sports Medi-
cine and Rehabilitation or the American College of Animal
Welfare because these colleges were first recognized in 2010
and 2012, respectively. ABVP = American Board of Veterinary
Practitioners. ABVT = American Board of Veterinary Toxi-
cology. ACLAM = American College of Laboratory Animal
Medicine. ACPV = American College of Poultry Veterinar-
ians. ACT = American College of Theriogenologists. ACVAA
= American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analge-
sia. ACVB = American College of Veterinary Behaviorists.
ACVCP = American College of Veterinary Clinical Pharma-
cology. ACVD = American College of Veterinary Dermatol-
ogy. ACVECC = American College of Veterinary Emergency
and Critical Care. ACVIM = American College of Veterinary
Internal Medicine. ACVM = American College of Veterinary
Microbiologists. ACVN = American College of Veterinary
Nutrition. ACVO = American College of Veterinary Ophthal-
mologists. ACVP = American College of Veterinary Patholo-
gists. ACVPM = American College of Veterinary Preventive
Medicine. ACVR = American College of Veterinar y Radiology.
ACVS = American College of Veterinary Surgeons. ACZM =
American College of Zoological Medicine. AVDC = American
Veterinary Dental College.
190 JAVMA | JUL 15, 2019 | VOL 255 | NO. 2
Figure 8—State distribution of veterinarians in the United States.
Figure 9—State distribution of veterinarians in the United States as a function of housing units in each state (ie, number of
housing units per veterinarian).
JAVMA | JUL 15, 2019 | VOL 255 | NO. 2 191
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Figure 10— Ratio of total veterinary job applicants listed with the AVMA Veterinary Career Center to the total number of
veterinary jobs listed in the Career Center for each state in 2018.
