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Migration Processes of Metal Elements from Carbon Steel Cylinders to Food Gases
Abstract
This study is aimed to provide a protocol for sampling and analysis of metal elements migrating from carbon steel cylinders, used for gas storage and distribution, to food gases, i.e. those gases, such as CO 2 , N 2 and O 2 , employed by food and beverage industries. The concentrations of 23 selected elements, analysed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, in the three food gases collected from steel cylinders after a storage period of 50 days, were re‐calculated considering (a) the initial concentrations (i.e. the concentrations of these elements in food gases before being packaged in carbon steel cylinders) and (b) a migration process of 5 years that proceeds in time following a linear trend.
Computed data were compared with the limit concentrations for mineral waters (CEE/CEEA/CE no. 83, 03‐11‐1998; D.Lgs no. 3, 2001; D.M. 29‐12‐2003), considering that the quantity of CO 2 commonly added to 1 L of mineral water is 5 g. Although no reference values indicating the concentration limits of metal contaminants in food gases are currently promulgated, the results of this comparison have evidenced that the highest concentrations of the most abundant elements among those selected for the test, i.e. Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni and Pb, are up to 4 orders of magnitude lower that the previously cited limits. This suggests that the effects of migration of contaminants from carbon steel cylinders do not have a significant influence on the quality of food gases, independently on the type of food gas and carbon steel composition. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... Appropriate internal standards, e.g., 6 Li, 45 Sc, 89 Y and 115 In, were used to set up the ICP-MS instruments. Specific details on the ICP-MS set up are reported in [47,48]. The QA/QC protocol for ICP-MS is reported in Table S1 (Supplementary Materials). ...
The Galleria Italia waters drain the complex tunnel system of the former Hg-mining area of Abbadia San Salvatore (Tuscany, central Italia) and feed the 2.5 km-long Fosso della Chiusa creek. The mining exploitation was active for more than one century and more than 100,000 tons of liquid mercury were produced by roasting processes of cinnabar (HgS). In this work, a discontinuous geochemical monitoring of the Galleria Italia circumneutral waters was carried out from February 2009 to October 2020, during which the main physicochemical parameters, main and minor dissolved species and trace elements (including Hg) were determined. In the observation period, significant variations in the water chemistry were recorded, particularly when flooding waves, due to intense precipitations, occurred, with the two main events being recorded in February 2009 and January 2010. The chemical composition of the Galleria Italia waters was Ca(Mg)-SO4 and related to congruent dissolution of gypsum/anhydrite at which a contribution from carbonatic and silicatic minerals and partial solubilization of CO2 and and H2S oxidation is to be added. Regarding the trace elements, Al, Mn and Fe were up to 1500, 768 and 39520 μg L−1, with these elements also showing high contents in the sediment precipitating by the Galleria Italia waters. In most cases, dissolved mercury was below the instrumental detection limit (< 0.1 μg L−1), although occasionally it reached > 1 μg L−1. Considering a mean flow rate of 40 L s−1 of the discharged water, the amount of dissolved mercury released from Galleria Italia was computed, although most mercury was occurring in the sediment (1.2 mg kg−1). A more realistic computation of mercury released from Galleria Italia should involve a sampling network along the Fosso della Chiusa before entering the riverine system of the Tiber basin, into which dissolved and suspended mercury are to be determined along with that occurring in the sediments.
... Similarly, moderate metal levels were showed by Zhang et al. (2001) in the Yangtze River Estuary due to shorter industrialization periods. Various Cd compounds are soluble in water that may easily be absorbed by suspended solids of sediments (Tassi et al. 2014). Cadmium is one of the naturally occurring elements that is broadly used for various purposes such as batteries, pigments, stabilizers, and electroplating processes (Boehme and Panero 2003;Li et al. 2017). ...
Wetlands act as kidneys of land and facilitate remediation of metals and other harmful pollutants through uptake by aquatic macrophytes. The aim of the present study was to investigate metal concentrations in sediments and plants, sources of metal origin, and contamination level in Uchalli Wetland Complex. Sediment samples were collected from 15 randomly selected sites. Metal concentrations (Cd, Pb, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cr, As, Mn) in sediments and macrophytes were determined during summer and winter seasons using the inductively coupled plasma technique. Metal concentrations in sediments during summer and winter seasons were in the order as follows: As > Mn > Zn > Cr > Ni > Cd > Pb > Cu and As > Mn > Zn > Cr > Ni > Pb > Cd >Cu respectively. All analyzed metals were within European Union (EU) limits. In macrophytes, these metals were in the order as follows: Mn > As > Ni > Zn > Cr > Cd > Cu > Pb and As > Mn > Zn > Ni > Cr > Cd > Pb during summer and winter seasons respectively. Contamination degree (Cd) (1.023–5.309) for these lakes showed low contamination during both seasons; mCd values (below 1.5) showed very little contamination degree, while the pollution load index (0.012 to 0.0386) indicated no metal pollution in these lakes. PCA applied on sediment showed that Pb, Zn, Cr, Cu, and Cd had anthropogenic sources of origin. As and Mn were due to natural processes while Ni could be resultant of both anthropogenic and natural sources. PCA on macrophytes showed that Ni, Pb, Cr, Zn, Cu; Cd, As; Mn had anthropogenic, natural, and anthropogenic + natural sources of origin. The study concluded that metal concentrations in sediments were not up to dangerous level.
... Aluminum metal was decreased from 22.29 to 10.0 mg/kg after cookingwith a statistically significantat differences ( p<0.05) and it was increased from 10.0 to 14.8 mg/kg after storing with a statistically significant at differences ( p<0.05) in cycle one, aluminum was decreased from 22.29 to 19.06 mg/kg after cooking with a statistically significant at differences (p<0.05) and decreased from 19.06 to 17.7 mg/kg after storing with non significant at differences ( p>0.05) in cycle two, aluminum was decreased from 22.29 to 18.5 mg/kg after cooking with a statistically significantat differences ( p<0.05) and from 18.5 to 13.6 mg/kg after storing with a statistically significant at differences ( p<0.05) in cycle three, also the migration of Al metal was decreased due to the hydrothermal abilities and usage in the electroplating of other metals (Temidayo, 2011). (Tassi et al., 2014) studied the migration of Cu, Cr, Cd, Al, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Pb from carbon steel cylinders to food gases and stored up to 50 day, the migration was lower for metals. (Quintaes et al., 2006) (Gould et al., 1983). ...
... Arsenic, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe tot , Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn were analyzed at C.S.A. Ltd. Laboratories (Rimini, Italy) by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) with an Agilent 7500 spectrometer, on the filtered samples acidified with 1% suprapur HNO 3 , according to the procedure reported in Tassi et al. (2014). The analytical errors for IC and ICP-MS were j 5 and j 10%, respectively. ...
The common reed die-back syndrome was formerly reported mostly in Central Europe and more recently in the Mediterranean basin. This study investigates a case of reed die-back in Central Italy through a Geographic Information System (GIS) diachronic survey and the analysis of macromorphological and ecological parameters. Data were recorded during field activities on ten plots randomly distributed according to two ecological statuses, permanently and temporarily flooded. Culm density, height and diameter, clumping habit, flowering head and dead apical bud number and rate were measured; for each plot, chemical parameters of sediments were analyzed. Information on interstitial waters for the flooded plots was also provided. Floristic-vegetational features of the reed-bed community such as the total vegetation cover, the species composition and abundance were estimated. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to demonstrate differences between morphological traits of flooded and emerged stands and their relationships with the chemical features of sediment. Macromorphological traits differed according to the ecological status, with flooded stands showing patterns related to poor health status of Phragmites australis, such as high rates of clumping habit and dead apical bud rate, high culm density and, to a lesser extent, low culm diameter and flowering head rate. Sulfates were relatively abundant in the sediment of flooded stands and, together with some heavy metals, resulted in some of the mentioned traits. Our results showed a relationship between reed die-back and prolonged flooding and highlighted the potential role of some chemical parameters in affecting the growth of permanently flooded reeds.
In the last decade, EC regulations have been issued to minimize any interaction between packaging materials intended to come in contact with foodstuffs and potential contaminants. In this paper, the concentrations of 26 metals and metalloids in a food gas (CO2), possibly related to the migration of elements from copper pipes, which are commonly used during gas storage and distribution, were determined by ICP-AES and ICP-MS. A simple, though efficient, procedure to chemically trap these elements has shown that the copper pipes do not release significant concentrations of metals and metalloids, most of them being below or clustering below or around the instrumental detection limit. According to this study, only Al, Cu, Fe, Ni, and Zn can be related to the copper line. However, when considering the consumption of 3 L of water, at which 12 g/L of CO2 is added, the computed concentrations of metals and metalloids are 3 to 6 orders of magnitude lower than the limit concentrations in mineral waters intended for human consumption (European Directive 98/83/EC). This implies that the amount of contaminants in CO2 introduced in the human body is negligible.
Understanding sources and fate of heavy metals in river basin is crucial for assessing risks associated with human and ecosystem exposure. To provide basic information for agriculture and industry transferring in future, environmental development planning and decision-making, and drinking water source protecting associated with human health in the region, compound heavy metal pollution in the Maba River, South China, was investigated to evaluate spatial distribution and pollution levels using geo-accumulation index (Igeo). In addition, heavy metal concentrations in sediments were measured and compared with sediment quality guidelines (SQGs). The main contamination sources of heavy metals and the concrete contribution were identified and calculated using multivariate statistical analysis (MSA) and factor analysis-multiple linear regression (FA-MLR) methods. The results showed that the heavy metals exposed in sediments of the Maba River largely due to anthropogenic sources, such as smelting and mining. The heavy metal concentrations found in surface sediments were significantly higher than the local background values, especially in the mixed region. The migration and transformation process of river metals was mainly affected by hydraulic conditions and sediment characteristics. The Igeo and SQGs produced similar levels of heavy metals pollution in sediments, thereby confirming each other's results, indicating that the Maba River is heavily contaminated, and As, Hg, Pb, Zn, Cd and Cu were likely to effect on the aquatic ecosystem. Based on MSA and FA-MLR, the results showed that about 87% of Cu came from the mine tailing wastewater runoff, 77%, 66% and 72% of Tl, Hg and Cd respectively originated from the smelting wastewater discharge. Results of this study will be useful in assessing and managing regional point source pollution. Further investigation on fate and toxicity of heavy metals associated with human health risks is needed in future studies.
Analytical challenges of elemental and isotope food analysis are discussed, introducing the fundamental principles of different techniques such as ICP-MS, IRMS, TIMS, and their variants such as MC-ICP-MS, LC-ICP-MS, FFF-ICP-MS, and GC-IRMS. Applications are discussed and commented. Selected examples illustrate the analytical approaches, which are used to address specific issues in various areas of food and nutrition research such as food authentication, metallomics, speciation, toxic and nutritive elements, nanomaterials, and migration studies. Special reference is given to novel advances in mass spectrometry methods such as hyphenated techniques. Advantages and limitations of different elemental and isotope techniques as applied to food safety, quality, and authentication are discussed while insight is provided on the future of the field. Results of a scientometric assessment of the field are provided, highlighting trends in research efforts such as determination of REEs for food authentication.
A modification of the method of Castle et al. (J. Chromatogr. 1988: 437:274-280) for the analysis of epoxidized soybean oil (ESBO) is proposed to simplify the analysis and reduce the time and consumption of reagents. The proposed modifications, particularly the elimination of the internal standard, resulted in a simpler, faster and more economical method. A complete analytical validation, including evaluation of the main analytical parameters, such as detection and quantification limits, linearity, working range, precision, accuracy and selectivity, was carried out. The data demonstrated the suitability of the proposed method for the determination of ESBO in polymer matrices. A specific migration study for ESBO in different food simulants (fat and aqueous) was carried out by applying the method to poly(vinyl chloride) materials prepared with known amounts of ESBO, as well as some commercial lids. High levels of migration of ESBO into fat simulants were found. In the case of commercial lids, in addition to ESBO, some other plasticizers such as citrates, adipates and sebacates were found and quantified to establish their migration under different conditions of use.
A semi-empirical model has been developed for additive diffusion in polymers. The model estimates apparent diffusion coefficients of an additive migrating through polyolefin polymers into a fatty food simulant for a range of temperatures between the glass transition and melting temperatures of the polymer. This diffusion model has been applied to several additive/polyolefin systems to determine its validity and limitations.
In the Federal Register of July 17 1995 (60 FR 36582), the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) established a 'threshold of regulation' process. This process was established for determining when the extent of migration to food is so trivial that safety concerns would be negligible. The process exempts materials in food-contact articles whose use results in dietary concentrations at or below 0.5 ppb (microgram/kg) from the food additive listing regulation requirement. Carcinogens or substances that may be carcinogens are excluded from this regulation. This paper explores some of the ramifications of the threshold of regulation policy with respect to traditional migration testing. It examines the use of the threshold approach and migration modelling to estimate food additive exposures. These results indicate that modelling may be a reasonable alternative to traditional migration testing.
Materials and articles intended to come into contact with food must be shown to be safe because they might interact with food during processing, storage and the transportation of foodstuffs. Framework Directive 89/109/EEC and its related specific Directives provide this safety basis for the protection of the consumer against inadmissible chemical contamination from food-contact materials. Recently, the European Commission charged an international group of experts to demonstrate that migration modelling can be regarded as a valid and reliable tool to calculate 'reasonable worst-case' migration rates from the most important food-contact plastics into the European Union official food simulants. The paper summarizes the main steps followed to build up and validate a migration estimation model that can be used, for a series of plastic food-contact materials and migrants, for regulatory purposes. Analytical solutions of the diffusion equation in conjunction with an 'upper limit' equation for the migrant diffusion coefficient, D(P), and the use of 'worst case' partitioning coefficients K(P,F) were used in the migration model. The results obtained were then validated, at a confidence level of 95%, by comparison with the available experimental evidence. The successful accomplishment of the goals of this project is reflected by the fact that in Directive 2002/72/EC, the European Commission included the mathematical modelling as an alternative tool to determine migration rates for compliance purposes.
A two-dimensional probabilistic model has been developed to estimate the short-term dietary exposure of UK consumers to migrants from food packaging materials. The current EU approach uses a default scenario of assuming that all individuals are 60 kg weight and consume 1 kg of food packaged in the material of interest per day. Using four UK National Dietary and Nutrition Surveys comprising 4-7 day dietary records for different age groups and survey years, a sample representative of the UK population has been obtained consuming around 4200 different food items. Each survey provides records for around 2000 individuals and supplies detailed information on the consumption of food and data on sex, height and socio-economic status which may be used to analyse the exposure of selected groups within the community. As a result we are able to address the variation in consumption of food amongst individuals, and account for actual body weights providing a more accurate representation of the 'true' exposure. The migrants bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE), di-2-ethylhexyl adipate (DEHA) and styrene were considered as specimen compounds although the methodology employed has the flexibility to adapt to other migrants and packaging types and indeed other food contaminants. Exposure for each individual is estimated by calculating and summing the individual exposure from each item in their diet, and is repeated for all individuals in each survey to produce a distribution of exposures for the population. The packaging type of each food item is assigned by utilizing known packaging types from the database or, by sampling from a distribution based upon market share information. The parameters contributing towards the exposure from a packaged dietary item are migrant concentration and item weight. Distributions are used to represent the inherent variation and uncertainty affecting these parameters. Where data on concentrations for a particular type of food are lacking, expert judgement is used to extrapolate from available data for other food types. The model can also be run using only migration data for food simulants. In this case, concentrations expected for each of the food items are assigned based on the data for the relevant food simulant. The primary outputs of the model are distributions of estimated daily intakes for the selected population. Each distribution gives the variation across the population subject to the uncertain parameters sampled in that iteration of the model. Analysing the ensemble of distributions allows us to obtain the confidence limits around estimates for percentiles due to the uncertainties. The probabilistic approach allows sensitivity analysis to evaluate the relative importance of the input parameters and places confidence bounds on the outputs to show the effect of the uncertainties and the contribution of each food type toward the overall exposure.
A variety of chemicals may enter our food supply, by means of intentional or unintentional addition, at different stages of the food chain. These chemicals include food additives, pesticide residues, environmental contaminants, mycotox-ins, flavoring substances, and micronutrients. Packaging systems and other food-contact materials are also a source of chemicals contaminating food products and beverages. Monitoring exposure to these chemicals has become an integral part of ensuring the safety of the food supply. Within the context of the risk analysis approach and more specifically as an integral part of risk assessment procedures, the exercise known as exposure assessment is crucial in providing data to allow sound judgments concerning risks to human health. The exercise of obtaining this data is part of the process of revealing sources of contamination and assessing the effectiveness of strategies for minimizing the risk from chemical contamination in the food supply (Lambe, 2002) .
In order to carry out a compilation of the available information on analytical methods for determination of some model migrants in selected foodstuffs, an extensive bibliographic review was done.
Model migrants of different chemical structures, polarities, lipophilicity and molecular weight have been selected: styrene, bisphenol A, 1-octene, limonene, di-isopropylnaphthalene (DIPN), laurolactam, triacetin, tri-n-butylacetyl citrate (ATBC), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and Triclosan.
Suggestions regarding the analytical procedure more convenient to determine the 10 model migrants studied in this review are given.
An equation was derived to describe the migration of plasticisers from food contact material into the solid foodstuff. Migration studies for sixteen different food/food contact material systems under different storage conditions were conducted and the experimental data obtained were found to fit the proposed equation well. The equation fitting, based on non-linear least squares analysis, was done by an iterative computer program. Further, the diffusion coefficients of the plasticisers and the partition coefficients of plasticisers between foodstuff and food contact materials were also determined by fitting experimental data to the equation. These parameters would be crucial if the equation were used for the prediction of the extent of migration. The proposed equation is simplified such that it can be more easily applied. The simplified equation has been shown to estimate the extent of migration to within ±20% of the experimental values using appropriate values of diffusion coefficients and partition coefficients determined in this work and the amounts of plasticisers in the packaging materials.
Following Di Benedetto it is proposed that noncrystalline polymer regions possess an approximate semicrystalline order with chain bundles that are locally parallel along distances of several nanometers. Packing with on-average four nearest neighbors is assumed. A spherical molecule may move through such a substrate in two distinct ways: (a) along the axis of a “tube” formed by locally parallel chains or (b) perpendicular to this axis by two polymer chains separating sufficiently to permit passage of the molecule. The first process is relatively fast, generally requires little activation energy, and determines the effective jump length in diffusion. The second is responsible for the activation energy of diffusion, which is taken as the minimum energy necessary to produce a symmetrical chain separation which allows transfer of a molecule. This is calculated as a function of the penetrant diameter d and parameters Γ and β which characterize the interchain cohesion and chain stiffness, respectively. Γ is estimated from the polymer density and cohesive energy density by suitably linearizing a relation given by Di Benedetto for the potential between two polymer chains approximated as infinite strings of Lennard-Jones force centers. β is shown to be approximately obtainable from the polymer chain backbone geometry and bond rotation potentials. An expression for the diffusion coefficient D is developed which contains only one disposable parameter, the effective jump length.
The process of the transfer of a contaminant through a package made of a recycled film in good contact with a virgin film playing the role of a functional barrier is studied. The two films being made of the same polymer, the contaminant diffuses within the two layers of polymer with the same constant diffusivity. Convective transfer of the contaminant takes place through the surface of the functional layer in contact with the food, while the other external surface is impermeable to it. The effect of the coefficient of mass transfer at the packaging-food interface on the rate of transfer of the contaminant to the food is especially studied. Dimensionless numbers are used, making the results general.
This work proposes a generic quantitative methodology to assess the risk of the migration of chemicals from packaging materials into foodstuffs. The distribution of the concentration in food is derived from a stochastic resolution of dimensionless transport equations accounting for physical properties of the considered food product(s) (solid/liquid, volume), of the packaging material(s) (polymer type, thickness), and of possible migrants (initial concentration, diffusion and partition coefficients at the temperature of storage). Each parameter is decomposed as a product of a scale factor and a dimensionless random contribution with known distributions (normal, log-normal, Weibull, gamma, and beta). Nonlinear dependencies between all parameters (up to 12) are reliably handled based on projection techniques and convolution products. The proposed methodology is illustrated on three arbitrary classes of packed food products combined with two migration scenarios and three typical boundary conditions (solid food, liquid food, no-external transport resistance). Finally, data analysis abacuses are provided to appraise the migration risk for more general cases. © 2005 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2005
It is recognised that chemicals from packaging and other food-contact materials can migrate into the food itself and thus be ingested by the consumer. The monitoring of this migration has become an integral part of ensuring food safety. This article reviews the current knowledge on the food safety hazards associated with packaging materials together with the methodologies used in the assessment of consumer exposure to these hazards. Special attention is given to the most promising approaches for exposure assessment and to the technical and other barriers which need addressing.
Migration of low-molecular weight compounds is one of the most important problems of packaging plastics and other plastics intended to come into contact with food products. Since migration experiments are time consuming and expensive, predictive modelling has been introduced as a promising alternative. The main objective of this article is to review current knowledge on migration modelling and highlight the consequences of using modelling for regulatory purposes.
Diffusion coefficients of various C1 to C6 organic vapors, at concentrations 0.5 wt. percent, have been determined by gravimetric sorption rate measurements on emulsion and suspension-polymerized powder samples of PVC, polystyrene, and PMMA. Fickian diffusion kinetics were observed at the lowest concentrations, with a second-stage, relaxation-controlled sorption appearing at higher concentrations. In conjunction with published data for diffusivities of fixed gases in these polymers, the results indicate that diffusivity decreases exponentially, and that diffusion activation energy (ED) increases linearly, with increasing diameter of “spherical” penetrant molecules (e.g., the noble gases, CH4, SF6, CCl4, and neopentane). Much of the observed scatter in these correlations is attributable to uncertainty in the molecular diameters. For C4 and larger n-alkanes and other elongated or flattened molecules, diffusivities are higher, and ED lower, than for spherical molecules of similar molar volume. This finding suggests that anisometric molecules are oriented and move along their long axes during diffusion through the glassy polymer matrix. Correlations of diffusivities with molecular dimensions suggests that transport of anisometric molecules is governed by a diameter smaller than the mean (equivalent sphere) diameter but larger than the minimum dimension of their extended-chain conformation. Among the three polymers studied, diffusivity of each penetrant, at a given temperature, decreases in the order polystyrene > PVC ≥ PMMA.
In this study, the role that some food processing and packaging might play as a source of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) through the diet was assessed. The levels of PFCs were determined in composite samples of veal steak (raw, grilled, and fried), pork loin (raw, grilled, and fried), chicken breast (raw, grilled, and fried), black pudding (uncooked), liver lamb (raw), marinated salmon (home-made and packaged), lettuce (fresh and packaged), pate of pork liver, foie gras of duck, frankfurt, sausages, chicken nuggets (fried), and common salt. Among the 11 PFCs analyzed, only PFHxS, PFOS, PFHxA, and PFOA were detected in at least one composite sample, while the levels of the remaining PFCs (PFBuS, PFHpA, PFNA, PFDA, PFUnDA, and PFDoDA) were under their respective detection limits. PFOS was the compound most frequently detected, being found in 8 of the 20 food items analyzed, while PFHxA was detected in samples of raw veal, chicken nuggets, frankfurt, sausages, and packaged lettuce. According to the results of the present study, it is not sufficiently clear if cooking with non-stick cookware, or packaging some foods, could contribute to a higher human exposure to PFCs.
The diffusion coefficient of the plasticizer di-(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA) in Cheddar cheese (Df) was determined by measuring the extent to which DEHA penetrated cheese that was placed in intimate contact with artificially DEHA-contaminated cheese. Slices (20 microns) of cheese from the boundary layer, into which DEHA had migrated, were microtomed at -40 degrees C, and analyzed for DEHA by gas chromatography (GC). Mean values of Df determined by graph fitting experimental and calculated data were 1.5 x 10(-9) cm2 s-1 at 5 degrees C and 3.0 x 10(-8) cm2 s-1 at 25 degrees C. The partition coefficient (K) of DEHA between cheese and PVC film was derived from the partition coefficients of DEHA between acetonitrile (ACN) and cheese lipid, ACN and cheese solid, and ACN and PVC film. The mean values of K between cheese and PVC film were estimated to be 0.70 at 5 degrees C and 0.58 at 25 degrees C. The estimated values of Df and K were then used in a mathematical model (Till et al. 1982) to predict migration levels of DEHA into cheese. Good agreement with previously published experimental data was obtained. Extrapolation of the prediction of DEHA migration into fatty foods, such as salami and avocado, was also successful (ratio of experimental to predicted results within a factor of two). The values of Df and K for cheese are, however, inappropriate for modelling non-fatty foods such as meat, cakes, fruit and vegetables. Predicted values for these foods were typically 3-10-fold too high. More accurate predictions would probably be obtained if values of Df more relevant to these foods are used. The predictions were relatively insensitive to the value of K.
The current potential for the use of migration modelling for studying polyolefin packaging materials (low- and high-density polyethylene and polypropylene) is summarized and demonstrated with practical examples. For these polymers, an upper limit of migration into foodstuffs can be predicted with a high degree of statistical confidence. The only analytical information needed for modelling in such cases is the initial concentration of the migrant in the polymer matrix. For polyolefins of unknown origin or newly developed materials with new properties, a quick experimental method is described for obtaining the characteristic matrix parameter needed for migration modelling. For easy handling of both the experimental results and the diffusion model, user-friendly software has been developed. An additional aim of the described method is the determination of the migrant partition between polymer and food or food simulant and the specific contribution of the migrant molecular structure on the diffusion coefficient. For migration modelling of packaging materials with multilayer structures, a numerical solution of the diffusion equation is described. This procedure has been also applied for modelling the migration into solid or high viscous foodstuffs.
The employment of novel food packaging materials has increased the number of occurring hazards due to the migration from packaging material to the packaged food. Although polymers have mainly monopolized the interest of migration testing and experimentation, recent studies have revealed that migration also occurs from "traditional" materials generally considered to be safe, such as paper, carton, wood, ceramic, and metal. The regulations and the directives of the EU tend to become stricter in this respect. The emphasis is on reaching a consensus in terms of food simulants and testing conditions for migration studies. Furthermore, the list of hazardous monomers, oligomers, and additives continues to augment in order to ensure that the consumer safety is in current agreement with the HACCP, which is continuously gaining ground.
The results from a single laboratory that took part in a series of check-sample exercises for overall migration were used to calculate the measurement uncertainty for the overall migration methodology. The results span 10 years of proficiency testing and cover a range of plastic materials tested using a variety of time and temperature test conditions. Twelve sets of results for overall migration into olive oil and 10 sets of results for overall migration into volatile simulants were used. The measurement uncertainty associated with the determination of overall migration from plastics into olive oil was estimated as +/- 2.6 mg dm-2 for results between 1.2 and 15.4 mg dm-2. The measurement uncertainty associated with the determination of overall migration into volatile simulants was estimated as +/- 1.4 mg dm-2 for results between 2.1 and 13 mg dm-2. These estimates are within the analytical tolerances set in European Union regulations, of 3 and 2 mg dm-2, respectively. The performance of all laboratories participating in these 22 check sample exercises was also evaluated. A very large majority (93%) of the participants used official test methods, sometimes with minor modifications as stated. For the simulant olive oil, an average of 81% of laboratories (13 rounds with an average of 21 participants in each) using official methods was within the tolerance specified in regulations. For the volatile food simulants, an average of 87% of laboratories (11 rounds with an average of 38 participants in each) using official methods was within the tolerance specified. It is concluded from this evaluation of within- and between-laboratory data that the official European Standard methods for overall migration testing are suitable for the analysis of routine samples.
This paper describes the second part of a project whose main objective was to develop the know-how to produce certified reference materials (CRMs) for specific migration testing. Certification parameters discussed are the diffusion coefficient, D(P), the respective polymer-specific coefficient, A(P), of the migrant polymer combinations and the partitioning coefficient, K(P,F), describing the partitioning of the migrant between the polymer and a food simulant. The parameters were determined for 16 preliminary candidate CRMs. Each parameter was determined by one laboratory. The six materials most suitable as reference materials were selected and the parameters then determined by four laboratories. The coefficients resulting from this small-scale interlaboratory comparison study can be regarded as the most reliable values available to date. These coefficients were applied for a comparison of experimental and predicted migration data. The experimental migration data arose from the same project and were determined by one laboratory for the first 16 materials and subsequently by four laboratories for the six materials selected in the second phase. Overall, experimental and predicted migration data fit together quite well. Roughly half of the predicted data were within +/-10%; almost all predicted data were within +/-40% compared with the experimental data.
DOI: 10.1002/pts cylinder dimensions. Similarly, different types of carbon steel (IN1, IN2 and IN3) seem to produce comparable amounts of migrating contaminants
- Migration Of Metal Elements From Carbon Steel To Food Gases
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MIGRATION OF METAL ELEMENTS FROM CARBON STEEL TO FOOD GASES Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Packag. Technol. Sci. 2014; 27: 787–797 DOI: 10.1002/pts cylinder dimensions. Similarly, different types of carbon steel (IN1, IN2 and IN3) seem to produce comparable amounts of migrating contaminants (Figure 4a–c).
Migration of metals from surfaces of steel equipment used in food industry
- M Niklewicz
- A Babuchiwski
- B Dziuba
Niklewicz M, Babuchiwski A, Dziuba B. Migration of metals from surfaces of steel equipment used in food industry.
Natural Sciences 2000; 6: 227-245.
- F Tassi
- F Capecchiacci
- O Vaselli
- Copyright
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F. TASSI, F. CAPECCHIACCI AND O. VASELLI
Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Packag. Technol. Sci. (2014)
DOI: 10.1002/pts
European standard for drinking water. World Health Organization: Geneva
WHO. European standard for drinking water. World Health Organization: Geneva, 1998
- Migration
- Metal
- From
- Steel
- Food
- Copyright
MIGRATION OF METAL ELEMENTS FROM CARBON STEEL TO FOOD GASES
Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Packag. Technol. Sci. (2014)
DOI: 10.1002/pts
Migration of metals from surfaces of steel equipment used in food industry
- Niklewicz M