The experience of teaching tertiary visual arts education in a purely online learning environment

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Alexandra Cutcher
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EDITORIAL BOARD
EDITOR
Alexandra Cutcher, Southern Cross University
AUSTRALIAN REVIEW BOARD
Frances Alter, University of New England
Linda Ashton, James Cook University
Ian Brown, University of Wollongong
Arda Culpan, RMIT University
Adele Flood, Independent scholar
Elizabeth Grierson, RMIT University
Kathryn Grushka, University of Newcastle
Bernard Hoffert, Monash University
Wesley Imms, University of Melbourne
Karen Maras, University of NSW
Kim Snepvangers, University of NSW
INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL
CONSULTANTS
Doug Boughton, Northern Illinois University
Paul Duncum, University of Illinios
Richard Hickman, University of Cambridge
Rita Irwin, University of British Columbia
Rachel Mason, Roehampton University
Jill Smith, University of Auckland
John Steers, Independent scholar
Graeme Sullivan, The Pennsylvania State University
Frank Vigneron, Chinese University of Hong Kong
EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE
Marian Strong President, Art Education Australia
AUSTRALIAN ART EDUCATION
THE JOURNAL OF ART EDUCATION AUSTRALIA INC.
VOLUME 36, NUMBERS 1, 2014. ISSN 1032-1942

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Contents
EDITORIAL
Alexandra Cutcher 3
HOW IS THE DOMAIN OF THE VISUAL ARTS REPRESENTED
IN YEARS 7-10 IN STATE CURRICULUM FRAMEWORKS IN
VICTORIA, QUEENSLAND AND NEW SOUTH WALES?
Kerry Thomas 9
INVESTIGATING THE PERSONAL EXPERIENCES AND SELF-
EFFICACY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIAN PRIMARY PRE-
SERVICE TEACHERS IN THE VISUAL ARTS
Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis 23
THE EXPERIENCE OF TEACHING TERTIARY VISUAL ARTS
EDUCATION IN A PURELY ONLINE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Frances Alter 45
DRAWING ON EXPERIENCE: THE CHALLENGES THAT
GENERALIST TEACHERS FACE IN DELIVERING VISUAL ARTS
EFFECTIVELY IN PRIMARY SCHOOL
Alexandra Cutcher 62
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS: WHAT PURPOSE DO CHILDREN’S
DRAWINGS SERVE?
Misty Adoniou 81

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Alexandra Cutcher
EDITORIAL
This issue of Australian Art Education is dedicated to the memory of Elliot Eisner
(1933-2014)
Orientation
Visual Arts education and indeed Arts education, continues to be a contested site globally.
Never before have we seen so much dialogue advocating, promoting and arguing for a
central place for the Arts in the curriculum. Learning in the Arts, learning through the Arts
and learning for the Arts have fast become axiomatic concepts in our field.
Research is accumulating rapidly regarding these issues, largely in North America,
Europe and Australia where the place of the Arts continues to teeter at the margins of the
curriculum. With a partially implemented (and contentious) national curriculum in the Arts,
these issues are further complicated in our Australian context.
Academics here and abroad are holding their terrain passionately, claiming that the Arts
can do great things, if only we would allow them the space to realise their special authority,
if only we studied all of the Arts forms equally, if only we privileged one Arts form over
another, if only we studied them discreetly, if only we used them as a pedagogy across the
curriculum, if only we had better prepared teachers, if only governments would listen and
heed.
It would be difficult to imagine other curriculum areas engaging in such a mood of
research and rhetoric. Mathematics teachers might have to mount an argument for the
benefits of Mathematics to the whole child. Science teachers might have to advocate
for the enhancement of learning when all curriculum areas are taught through Science
as pedagogy. English teachers might have to justify why studying English is an inherent
human need. Indeed if core areas of the curriculum spent the energy that Arts educators
do on working towards curriculum parity, perhaps we would see a shift in the way society
and government view and value all curriculum areas. It is challenging indeed to imagine
such a turn of events.
I often wonder where it might end. Will the mounting body of credible research evidence

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Alexandra Cutcher
find traction? Will there ever be a time when Visual Arts will be central to all children’s
learning? Will the tensions between standardisation and individuation ever be resolved?
If we are indeed at saturation point, then what, as a community, should be our next move?
Could it be that in Arts education, we have a marketing problem?
As it often does, my thinking turns to the work of the inspirational Art educator, Elliot Eisner
for guidance, since his work often ignites my own. Earlier this year, I was fortunate to attend
one of the many memorials to Professor Eisner, as sadly, he passed away in January. The
ceremony was one of many at the National Art Education Association [NAEA] National
Convention in San Diego in March. Amongst the many paying tribute to Eisner was Richard
Siegesmund, a former student and celebrated Arts academic himself. Richard’s eulogy
reminds us that we must work energetically onwards, to ensure that we remain committed
to and focused upon providing quality Visual Arts experiences to children, however this
can be realised. Richard’s tribute is reproduced here, with permission.
Elliot would urge us to work at the edge of incompetence. As he freely acknowledged
this was a delicate proposition, for to cross the edge was to risk chaos or to attract
ridicule. More dangerously, it could result in the inability to place one’s work in academia,
resulting in an initial failure to find a position, or later, failure to achieve tenure. To fall
into incompetence was to risk a life dissipated and lost in the winds.
But what was the alternative? To play it safe and predictable? To find comfort in the
repetition of secure forms of knowing? To be contributor to mimetic practice rendering
simulacra? No. One had to sail for new shores, to take chances, to swim upstream (the
title of his 2006 retirement address), to follow one’s gut—and to have the courage, if
required, to go it alone.
He exhorted us not to give up; not to let the bastards control the language games. We
were trained for the ring, and he led by example. A member of the Stanford School
of Education faculty once confided to me that the School could charge admission to
see Elliot and D.C. Phillips square off in faculty meetings. Elliot’s running 3-year public
dialogue with Howard Gardner on the validity of arts-based research at the American
Educational Research Association annual conferences has attained mythic status.
Elliot was an American Pragmatic Educator, following in the legacy of John Dewey. As
Jerry Rosiek (and another of Elliot’s former students) has recently observed, American
Pragmatism is a philosophy of the future. It is more concerned with what might be

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Alexandra Cutcher
than what was. It privileges imaginative reconstruction of new public possibilities over
the perpetuation of structures that previous constrained conceptions of knowledge
found to be reliable and valid. In this sense, it may sound odd to place Elliot in the
company of such thinkers as Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, or Jacques Ranciere, but
they too are all philosophers of the future.
What perhaps distinguishes Elliot from these continental philosophers of imagination
and possibility is Elliot’s insistence not to yield the ground of education. He was utterly
committed to the experience of children in schools, and it was our solemn charge that
our work had to make those experiences better. And yes, that meant holding ourselves
accountable to systems of assessment and program evaluation. Elliot charged us to
remain tenacious to our engagement in the world.
In so doing, as art educators we were trained not to survive, but to prevail.
Yesterday, in her comments to the first General Session, Ellie Eisner stole a bit of
what I was now going to say, because she read an excerpt from a poem that Elliot
loved: Alfred Lord Tennyson’s ‘Ulysses’. Afterwards, she reminded me that for his AERA
Presidential address, Elliot had recorded three different readings of the poem as a
demonstration that meaning is not just in the word it itself, but it was in the aisthesis,
the sensed space that flows around the words and which itself conveys meaning.
[Ulysses, an excerpt]
…Death closes all: but something ere the end,
Some work of noble note, may yet be done,
Not unbecoming men that strove with Gods.
The lights begin to twinkle from the rocks:
The long day wanes: the slow moon climbs: the deep
Moans round with many voices. Come, my friends,
‘Tis not too late to seek a newer world.

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Alexandra Cutcher
Push off, and sitting well in order smite
The sounding furrows; for my purpose holds
To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths
Of all the western stars, until I die.
Though much is taken, much abides; and though
We are not now that strength which in old days
Moved earth and heaven; that which we are, we are;
One equal temper of heroic hearts,
Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will
To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield.
Nothing is given to an art teacher. We fight for our place in schools. And this tribe
of warriors was the place, as Ellie reminded us her comments yesterday, that Elliot
considered home.
Heidegger tells us, “Origin always comes to meet us from the future.” Our delight is as
we struggle to push into the future, as we sail beyond sunsets, will be in the promise
that we will encounter Elliot again as he comes to meet us in these new lands.
This issue
The papers in this issue when considered collectively depict a snapshot of the matters
touched on above. From the national curriculum to arguments for the distinctive identity of
Visual Arts, to issues in teacher preparation, to the importance of drawing in the curriculum,
to inservice professional support, to Distance Education, this installment of Australian Art
Education explores the contemporary Visual Arts education landscape in Australia.
When originally submitted in 2012, Thomas’ examination of three states’ Visual Arts
curriculum was written to raise consciousness regarding issues around the Draft Shape of the
Australian Curriculum: The Arts paper. Two years on, it remains an important benchmarking

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Alexandra Cutcher
review of Visual Arts curriculum in New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland. Thomas
argues that ACARA’s design of the national curriculum is not supported by the majority
of Visual Arts teachers in many Australian states. It’s a big claim, keenly posed and
substantiated by the analysis.
Also touching on national curriculum imperatives, Morris and Lumis from a Western
Australian perspective, examine the significance to teacher preparation in the Visual Arts
of prior experience with the discipline. This is a highly charged notion as it speaks to the
exposure of pre-service teachers to quality Art experiences in their own schooling. It is
argued that such experiences might enhance teachers’ preparedness, specifically with
respect to the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership [AITSL] requirements
that teachers must know the content of subject areas and how to teach them. Morris
and Lumis argue that attitudes to Art are personally developed and influenced by school
experience and family contexts.
Distance education (DE) in the tertiary sector has been a convention for some time. In a
competitive higher education marketplace, students studying externally have increased
flexibility of engagement and thus DE is a desirable platform. More recently is the turn
to DE in teacher education and many educators, as Alter identifies, are very challenged
at this prospect due to entrenched pedagogical practices as well as lack of experience
or knowledge regarding online platforms. Alter writes an important expose about this
burgeoning field of educational practice and leads the way as she offers concrete
approaches and advice for translating reflexive, performance-based Visual Arts pedagogy
into eLearning modalities. It is a growing reality that teacher educators will need to become
cognisant with online platforms as their teaching spaces. Alter proposes some useful ways
that this can be realised.
Cutcher relates to teacher preparation in her piece, when she scopes contemporary
challenges for generalist primary teachers in delivering effective Visual Arts to the K-12
cohort. As one reviewer noted it “is a strongly persuasive paper that argues for systemic
changes to primary education in order to improve the quality of future primary school
Visual Arts education”. Cutcher argues for meaningful and deep engagement of pre-
service and inservice teachers in the Art world, through direct experiences with artmaking
and critical practice.
Adoniou justifies the place of the Arts in the curriculum through the lens of literacy teaching.
Whilst it can be argued that such a paper in an Art education journal is perhaps out of

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Alexandra Cutcher
place, it should be noted that this journal welcomes papers from those working in other,
related, fields. Adoniou argues a case for linking drawing and writing in order that they
mutually enhance the development of each other. As such, she goes deeply into an analysis
of the quality of writing texts when students have the opportunity to draw their ideas first.
Adoniou finds that drawing has a distinct role to play across the curriculum and should in
fact be core to learning in all schools.
In all of these articles, the authors argue the benefits of a Visual Arts education and its
vital place in curriculum. As such, we join Eisner in the struggle to prevail and not to yield
the ground of education.
Alexandra Cutcher
Editor
Australian Art Education, 2014

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Kerry Thomas
HOW IS THE DOMAIN OF THE VISUAL ARTS
REPRESENTED IN YEARS 7-10 IN STATE
CURRICULUM FRAMEWORKS IN VICTORIA,
QUEENSLAND AND NEW SOUTH WALES?
College of Fine Arts, University of New South Wales
Abstract
While there is current obsession with claims about natural entitlement Arts education,
little research about Visual Arts as a domain has been reported recently. This paper seeks
to redress this issue in a modest way. It takes three current curriculum frameworks in the
Arts/Visual Arts in Years 7-10 from Victoria, Queensland and New South Wales (NSW)
and subjects them to a semantic analysis. Findings reveal there is considerable variation
in what constitutes the domain. This ranges from a means to achieve creative expression
mediated by formalism in the Arts to the domain being represented as a relational
network. These differences are brought to the struggle for the identity of Visual Arts in the
Australian Curriculum.
Background to the study
The Honorable Peter Garrett, Federal Minister for Education, claimed at the launch of
the Shape of the Australian Curriculum: The Arts that the proposed Australian Curriculum
would give the Arts a ‘central place in the Australian Curriculum’ (2011). Within the broader
context of curriculum development, curriculum authorities in Australia, since the late 1980s,
like their counterparts in the USA, have embraced the concept of the ‘Creative Arts’ or the
‘Arts’ as a learning area. This has been fueled by a way to manage the crowded curriculum
and/or in the belief that the Arts share more similarities than differences. The Australian
Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority’s (ACARA) draft Shape of the Australian
Curriculum: The Arts Paper for the Arts (ACARA, 2010), affirms this approach but in a
way that has been unacceptable to the vast majority of Visual Arts teachers in NSW and
other states (ACARA, 2011; Board of Studies, n.d., Victorian Curriculum and Assessment
Authority, 2011; Visual Arts and Design Educators’ Association NSW (VADEA), 2010;
Strong, 2010).
ACARA’s stated position that the Arts are organically unified prompted an inverse
reaction (ACARA, 2010). It reignited interest in the identity of the domain of the Visual
Arts and the extent to which it, and the Arts more generally, could be conceived of, not

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Kerry Thomas
only as entitlement, but as a rigorous area of intellectual study. ACARA’s (2011) favouring
of ideologically generic or cross-arts research to legitimate their position prompted
debate amongst Art educators and academics about research in Visual Arts that had
been ignored by writers of the draft Shape Paper. Despite this negligence, research in
Visual Arts education addresses significant practical problems and curriculum issues,
for instance, about students’ artmaking, creativity and practical and pictorial reasoning
(Brown, 1997, 2000; Jones, 2006; Thomas, 2008, 2009), and students’ critical reasoning
(Maras, 2009, 2010), which were inadequately addressed in ACARA’s draft Shape Paper.
This research also offered a platform for conceiving of a future curriculum in the Visual
Arts/Arts that would be better served by a robust conceptual framework (Brown, 2007,
Thomas 2010).
I argue that a basics trap, or what might be described as an entitlement trap, underpins
ACARA’s draft Shape Paper. Stephanie Resnick (2010) makes the compelling case that
‘basics trap’ curriculum sacrifices a grounded approach to high cognitive demand for the
great majority of students. Basics curriculum is motivated by theories of performance
management and frequent measurement of student performance without the demand for
reasoning, both practical and critical that involves extended knowledge or complex forms
of argument. Resnick warns that educational systems will fail if teachers are restricted to
lessons that close off deep discussion that builds understanding and the capacity to engage
in complex forms of reasoning because all that is required is that students meet narrowly
defined performance targets. Her warning, while primarily concerned with curriculum in
the USA, is a prophetic reminder in the light of the current debate about how knowledge
is represented and the purposes the Visual Arts and the Arts are believed to serve in a
national curriculum.
Reason for the study
This study is concerned with how the domain of the Visual Arts is represented in current
curriculum texts in three states: Victoria, Queensland and NSW. It is motivated by a key
reason. While Visual Arts in the curriculum would be popularly thought to embrace a
common worldview, there has been little systematic analysis of the domain beyond a
categorisation of key terms in this current round of a national curriculum agenda. Any
future national curriculum development necessitates some understanding of current
position takings as ‘different kinds of capital’ and an uncovering of presuppositions –
including those that are believed and desired about future prospects (Bourdieu, 1998,

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Kerry Thomas
p. 34). Discourses about what constitutes the domain of the Visual Arts provide different
perspectives on aspects of the world and associated practices and knowledge – material,
conceptual, beliefs, feelings, desires, traditions, projections and imaginaries (Fairclough,
2005). In turn, these discourses form an element in the relationships between people and
how they complement, cooperate, compete and/or dominate each other in furthering or
confining the interest of the domain (2005).
Understanding the concept of a domain
Frank Keil (1996) provides a useful framework for understanding what constitutes a domain
which underscores the focus of this study. He explains:
Concepts rarely, if ever, exist or develop in isolation. They are almost always enmeshed
in a relational structure with other concepts. This relational structure usually forms a
conceptual domain, which may be unified by a theory or coherent set of beliefs about the
relations among the members of that domain. If concepts are embedded within relational
structures, most structural changes in development will not be restricted to a single concept
(p. 83).
A domain should also act as a conceptual apparatus for making certain states of affairs
intelligible while propelling its future prospects (King and Brownell, 1966).
Design and methods
The sample of curriculum texts is selected from Victoria, Queensland and NSW. These
states, with the largest populations in Australia, have a recognised history of ‘curriculum
reform’ and are key stakeholders in the current curriculum debates surrounding what
should constitute learning in the Arts and in other learning areas.
The Victorian Essential Learning Standards Framework’s Introduction to the Arts (n. d.)
is used as the key text for this analysis. The analysis is extended to include consideration
of the Structure of the Arts domain; Stages’ of Learning in the Arts (n. d.) with a focus on
Years 5-8 and Years 9-10; and Approaches to learning and teaching –the Arts, Art Level
6. The Queensland Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Framework for The Arts (n. d.)
and The Arts, Essential Learnings by the end of Year 9 (n. d.) are used as the key texts for
this analysis. The NSW Board of Studies’ Visual Arts Syllabus for Years 7-10 (2003) is used
with a focus on the Rationale as the key text with minor analysis of Content.

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Kerry Thomas
The data analysis is constrained by three key factors. Firstly, it is difficult to establish
comparability across the texts and thus the validity of the study is compromised to some
extent. The scope of content, as represented in NSW syllabuses, has no equivalent in
Victoria or Queensland. Secondly, to varying degrees, curriculum authorities have self
consciously sought to make learning more competency based. For instance, in Victoria,
the Essential Learning Standards Framework is built around what appear as ‘essential’
competencies. Thirdly, this study only attempts an analysis of curriculum texts in order to
search for how the domain is represented. A more robust study would involve fieldwork
that investigates the ontology of classrooms in these states – rich with their contextual
detail of practices, beliefs, desires, knowledge and intentions, which would be triangulated
with curriculum frameworks/syllabuses.
Semantic and domain analysis
The method involves analysing extracts of texts from the larger texts in each of the
curriculum frameworks from Victoria, Queensland and NSW.
Semantic analysis enables the systematic recovery of local definitions used in these differing
curriculum frameworks (Spradley, 1979). Spradley identifies nine universal semantic
relationships. These are:
Strict inclusion: X is a kind of Y
Spacial: X is a place, X is a part of Y
Cause-effect: X is a result of Y, X is a cause of Y
Rationale: X is a reason for doing Y
Location for action: X is a place for doing Y
Function X is used for Y
Means-ends: X is a way to Y
Sequence: X is a step, stage in Y
Attribution: X is a characteristic (attribute) of Y
(Spradley, 1979, p.111).

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Kerry Thomas
The method involves systematically recording words and short phrases on separate index
cards (Carroll & Brown, 1998). Each of these words or phrases is analysed to uncover the
semantic relationship. For instance, the phrase, ’innovative ideas and the creative use
of technologies’ is analysed in terms of Spradley’s universal relations. Is X used for Y?
Or is X a kind of Y? Is X a characteristic of Y? Or is X a reason for doing Y? Cards are
reconstructed into emergent domains under the guidance of their semantic relationship
and shared local meanings. Fairclough (2005) notes that semantic relations prove a clue
to structuring relations as well as the different ways in which language is used which sheds
light on the perspective from which the world is represented (p. 129). As a method, it offers
a systematic approach to the analysis across the curriculum texts and builds the validity
of the findings.
Results
Results are far from exhaustive although they provide evidence for significance differences
in how the domain of the Visual Arts is represented in the three states. Attention focuses
on salient findings.
Victoria
The Arts as the domain
The Victorian curriculum framework represents the Arts as the domain (X is a kind of
Y). Art, Music, Dance, Drama, Media, Music, and Visual Communication are identified as
‘Arts’ disciplines in this domain. Any conceptual or material differences are minimized or
excluded.
Attributes of the Arts
The characteristics of the Arts as a domain are staked out (X is an attribute of Y). The Arts
are viewed as ‘unique, expressive, creative, and communicative’; they play a ‘pivotal role
socially, economically and culturally’; and ‘encompass a diverse and ever changing range
of disciplines’. ‘Imagination’ and ‘creativity’ are conceived of as attributes associated with
the Arts along with works that involve the ‘fusion’ of traditional forms with digital media,
visual culture, and performances in contemporary and traditional genres. As an extension
of this domain, Arts learning is characterised as ‘holistic’, ‘experiential’, and involves the
‘inspired and passionate exploration of ideas’.

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Kerry Thomas
Reasons for doing the Arts
Various reasons are given for students ‘doing the Arts’ (X is a reason for doing Y). The
Arts facilitate opportunities for ‘personal expression and communication’, the ‘exploration
of personal interests’, and involve the ‘exploration of technologies, forms and processes
through single and multimodal forms’. The Arts ‘fuel’ the confronting and ‘exploration of
ideas’ and foster ‘imagination and creativity’ that are ‘essential to our well-being’. They
engage students in ‘critical and creative thinking’ and ‘encourage the development of skills’
while ‘assisting students to prepare for their role in the post industrial economy’. They
make use of ‘cognitive, emotional, sensory, aesthetic, kinaesthetic, and physical fields’ and
help students ‘to understand themselves and the world’. They also promote ‘contact with
Indigenous cultures of Australia and our nearest neighbours’.
Strict inclusions in the Arts and school management
The Arts domain is differentiated for its management in schools into the Visual Arts and
Performing Arts (X is a kind of Y). Visual Arts involves the strict inclusion of Art (2D and 3D
only) and Media (X is a kind of Y). Performing Arts involves the strict inclusion of Drama,
Music, and Dance.
The function of the Arts disciplines
The six ‘Arts’ disciplines are used ‘to structure programs’ by ‘schools’ (X is used in Y). ‘Arts
disciplines’ have an instrumental function. Knowledge is constrained as ‘arts elements,
principles and/or conventions; skills, techniques and processes; media, materials,
equipment, and technologies’, which in Art is used to produce 2D and 3D aesthetic objects
and images or which form the basis of the evaluation of students’ own and others works.
The management of the Arts in schools
Attention is given to the legislation and management of how the Arts are taught in schools
(X is a way to Y). The Arts disciplines can be offered individually or in combination, and
students should have continuous experience in the different Arts disciplines. Ironically,
learning is also believed to be sequential. By level 4 students should have ‘continuous
experience’ in at least two arts disciplines’. By level 6 students should continue ‘sequential
development in learning’ in their selected ‘arts disciplines’.
In sum, the Arts are represented as being in a state of change while learning is largely

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Kerry Thomas
experiential, imaginative, and feeling based. The Arts are conceived as being about student
expression including the cultivation of personal interests, and the development of skills,
which are augmented through the use of a range of technologies that are ever changing.
Knowing in the Visual Arts and the Arts is confined to a significant degree to a formalist,
skills based and media focused study. The Arts are also believed to foster readiness for
the world and an awareness of Aboriginal and Asian cultures.
Queensland
The Arts as the domain
Like Victoria, the Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority represents the Arts
as the domain. Dance, Drama, Media, Music and Visual Art are identified as five distinct
artforms in this domain (X is a kind of Y). The Arts are characterised as ‘artistic pursuits’,
that ‘express and communicate’, and occur ‘across a range of social, cultural, historical,
spiritual, political, technological and economic contexts’ (X is an attribute of Y).
Reasons for doing the Arts
Various reasons are given for doing the Arts (X is a reason for doing Y). The Arts are
about ‘what it is to be human’. They ‘reinforce students’ experiences and those of other
artists’ and provide a way to ‘represent Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge,
peoples, histories and cultures’. The Arts assist in the development of sharing and passing
on understandings to ‘future generations’. They facilitate students’ ‘creativity, imagination
and senses’ and to ‘develop their ability to critically analyse and reflect on the creative
process’. The Arts ‘enhance aesthetic understanding of arts elements and languages’.
They ‘foster risk taking’, ‘individual and communal expressions’ and promote ‘active
inquiry, engagement, and reflection individually and collectively’. Students ‘create their
own arts works’ that ‘express ideas’, ‘observations, experiences, values and beliefs’, and
consider ‘specific audiences and purposes for their works’. They ‘communicate their own
arts practice’ through active engagement which is ‘extended, and enhanced’, and select
and use a range of tools and technologies purposefully (including ICTs). Students develop
‘skills that will help them to lead fulfilling recreational and working lives’ and the arts
provide ‘career opportunities’.
The representation of knowledge in the Arts forms
Arts knowledge is represented as Arts elements, techniques, skills and processes that

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Kerry Thomas
involve ‘knowledge and understanding’, ‘creating, presenting, responding and reflecting’
(X is used in Y). This way of representing knowledge is applied in each Arts form.
In sum, the Arts are represented as being about expression and communication via elements
skills and processes and using tools and technologies. The Arts are believed to connect
to different spheres of life and heritage, and involve an understanding of Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander peoples.
New South Wales
Visual Arts as a domain of learning
In contrast to Victoria and Queensland, the NSW Visual Arts Years 7-10 syllabus exists
as its own domain of learning. It is represented as contributing a significant role in the
curriculum by providing opportunities designed to encourage students to understand the
Visual Arts. Three kinds of learning are identified – ‘making, critical studies and historical
studies’ – represented as ‘practice’ which are believed to approximate the field of the Visual
Arts in schools. These aspects of practice provide a platform for programming relative to
the conceptual framework and frames (board of Studies, 2003, pp. 19-22), which augment
the development of students’ understanding (X is a kind of Y).
Reasons for studying the Visual Arts
Various reasons are given for students’ studying the Visual Arts (X is a reason for Y).
Notably, Visual Arts offers opportunities for students to ‘investigate and understand the
field of the Visual Arts in complex and rich ways’ with recognition that students’ knowledge
can become increasingly complex, more reflective and authoritative. Visual Arts also
builds students understanding of the ‘role of art in all forms of media in contemporary
and historical cultures and visual worlds’; encourages the ‘creative and confident use
of technologies and fosters interest and enjoyment in the making and studying of art’.
It assists students to be ‘informed, interested and active citizens and consumers of the
Visual Arts and contemporary culture’; as well as playing an ‘important role in the social,
cultural and spiritual lives of students’. Post schooling opportunities provide further reasons
applied in the diverse fields of Art, design and other forms of employment and enterprise.
It is recognised that ‘many kinds of knowledge are managed through imagery and codes
in contemporary societies and the study of Visual Arts assists students to interpret and
organise such information’.

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Kerry Thomas
Reasons for the inclusion of the frames: navigating understanding in the Visual Arts
Various reasons are given for the inclusion of the frames (subjective, cultural, structural
and postmodern) (X is a reason for Y). Each frame represents a different assumption about
the Visual Arts and offers practical choices for programming. Each provides an alternative
way to examine and explore ideas in Art, the world as content and its artistic/aesthetic
representation and grounds for addressing questions related to meaning and value. The
frames open up the possibility of building deep understanding through the programming
choices of teachers in a way that lacks comparability in either the Victorian or Queensland
curriculum frameworks.
The inclusion of the conceptual framework as a relational network designed to develop
students’ understanding of the artworld and what students do in the Visual Arts
The conceptual framework provides a relational framework that facilitates understandings
and relations between the artist, artwork, audience and world (X is a kind of Y). In other
words it provides way to reason about the Visual Arts and sets up a framework for
understanding the institutions of the artworld. The framework is made more robust when
‘considered in the light of the structural, subjective, postmodern and cultural frames [that]
generate content for making and [critically and historically] studying’.
Results of learning in the Visual Arts that lead to student autonomy
Various effects are identified as the result of learning/caused by learning in the Visual Arts.
Learning contributes to students’ creative and interpretive achievements in the works they
produce. It leads to greater understanding of the field of Art through [making], and critical
and historical studies. Importantly it builds ‘reflective action’ and ‘critical judgement’ and
understanding of art. Learning assists students to take responsibility for their learning in
school and in post schooling settings.
In sum, the syllabus provides a relational structure which is unified by a theory practice, a
conceptual framework and the frames. This interconnected framework provides a way to
negotiate relations in the artworld and classroom in more complex and elaborated ways.
Interpretation and discussion of the results
Victoria and Queensland focus on the Arts as the domain where freedom for expression
and the unique voice of the student is believed to possess a quality of truthfulness. The

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Kerry Thomas
concept of creative freedom permeates the choices students make. This is a double coded
statement as ‘creative freedom’, particularly as represented in Victoria, enhances the
latitude of schools to suit their own interests by privileging one artform over another, staffing
schools with specialists teachers or otherwise, and ‘managing’ resources and rooming. This
approach is lent legitimacy because the Arts are represented as ‘fluid and ever changing’.
Standards are essentially formalist. They assume little conceptual reorganization as
students undertake further study in the domain. There is nothing particularly ‘unique’ about
the Visual Arts in Victorian or Queensland curriculum frameworks. The particular identity
of the Visual is repressed as a domain despite the very real practices, ontology, principles
and epistemology that are associated with it in the day-to-day realities of teaching and
learning and in the artworld.
In NSW, in contrast to Victoria and Queensland, Visual Arts is underpinned by a
philosophically Realist framework that exists as a network of ‘implications, influences
and limitations’ (Brown, 1999, p. 1). Approaches to learning are more elastic than the
mono functional accounts that characterise the Victorian and Queensland curriculum
frameworks and are not reducible to creative expression or lead up performances. They
offer an ‘initiation’ into practices and culture. The syllabus makes clear that concepts do
not exist in isolation. The artist relates to the artwork; the artist relates to the artwork
and audience; the artist relates to the artwork, world and audience and so on. Relations
become more complex and interdependent. Beliefs and theories reshape how and what
these relations mean as recursive readjustments are made by teachers and students
in teaching and learning. Practice is irreducible to process or creative expression. It is
linked to desire and the agencies of the artworld and different theories, beliefs and the
negotiation of contested values, which can be understood through the frames. Structural
changes in a student’s development are not confined to learning about another element
or by adding another aspect of content. When a concept such as ‘audience’ undergoes
a shift in a student’s understanding, the domain of the Visual Arts is reorganised and the
reframed concept fits into that reformulated structure.
Conclusion
This analysis has been confined to a small number of curriculum texts from the three states.
It reveals remarkable differences of what constitutes the domain. These differences, while
normalised at the state level become forgotten but ‘embodied history’ (Bourdieu, 1997,
p.54) that is brought to the current struggle of what constitutes the identity of the domain

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Kerry Thomas
in Australian education and how Visual Arts teachers and their students are identified and
recognised.
It is hoped that the findings of this study will act as a springboard for further debate
and future research, not only in Art education. The following questions require further
investigation: To what extent is the Visual Arts compromised or transformed if it is only an
aspect of a domain of the Arts? To what extent can the domain of the Visual Arts and its
practices be enhanced beyond reductive competencies?
It is timely that Visual Arts educators’ reclaim and reconceive the domain, with all of its
complexity, and with an authority that predisposes them to celebrate how knowledge is
framed, theorised and defended in art education. The proposal developed in response to
the limitations of the draft Shape Paper provides the concepts and architecture for how
this could take place (Thomas, 2010; VADEA, 2010).
References
ACARA (2010). Bibliography for the Shape of the Australian Curriculum: The Arts. Retrieved
on May 26, 2011 from http://www.acara.edu.au/verve/_resources/BibliographyShape_of_
the_Australian_Curriculum_The_Arts_-_Published_version.pdf
ACARA (2011). Consultation feedback report on the draft Shape of the Australian Curriculum:
The Arts. Available at http://www.acara.edu.au/verve/_resources/Consultation_Feedback_
Report_-_The_Arts.pdf
ACARA (2010). Draft Shape of the Australian Curriculum: The Arts. Available at http://
www.acara.edu.au/verve/_resources/Draft+Shape+Of+The+Australian+Curriculum+The+A
rts-FINAL.pdf
Bourdieu, P. (1997). The logic of practice. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1998). Practical reason: On the theory of action. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Brown, N. C. M. (1997). Problems of authenticity in the assessment of student art. Seventh
occasional seminar in art education, continuity and change in NSW art education: The
reinvention of practices and content (pp. 69-84). Paddington, NSW: School of Art Education,
College of Fine Arts, The University of New South Wales.
Brown, N. C. M. (1999). Constraints on art education: Realism and art education. Unpublished
paper.

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Brown, N. C. M. (2000). Bodies of work and the practice of art making. Bodies of work and
the practice of art making papers: Occasional seminar in art education 9. The University
of New South Wales, College of Fine Arts, School of Art Education. Paddington, NSW:
School of Art Education.
Brown, N. C. M. (2007). Literature review for national review of education in visual arts,
craft, design and visual communication. Unpublished paper.
Board of Studies NSW (2003). Visual Arts Years 7-10 syllabus. Available at http://www.
boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_sc/pdf_doc/visual_arts_710_syl.pdf
Carroll, J. S. & Brown, N. C. M. (1998). An ethnographic study of art as a discipline concealed
in the beliefs and practices of two artists. Australian Art Education, 21(1), 21-31.
Department of Education and Training Queensland (n.d.). Queensland curriculum,
assessment and reporting framework. Retrieved March 30, 2011 from http://www.qsa.qld.
edu.au/downloads/early_middle/qcar_el_arts_yr9.pdf
Department of Education and Training Queensland (n. d.). The Arts. Retrieved March 30,
2011 from http://education.qld.gov.au/curriculum/area/arts/
Fairclough, N. (2003). Analysing discourse. London: Routledge.
Garrett, P. & Crean, S. (2011). Media release: Arts at the heart of the new Australian
Curriculum, 26.08.11.
Jones, S. (2006). Pictorial reasoning in children’s photography. In Learning and teaching
new media practice and the frames in visual arts and photography, occasional seminar in
art, design and education 11, 15-31. Paddington: UNSW, College of Fine Arts, School of Art
Education.
Keil, F. (1996). Concepts, kinds and cognitive development. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
MIT Press.
King, A.R., & Brownell, J.A. (1966). The curriculum and the disciplines of knowledge. New
York: John Wiley and Sons.
Maras, K. (2009). Children as art critics: mapping a continuum of aesthetic learning in
visual arts education. The International Journal of Learning, 16(7), 251-262.

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Maras, K. (2010) Age-related shifts in the theoretical constraints underlying children’s
critical reasoning in art. Australian Art Education, 33(1), 20-28.
Office of the Board of Studies, NSW (n.d.). NSW response to the Draft Shape of the
Australian Curriculum: The Arts. Available at: http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/
australian-curriculum/pdf_doc/draft-shape-paper-arts-response.pdf
Resnick, S. B. (2010). Nested learning systems for the thinking curriculum, Wallace
Foundation distinguished lecture, 2009. Educational Researcher, 39(3), 183-197.
Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. New York: Holt, Rinehardt and Winston.
Strong, M. (2010). Art Education Australia letter to Minister. Unpublished paper,12
November 2010.
Thomas, K. (2008). Ambiguity as a hallmark of pedagogical exchanges between art
teachers and students in the making of creative artworks. Australian Art Education, 31(2),
4-21.
Thomas, K. (2009) Creativity in art making as a function of misrecognition in teacher
student relations in the final year of schooling. Studies in Art Education, 51(1), 64-77.
Thomas, K. (2010). Response to the draft Shape Paper for the Arts. Unpublished paper.
VADEA (2010). Visual Arts and Design Educators’ Association (VADEA) NSW response to
the draft Shape Paper for the Arts. Available at http://vadea.org.au/
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (2011). Shape of the Australian Curriculum:
The Arts. Available at http://www.arteducation.org.au/Australian-Curriculum/response_
from_victoria_arts_shape_paper.pdf
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (n. d.). Victorian essential learning
standards Introduction to the Arts. Retrieved March 30, 2011 from http://vels.vcaa.vic.edu.
au/arts/intro.html
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (n. d.). Stages of learning in the Arts.
Retrieved April 23, 2011 from http://vels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/arts/stages.html
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority. Approaches to learning and teaching –
the Arts, Art Level 6. Retrieved April 30, 2011 from http://vels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/downloads/

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supportmaterials/arts/vels_appteach_art06.pdf

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
INVESTIGATING THE PERSONAL EXPERIENCES AND
SELF-EFFICACY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIAN PRIMARY
PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS IN THE VISUAL ARTS
Edith Cowan University
Abstract
The Visual Arts are essential to interpreting culture and introduction to the Visual Arts
often occurs within primary school. A mixed methods study was undertaken at a Western
Australian university across the Arts subjects: dance, drama, media Arts, music and
Visual Arts. This paper reports the quantitative findings of the Visual Arts section of
the investigation, examining students’ prior Visual Arts experiences and their self-efficacy
to deliver the Visual Arts on graduating their degree. The research underscores the
importance of positive Visual Arts experiences to build self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation
among pre-service primary teachers.
Introduction
The Visual Arts are an integral part of primary children’s sensory perception and their
capacity to interpret global complexities (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting
Authority [ACARA], 2014; Anderson, 2003; Eisner, 2002; Lummis, 1986). Visual media
are used to transmit human narratives, and understanding symbolic systems is required to
interpret images (Anderson, 2003, 2004; Eisner, 2002; Freedman, 2003). All children
(K-12) engaging with images, will develop visual literacy skills (Duncum, 2010; Flood,
2004b; Freedman, 2003), and interacting with images improves social and academic
development (Deasy, Catterall, Hetland, & Winner, 2002; Efland, 2002; Eisner, 2002).
The Australian Curriculum views the Visual Arts as essential, through the reinterpretation
of its global contexts (ACARA, 2014). The Visual Arts are assessed through two strands:
making and responding, which are crucial to “develop understanding of world culture and
their responsibilities as global citizens” (ACARA, 2014, p. 102). If teachers are to provide
meaningful Visual Arts activities, pre-service teacher education must ensure that it equips
them with appropriate pedagogical content and subject discipline knowledge.
Another implication is the National Professional Standards for Teachers, stating universities
must produce teachers who “know the content and how to teach it” (Australian Institute for

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
Teaching and School Leadership [AITSL], 2011). Universities must achieve these standards
despite global benchmarking that has created competition for curriculum time across
subject areas and limited Visual Arts resources (Dinham, 2007; Eisner, 1978; Lummis,
Morris, & Paolino, 2014; United Nations Educational, 2010).
These challenges motivated the researchers to investigate the Bachelor of Education
(B.Ed) primary students at their university in Western Australia (WA). Both first and fourth-
year students were engaged as they were entering, or about to graduate the degree. This
paper reports the findings for the Visual Arts, including students’ experiences across their
personal recreation, childhood home and school contexts, and additionally, fourth-year
students’ readiness to teach the Visual Arts. The findings provide a reflection on Visual
Arts pre-service teacher education in WA.
Literature
The Visual Arts as essential to student learning
The Visual Arts are essential because sight is the primary mode of human intelligence
through which the world is interpreted (Arnheim, 1969). The Visual Arts reinforce important
characteristics of trichromatic vision in humans, in order to perceive wavelengths of
colour (Rowe, 2002) as an evolutionary adaptation to source food for survival (Dominy
& Lucas, 2001). Vision also responds to form and movement and when combined with
colour, “build[s] up representations of the constant and enduring properties of scenes and
objects” (Seeley, 2006, p. 202). With a limited sense of smell and hearing, the evolutionary
essentialness of vision reinforces vision-centered intelligence (Sela & Sobel, 2010).
Gardner (1993, 1999) describes visual-spatial intelligence as skills of perceiving,
recognising and manipulating visual patterns and contexts. Through diverse experiences
in both artmaking and responding, children enhance their visual intelligence, engaging
hermeneutic contexts that often remain inaccessible by other intelligences (Arnheim,
1969; Efland, 2005; Eisner, 2004). When children respond to visual artworks, they
link visual-spatial intelligence to sociocultural understandings. Historically, artworks
record and transmit cultural values (Frank, 2011; Freedman, 2003). In digital societies,
communication often engages visual platforms, for example, the Internet, social media,
printed media and television, which children must learn to negotiate (Duncum, 2006;
Flood, 2004a; Freedman, 2003). Visual Arts “is not an end in itself” (Anderson, 2003,
p. 64), but the construction of shared understandings of the life-world (Habermas, 1999;

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
Thomassen, 2010). As children engage in responding to Visual Arts, they are not just
critically examining the artworks, but also reassessing the semiotics of their life-world
whilst extending meaning (Habermas, 1999).
Art interpretation is termed visual literacy, deconstructing artworks is based on image
recognition, formal conventions, media and techniques, subjective responses, and positioning
works within cultural contexts as well as reconstructing hermeneutic understandings
into new imagery (Avgerinou & Pettersson, 2011; Flood, 2004b). Visual literacy is an
essential life skill as images are becoming more self-referential and entrenched in life-
world engagement (Duncum, 2010; Flood, 2004a; Freedman, 2003).
Beyond visual literacy, studying the Visual Arts has several cognitive and social benefits.
Children who respond to visual artworks expand neural pathways (brain novelty), linking
sensory perception of new artworks to new cultural understandings (Paolino, 2013; Seeley,
2006; Slotnick, Thompson, & Kosslyn, 2012; Willis, 2008). Beyond the cognitive benefits
of increasing neural pathways with visual responding, children’s social development is
also enhanced through the discussing and interpreting of artworks, as they learn how to
assimilate new knowledge with existing ideas (Piaget, 1950). Children use aesthetic cultural
understandings to negotiate shared understandings of their life-world, thus positioning
artworks within a cultural context. Through social interaction children share images of
meanings engaging language as an outcome of visual education (ACARA, 2014).
Artmaking also assists in child development, as children reposition themselves as agents
of change, controlling their environment through media manipulation (Bandura, 2001).
Critical thinking is not only engaged on a macro level, but can involve introspection. When
children create they internally evaluate “the so-called subjective side of ourselves … the
Arts enables us … to direct our attention inward” (Eisner, 2002, p. 10). The subjectivity of
artmaking is tied to art therapy, in which “self-awareness [is facilitated] through reflection
on the imagery produced, thus influencing behaviour and social functioning” (Wylie, 2007,
p. 326). The Visual Arts allow children to synthesise their understandings of ‘being’ in a
global community.
Self-e!cacy and learning across diverse contexts
If the Visual Arts are considered essential, it is important to generate intrinsic motivation for
children to engage in creative practices. Intrinsic motivation is closely linked to self-efficacy.
If children have high self-efficacy and belief they are ‘good at Visual Arts, they are more

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
likely to engage in creative activities without need for external reward (Bandura & Locke,
2003; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Similarly, if children have negative learning experiences, they
will limit future experiences (Bandura & Locke, 2003). This theory has been applied to
teachers, with Garvis and Pendergast (2010) noting teachers with low self-efficacy often
limited Arts learning experiences in their classrooms. Lemon and Garvis (2013) claim
pre-service primary teachers as having limited Arts experiences beyond tertiary study,
proposing this lack of Arts experiences will lead to lower self-efficacy, which in turn will
reduce intrinsic motivation to participate in Visual Arts.
In a social cognitive model, perceived self-efficacy is “a product of the interplay of
intrapersonal influences, the behavior individuals engage in, and the environmental forces
that impinge upon them” (Bandura, 2012, p. 11). Individuals have agency to control their
beliefs and actions; however, these beliefs and actions are shaped by socio-behavioural
influences integrated with home, school and recreation (Bandura, 2012; Fredricks,
Blumenfeld & Paris, 2004; Garvis, 2008; Oreck, 2004). Subsequently, in investigating
self-efficacy, researchers must look at where positive or negative self-efficacy is formed.
If past performance is an indicator of mastery, then low self-efficacy is likely based on
negative feedback loops of poor performance experienced (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In
completing the feedback loop, children with low self-efficacy are less likely to actively
engage in learning experiences, even if they seem compliant, and low engagement
perpetuates minimal mastery and low self-efficacy. Thus, children’s self-efficacy can only
be increased if teachers have positive self-efficacy. Universities can enhance teacher
self-efficacy by providing subject discipline skills and knowledge that may not have been
previously mastered (Dinham, 2007; Garvis, 2008; Oreck, 2004), including in the Visual
Arts. Primary teachers, in providing positive Visual Arts learning experiences, can break
negative feedback loops for children, and future teachers will enter university with higher
self-efficacy to participate in visual education (Dinham, 2007; Lemon & Garvis, 2013).
Visual Arts and the tertiary context
Teachers’ self-efficacy and mastery in Visual Arts has implications for teacher education.
The structure of the Arts in teacher education has a history of contraction linked to the
Dawkins Report (1988) (Bessant, 2002). This report outlined the need for greater private
tertiary funding, linked to changing the profile of universities within global competition for
tertiary education (Bessant, 2002; Pick, 2006).
Further, in the tertiary context, the Arts are often marginalised due to demands faced by

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
the ‘crowded curriculum’, and benchmarking in literacy and numeracy (Australian Primary
Principals’ Association, 2007; Paolino, 2013). Teachers have limited time to engage in
Visual Arts as only one of five Arts subjects in WA, beyond accommodating other learning
areas (Berlach & McNaught, 2007; Berlach & Power, 2005; Dinham, 2007). Eisner (1978)
first raised diminishing instruction time in a crowded curriculum, noting administrative
pressures could marginalise the Visual Arts as a ‘handmaiden’ to support established
subjects (Eisner, 1972, 1978; Lummis, 1986).
The tertiary context, and structure of teacher education degrees, often reflects global
markets and competition for overseas students (Marginson, 2000, 2004). Therefore,
uncertainty of university funding may contribute to a negative feedback loop that
marginalises the Visual Arts, as a result of the ‘crowded curriculum’ and limited time with
which to build Visual Arts competence or self-efficacy among pre-service teachers (Dinham,
2007; Lemon & Garvis, 2013).
Background
The researchers perceived declining Arts instruction within the B.Ed Primary degree; this
was confirmed by a review of 30 years of the University’s handbooks. Prior to the Dawkins
Report (1988), Visual Arts education at our university had 11 staff members and two core
units (four hours per week over a semester) (Western Australian College of Advanced
Education [WACAE], 1985, 1987). Further to the core units, two elective units could be
studied (WACAE, 1985, 1987). After the Dawkins Report staff members decreased, with
only three staff members remaining by 2008 (Edith Cowan University [ECU], 2008).
Additionally, the Visual Arts decreased to one core unit and a multi-Arts unit, inclusive of
five Arts subjects (ECU, 2008). By 2013, Visual Arts was offered as one five-week rotation
(three hours per week) within two multi-Arts units (Edith Cowan University, 2013).
Subsequently, we decided to investigate the experiences of students entering (first-year)
and graduating (fourth-year) the B.Ed primary degree, in order to determine how quality
Arts instruction could be managed in limited time. A mixed methods study was conducted in
2013, in which students responded to a questionnaire measuring their experiences across
the Arts and their perceived self-efficacy prior to graduation (fourth-year students). Several
students also participated in follow-up interviews. This paper examines the quantitative
findings of the Visual Arts for first and fourth-year students, and the current state of Visual
Arts teacher education at ECU.

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
Methods
The researchers posed two main questions, to be discussed in relation to the Visual Arts:
1. What Arts experiences have first and fourth-year B.Ed primary students participated in,
within the following contexts:
a. Childhood home;
b. Compulsory education (primary and secondary);
c. Post-compulsory education (tertiary); and
d. Current personal recreation?
2. How prepared are fourth-year B.Ed primary students to teach the Arts as a result of
their teacher education course?
The research questions were investigated using an online questionnaire, administered
to both first and fourth-year students after approval from the University’s Human Ethics
Research Committee. The questionnaire was conducted within a constructivist framework,
where it is recognised that knowledge is constructed socially through consensus of ideas
(Guba & Lincoln, 2000). In constructivism, knowledge is dynamic, resultant of assimilating
new knowledge with existing beliefs, values and concepts (Guba & Lincoln, 2000). This
framework aligns with Habermas’ life-world, which engages ongoing social interactions
and understandings (Habermas, 1999), and develops knowledge and a sense of being
(Heidegger, 1996).
The questionnaire was composed of five sections, covering each Arts subject (dance,
drama, media Arts, music and Visual Arts). Each of the Arts subjects was defined according
to the revised Draft Australian Curriculum: The Arts Foundation to Year 10 released in
2013, in which Visual Arts was defined as “includ[ing] the fields of art, craft and Design.
Learning in and through these fields, students engage with visual forms of communication,
challenging and expressing their own and others’ ideas, developing practical skills and
critical reasoning” (ACARA, 2013, p.126). The questions related to the contexts of home,
school and recreation represented the environmental factors discussed by Bandura (2012).
The sections also included questions regarding social interactions in each context. For
example, whether students had Arts specialist primary teachers and who influenced their
attitudes and values regarding each of the Arts subjects. In addition, fourth-year students

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
were asked to indicate their readiness to teach the Arts by self-efficacy, pedagogical
content knowledge and subject discipline knowledge.
The questionnaire was piloted with third-year education students. These data were used
to determine the internal reliability of the instrument, using a Cronbach coefficient alpha
(Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011). The coefficient alpha was greater than 0.80 for all
sections, with the Visual Arts having a coefficient of 0.84. Feedback regarding language
was addressed, including the use of Australian Curriculum definitions of each Arts subject.
The first-year students participated in the questionnaire during Semester One, 2013 to
gather data prior to completing any Arts units in the degree. The questionnaire was
administered to the fourth-year students after completing their final teaching practicum, in
Semester Two, 2013, so they could reflect on how their course prepared them for teaching
the Arts.
A total of 18% of first-year students (n = 108) and 16% of fourth-year students (n = 25)
participated in the questionnaire. Despite the limited number of fourth-year participants,
the data sets are comparative in percentage. Demographical information was recorded
for both sets of students, with some significant differences between samples. In the first-
year sample: 93% of respondents were female, 72% were between 17 and 25 years of age,
over 50% attended Department of Education schools (across primary and secondary
schooling), and 74% had no qualifications prior to enrolment in the degree. In the fourth-
year sample: 92% of respondents were female, 40% were 17 to 25 years of age, 24% were
between 26 and 30 years of age, 60% attended Department of Education schools for
their compulsory education, and 32% had TAFE qualifications prior to commencing the
degree.
Findings
Factors influencing students’ attitudes about Visual Arts
Both student samples responded that the following groups impacted their attitude
towards the Visual Arts, namely themselves (personal choice), family, and teachers. First-
year students responded very positively to personal choice as the primary influence on
their perception of Visual Arts (M = 3.51, SD = 0.59). The first-year students rated family
and teachers as having similar impacts on their attitude, having means of 2.98 (SD = 0.69)
and 2.91 (SD = 0.61) respectively. Fourth-year students also responded very positively
to personal choice (M = 3.64, SD = 0.57), although for fourth-year students family was

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
also rated as a significant influence (M = 3.04, SD = 0.61). Teachers were the third most
influential factor (M = 2.8, SD = 0.58). Subsequently, personal recreation, home and school
contexts are presented to discuss students’ significant experiences in Visual Arts.
Personal recreational context
Personal choice was determined as the most significant influence on attitudes to Visual
Arts. Subsequently, students’ current recreational experiences were investigated to
determine if personal choice correlated to higher Visual Arts participation. However, a
Spearman’s rank order correlation coefficient (i.e., Spearman’s rho) performed on first-year
data revealed no correlation between personal choice as strongly impacting on attitude
to Visual Arts, and current participation in Visual Arts activities (rs[30] = 0.004, p = 0.98).
A Spearman’s rho was also performed on fourth-year data. Similarly, the test showed no
correlation between the two variables (rs[10] = 0.000, p = 1.00), suggesting personal
choice in developing attitudes cannot be determined as significantly altering ongoing
participation (or lack thereof) in Visual Arts activities.
The students were also asked to respond to the types of Visual Arts experiences they
participate in and the amount of time they spend participating in Visual Arts activities.
Firstly, they were asked about their engagement with Visual Arts exhibitions. First-year
students responded negatively to the statement “I often visit Visual Arts exhibitions” (M
= 2.19, SD = 0.75). Fourth-year students responded slightly more positively to the same
statement; however, the mean score of 2.60 (SD = 0.76) suggesting a neutral response to
the statement.
Students were subsequently asked where they prefer to view Visual Arts. A majority of
both first-year (42%) and fourth-year (56%) respondents rated multiple sources (galleries,
community exhibitions, local artist exhibitions and other) as their preference. Galleries
were rated as the next most popular source for viewing Visual Arts, by 27% of first-year and
28% of fourth-year students. The third most selected option was ‘None’, selected by 18% of
first-year students and 16% of fourth-year students. This response is particularly alarming
as it suggests almost a fifth of students are not engaging with Visual Arts as viewers. Text
responses revealed first-year students also viewed art ‘within my family collection’, ‘school
exhibitions’, ‘online’ and ‘at artists’ studios’. Only one fourth-year student selected ‘Other’,
listing blogs as their source for viewing Visual Arts.
In addition to viewing, students were also asked if they participated in artmaking. Only

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
28% of first-year students participated in Visual Arts activities, compared to 40% of fourth-
year students. Respondents who participated in Visual Arts were subsequently asked to
rate the amount of time they spend (per month) making Visual Arts. The mean score
was 2.00 for both first (SD = 0.74) and fourth-year (SD = 0.82) students, corresponding
with a ‘moderate amount of time’. Furthermore, all students were asked to select their
most and least favourite Visual Arts discipline areas, from a list of ceramics, craft/folk art,
digital media (including photography), drawing, painting, printmaking, sculpture, textiles
and other. The ‘other’ option was offered so students’ responses were not limited to the
choices provided. The results of students’ most and least favourite disciplines are listed in
Table 1.
First and fourth-year students’ most and least favourite Visual Arts disciplines
Most favourite disciplines Least favourite disciplines
First Year Painting (57%) Ceramics (12%)
Digital media (52%) Printmaking (9%)
Fourth Year Painting (48%) Ceramics (20%)
Craft/folk art (48%) Printmaking (20%)
Digital media (44%)
It is significant to note first and fourth-year students had the same preferences in disciplines,
and also listed ceramics and printmaking as their least favourite disciplines. In addition
to the disciplines listed, first-year students also participated in silver smithing, paper craft,
and mosaic (as determined by text responses), while fourth-year students also listed mixed
media and scrapbooking.
Visual Arts in the home context
The home context was also investigated to determine students’ experiences prior to
entering university. Both first and fourth-year students agreed they (as children) had lots
of Visual Arts experiences at home, with a mean score of 2.73 (SD = 0.76) for first-year
students and 2.84 (SD = 1.05) for fourth-year students. Additionally, students were asked
to rate the degree to which these experiences impacted on their value of Visual Arts. A
Spearman’s rho was performed to determine the significance of the relationship between
quantity of home experiences and the impact on valuing Visual Arts. For first-year students
the relationship was statistically significant (rs[107] = 0.67, p <0.001). Similarly, for fourth-

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
year students the relationship was also strongly correlated (rs[25] = 0.69, p <0.001).
The questionnaire also asked if students had Visual Arts lessons outside of school, and
if so, to rate the quality of their lessons. Only 19% of first-year students and 12% of the
fourth-year students had Visual Arts lessons as children. However, the students who did
participate in Visual Arts lessons rated the quality of their lessons as high, with a mean
score of 2.76 (SD = 0.70) for first-year students, and a mean of 2.67 (SD = 0.58) for fourth-
year students.
Visual Arts in the primary school context
Students were asked if they had a Visual Arts specialist teacher at primary school, and if
so, the quality of their experience with the specialist teacher. They were also asked if they
enjoyed Visual Arts during primary school (regardless of a specialist experience). Less
than half of each group had Visual Arts specialist teachers: 44% of first-year and 24% of
fourth-year students. However, both first and fourth-year students who had a specialist
Visual Arts teacher reported a high quality experience (first-year: M = 2.87, SD = 0.81 and
fourth-year: M = 2.83, SD = 0.75). Generally (regardless of a specialist or generalist teacher)
students enjoyed primary Visual Arts, with a mean of 3.16 (SD = 0.72) for first-year students
and 3.28 (SD = 0.68) for fourth-year students. As anticipated, preliminary findings suggest
students who had a positive primary Visual Arts experience continued their Visual Arts
study into secondary school, compared to those who had a negative experience (shown in
Tables 2 and 3). However, more investigation is required to determine if the relationship
is statistically significant.

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
Table 2
Cross-tabulation of first-year students’ experiences in primary school and their level of
Visual Arts study in secondary school
During secondary school my highest level of Visual Arts study was…
Year 8 Year 9 Year 10 Year 11 Year 12 None Total
I always enjoyed
Visual Arts
during primary
school
Strongly
Disagree
001 0001
Disagree 3 5 4 0 2 3 17
Agree 17 9 11 7 3 6 53
Strongly Agree 3 3 14 3 12 1 36
Total 23 17 30 10 17 10
Table 3
Cross-tabulation of fourth-year students’ experiences in primary school and their level of
Visual Arts study in secondary school
During secondary school my highest level of Visual Arts study was…
Year 8 Year 9 Year 10 Year 11 Year 12 None Total
I always enjoyed
Visual Arts
during primary
school
Disagree 0 2 1 0 0 0 3
Agree 1 3 4 1 2 1 12
Strongly Agree 2 1 2 0 3 2 10
Total 3 6 7 1 5 3 25
Fourth-year students’ self-e!cacy
The fourth-year students were also asked to rate their self-efficacy to teach Visual Arts.
The mean score of 3.17 (SD = 0.48) suggested students agreed with the statement ‘I feel
confident to teach Visual Arts to primary students’ (Figure 1).

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
Frequency of fourth-year studentsʼ responses to the item ʻI feel confident to teach Visual
Arts to primary studentsʼ
Fourth-year students were also asked to rate their pedagogical content knowledge
and subject discipline knowledge in Visual Arts. Students responded positively to both
statements, as shown in Figures 2 and 3. The mean score for pedagogical content
knowledge was 2.83 (SD = 0.57) and the mean for subject discipline knowledge was 2.92
(SD = 0.58), trending towards an ‘Agree’ category response.
Figure 1

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
Figure 2
Frequency of fourth-year studentsʼ responses to the item ʻI feel I have the pedagogical
content knowledge to teach Visual Arts to primary studentsʼ
Figure 3
Frequency of fourth-year students’ responses to the item ‘I feel I have the subject discipline
knowledge to teach Visual Arts to primary students’

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
Despite the mean score indicating fourth-year students feel they have the necessary
pedagogical content knowledge, the figure is skewed towards a negative response. This
suggests there are still a proportionally high number of fourth-year students who do not
feel they have the pedagogical content knowledge necessary to structure Visual Arts
learning experiences for children.
Similarly, the fourth-year students’ responses to the item shown in figure 3 suggest there
are students who do not feel they have the required subject discipline knowledge in the
Visual Arts. However, the response for subject discipline knowledge is marginally higher
than pedagogical content knowledge.
Discussion
The findings suggest both first and fourth-year students feel their attitudes towards
Visual Arts are largely personally determined, with attitudes then being shaped by
family and school contexts respectively. While personal determination is a part of self-
efficacy or beliefs towards a subject, environmental and behavioural factors also impact
on individuals’ attitudes and motivation (Bandura, 2012; Ryan & Deci, 2000). The data
suggest environmental factors (home and school) might play a more significant role in
developing attitudes towards Visual Arts than realised by the students.
Both first and fourth-year students showed low levels of recreational experience in the
Visual Arts. The first-year student data evidenced particularly low engagement with
viewing artworks, while both data sets showed students have limited connection to local
or smaller exhibitions. Interestingly, students from both samples listed online sources as
another place they view Visual Arts. The inclusion of digital media platforms aligns with
contemporary, technology-based culture. However, it is important that online reproductions
of visual artworks are not the only source of information on Visual Arts, as extended
viewing of artwork within a gallery context leads to deeper art appreciation (Lachapelle,
Douesnard, & Keenlyside, 2009). Furthermore, the low engagement in viewing is consistent
with recent Australian research, suggesting low cultural engagement is a national issue for
pre-service teacher education (Lemon & Garvis, 2013). Low engagement in responding to
Visual Arts is significant as it implies a low cultural value for the Visual Arts (Eisner, 1978;
Lemon & Garvis, 2013; Lummis, 1986) and limited viewing experiences will diminish visual
literacy skills (Hollands, 2004).

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
Engagement in artmaking was also limited. A significantly higher percentage of fourth
year students made artworks (40%); however, this may be attributed to their more mature
age demographic, with art practice being linked to craft activities with their own children.
More investigation is required to determine specific recreational activities undertaken,
and amount of time spent artmaking. The most and least preferred Visual Arts disciplines
were the same between both samples. Painting and digital media were most preferred.
This supports contemporary interest in technology-based media as well as painting as a
longstanding traditional discipline dating back to cave paintings of Paleolithic cultures,
including the Kimberley rock paintings in northern WA. The high interest in digital media
may also be linked to increasing numbers of young adults engaging with non-traditional
artforms, such as street art and manga, which are often published through social media
and online platforms (Freedman, Heijen, Kallio-Tavin, Kárpáti & Papp, 2013). This emerging
culture is important to consider given the young demographic of B.Ed primary students,
and needs to be investigated in future. Ceramics and printmaking were the least preferred
disciplines. The researchers suggest these disciplines may have been ranked lower due
to their requirements of technical skills and knowledge, and specialised materials and
equipment. For example, with respect to ceramics, electric kilns are expensive and require
digital programming units and technical information regarding glazes and clay, in addition
to specialised knowledge in constructing forms from clay. With respect to printmaking,
students practising in their recreational time would need to have access to equipment
such as specialist printing inks, papers, rollers and printing presses or silkscreens.
Both first and fourth-year students stated they had a lot of Visual Arts experiences in their
childhood home, and importantly, the relationship of experiences to valuing the Visual
Arts was statistically significant. This supports literature on cultural engagement in the
Visual Arts increasing value for the subject area (Eisner, 1978; Lemon & Garvis, 2013).
Furthermore, the prominence of Visual Arts experiences in formative years establishes
cultural reproduction of Visual Arts as significant in the life-world, which in turn supports
the inclusion of Visual Arts in education. While a limited number of students participated
in lessons, the high quality of Visual Arts lessons suggests they may be an environmental
factor to improve self-efficacy in the Arts at a young age. More investigation is required
to determine the specific types of experiences that build strong positive Visual Arts
engagement and self-efficacy during childhood.
School experiences were also relatively positive for both the first and fourth-year samples.
While less than half of each sample had a Visual Arts specialist teacher, the students (as

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
children) enjoyed primary Visual Arts. Again, further exploration of the specific Visual Arts
activities undertaken in primary schools is required to determine who/what made these
experiences positive. A superficial link was made between quality of primary experiences
and the longevity of Visual Arts study in secondary school. Again, further testing is
required to see if this link is statistically significant; however, the relationship between
primary and secondary school supports self-efficacy and sustained engagement from a
positive feedback loop building intrinsic motivation (Bandura, 2012; Ryan & Deci, 2000).
The positive childhood home and school experiences are likely to have been environmental
factors contributing to fourth-year students’ self-efficacy in Visual Arts at the completion
of their teacher education. Fourth-year students agreed they had the confidence to
teach Visual Arts to primary school students. However, findings for pedagogical content
and subject discipline knowledge were slightly negative, indicating some students do not
feel they have adequate knowledge to structure Visual Arts learning. These findings are
consistent with the reduced instructional time currently experienced within the B.Ed primary
course at our university. With the National Professional Standards for Teachers, and in
particular Standard 2: Know the content and how to teach it (AITSL, 2011), it is imperative
students feel they receive strong pedagogy and subject knowledge during their degree.
Ensuring strong pedagogical content and subject discipline knowledge is important for
teachers to feel a sense of mastery, and subsequently, to sustain intrinsic motivation and
build behaviours that lead to strong self-efficacy in the Visual Arts (Bandura, 2012; Garvis,
2008; Oreck, 2004; Ryan & Deci, 2000). These essential types of knowledge must be
delivered within the limited time frame of Visual Arts instruction within teacher education
(Dinham, 2007; Lemon & Garvis, 2013).
Conclusions
The research concluded that B.Ed primary students generally have limited Visual Arts
engagement outside of their university experience, despite positive childhood and school-
based Visual Arts experiences. The limited engagement in Visual Arts activities diminishes
the value of Visual Arts in the life-world, as social interactions that support the value of
Visual Arts are marginalised (Eisner, 1987; Payne, 2012). Students build cultural knowledge
and mastery of Visual Arts skills and knowledge through engaging with the Visual Arts,
which in turn builds their self-efficacy to teach primary Visual Arts (Garvis & Pendergast,
2010; Oreck, 2004).
The exposure of students to Visual Arts in students’ formative years showed a significant

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Julia E. Morris & Geoffrey W. Lummis
relationship to their value of Visual Arts, despite their perception of attitudes towards
Visual Arts being their own personal choice irrespective of other factors. The links between
childhood and school contexts supports self-efficacy theory, in which environmental factors
have a significant impact on an individual’s self-efficacy towards a particular subject
(Bandura, 2012; Bandura & Locke, 2003).
The fourth-year students also indicated their preparedness to teach the Visual Arts at
graduation. Generally, the students felt they had the necessary self-efficacy to teach Visual
Arts; however, their findings for pedagogical content and subject discipline knowledge
were marginally lower. Subsequently, better instruction is required to ensure pre-service
teachers feel these knowledge deficits are met prior to graduation, particularly in the
interest of national standards (AITSL, 2011). The low preference for highly technical
disciplines, such as ceramics and printmaking, suggests technical skills require more
explicit instruction to assist mastery of subject discipline knowledge.
This research study explored B.Ed primary pre-service teachers’ experiences and self-
efficacy in Visual Arts. Further investigation is required to gather specific details on
the types of Visual Arts activities experienced across a range of contexts, to determine
links between specific experiences and the effect on building positive self-efficacy (or
perhaps contribution to a negative feedback loop). With the findings, it is evident deeper
investigation of strategies to achieve effective Visual Arts instruction. Furthermore, positive
experiences are essential to ensure a positive feedback loop of mastery that builds strong
self-efficacy in the Visual Arts, and its value within the life-world.
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Frances Alter
THE EXPERIENCE OF TEACHING TERTIARY
VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION IN A PURELY
ONLINE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
University of New England
Abstract
One of the major new developments in higher education is the growth of virtual universities
and eLearning. While this development has definite practical benefits, such as, freedom
from constraints of time and geography, there are also disparities that arise between real
world and virtual technology-led teaching. Tertiary Visual Arts educators face significant
challenges in this new learning environment because removing face-to-face interaction
has implications for creating spaces where pre-service teachers can develop their Visual
Arts practice and knowledge of pedagogies. This paper describes the experiences of a
tertiary Visual Arts education academic and presents findings from a small scale study
that investigated the attitudes of a group of tertiary students, enrolled in a primary
undergraduate unit, towards e-learning.
Introduction: Personal experience in distance education
I have been a Visual Arts education lecturer at the same Australian university for over
a decade. The university where I teach has had a long-standing reputation as a leader
in distance learning in the tertiary education sector. In some semesters teaching occurs
only in a virtual space. Creative Arts (including Visual Arts, Music, Dance and Drama
disciplines in New South Wales [NSW]) education staff, amongst other educators that
teach a discipline with a practical component, such as physical education and science,
have clung with tenacity to retaining a blended learning model in which online learning is
supplemented with face-to-face classes during intensive residential periods. Most of these
have now moved on to purely online mode of delivery for their units/courses. The reasons
for this are largely pragmatic but positive developments in the quality of eLearning and
teaching in recent years has to some extent compensated for the lack of face-to-face
learning experiences. In more general terms, the development has certainly brought
definite practical benefits to students. Distance students are quick to point out that they
enjoy the freedom from constraints of time and geography and are able to tailor their
lifestyle to include parenting, work and study. A proportion of these students are also

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Frances Alter
candid about the fact that they would not have been able to undertake university degrees
if there was no option but on campus study. On the other hand, the growing popularity
of this mode of learning has seen a large number of students who might previously have
studied on campus opt to enroll in the distance education degree courses. The issues
involved could be debated extensively, however that is beyond the scope of this paper.
Technical competence is often the difference between a good teacher and a poor one in a
virtual teaching environment. For academics like myself, there is a steep learning curve as
Web software programs shift from WebCT, to Sakai and Blackboard, and most recently to
Moodle all within the space of less than a decade. Learning the standard nuts and bolts of
these Learning Management Systems (LMS) is just the beginning. Currently my university
uses Moodle web software as the platform for online delivery of unit and course content.
Naturally, there are also factors external to the individual teacher that impact upon the
success of teaching, such as, Internet speeds and quotas, technical support personnel,
and differences in individual computer platforms and software. These things can all wreak
emotional havoc on even technically competent teachers and learners.
The outcome of changes in teaching delivery for academics like me is that for off-campus
students we need to go that extra step beyond the blended learning model (face-to-
face teaching supplemented by on-line delivery of curriculum) towards an entirely new
model. In purely online courses, learning activities serve as a replacement rather than an
enhancement of the face-to-face learning experience and this requires more attention to
the conceptual framework that guides teaching. With this comes a consciousness that it
can only succeed if academics are proactive and discover a more positive vision of what
eLearning can provide in disciplines with a practical aspect. Some creative ICT solutions
have been presented in academic journals amongst those who are engaged in virtual
teaching, but very few apply specifically to tertiary Visual Arts education courses. The
focus in this paper is on how visual arts education curriculum might effectively be taught
through eLearning in a pre-service tertiary education degree.
A review of online education
There are still relatively few universities that offer the choice of purely distance education
in Visual Arts units and degrees. In Australia, the Open University is widely known as a
cross-institutional distance education provider offering degrees from eighteen universities.
Open University Visual Arts units and courses are delivered through RMIT in Melbourne
and Curtin University in Perth through correspondence and other eLearning methods.

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Frances Alter
Amongst regional universities, the University of New England and Charles Sturt offer
distance study in undergraduate and postgraduate education degrees with Visual Arts
education curriculum components.
The number of providers of distance learning is growing and research indicates universities
are increasingly moving toward the use of the internet for full delivery of their courses
(Ally, 2004; Kim & Bonk, 2006; Sheard & Carbone, 2007). There are fears within the
academic community that this trend is largely fuelled by economic rationalism and the
benefits to education providers of spending less on buildings and teachers. As Gabriel
states in his New York Times editorial, “Though proponents of online education say the
course offerings are rich, sceptics say corners are being cut in an effort to save money”
(Gabriel, April 7, 2011).
Peterson and Bond’s (2004) study of pre-service teachers’ learning of instructional planning
found that while the learning outcomes were not considerably different between the face-
to-face (FTF) versus the asynchronous web based learners’ assessment results, qualitative
data analysis identified the advantage of FTF environments for developing interpersonal
skills for teaching. There is also evidence that tertiary students are not comfortable with
the new educational paradigm (Sheard and Carbone, 2008; Roberts, 2005; Windham,
2005). A study by Kvavik (2005) found that while students expressed a desire for some
level of online delivery, almost all (97.8%) still wanted FTF interaction. Academic debate is
likely to gain momentum as more universities move away from learning models where FTF
delivery is supplemented with web-based correspondence towards purely online learning.
Removing FTF interaction has implications for creating spaces where pre-service teachers
can develop their visual arts knowledge and skills. Traditionally there has been a long-
standing practice of mentoring and apprenticeship training in visual arts disciplines
(Kindelan, 2001; Madsen, 2003; Rolston and Herrera, 2000). This is because the visual
arts, as with other Arts disciplines, have a performative element. In long-established
models of visual arts education, knowledge and skills are demonstrated and embodied
in real life settings through synchronous physical exchanges between students and their
teacher mentor. Computer-mediated communications (CMC) have in some cases replaced
this interaction so that students and teachers are working in delayed time exchanges
(asynchronous). It is, however, difficult to know whether the ‘virtuality’ of CMC can balance
the ‘actuality’ formed through real human relationships and direct contact with Art objects.
Improved media and technology and the creative application of these technologies can

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certainly help to create a more authentic learning experience for distance students.
The context and rationale of fully online distance learning modes in pre-service teacher
education is one of the subjects of inquiry in the recent Great Teaching Inspired Learning
(GTIL) initiative of the NSW State government. The Board of Studies Teaching and
Educational Standards NSW (BOSTES, 2014) states that part of the work of the GTIL
initiative is to conduct a study of online teacher education. According to the GTIL web
site (BOSTES, 2014), this study is to be completed by the end of 2014. A key aspect of
the study will be to look into the extent of online candidature in Initial Teacher Education
(ITE) and the arrangements for and quality of professional experience placements in NSW
schools. The aim of the study will be to assess the general quality of this mode of teacher
preparation, the extent of professional experience demands on NSW schools from online
students from interstate ITE providers and the quality of the arrangements governing such
school placements. The findings of this study will be likely to influence future directions in
pre-service online teacher education courses in Australian universities.
Establishing an on-line space for learning in pre-service teacher education
The online environment can be a tentative space for both learners and educators and
much of this can be attributed to the need for negotiating and navigating one’s role in
the learning process. Knowledge building in teacher education has traditionally been
facilitated through participating in face-to-face oral discourse so the virtual learning
environment can seem alien. A pre-service teacher comes with a long history of prior
learning, however, gauging his or her own level of prior knowledge and skills against others
is more difficult in a virtual classroom with a large student cohort. The level of personal
interest and foundational knowledge in visual arts can also vary so widely amongst pre-
service teachers. This is particularly the case for common core curriculum units, where
student cohorts are not selecting study based on personal choice and interest. The lecturer,
therefore, cannot rely on students’ intrinsic motivation to learn. This can be a real problem
when distance students can independently select whether to engage with course content.
For the teacher educator, mentoring pre-service teachers in the theoretical aspects of the
subject domain, applicable pedagogical concepts and practices, as well as strategies for
managing real life classroom exchanges, all within the window of a semester-long unit is
a hugely demanding task. In trying to encapsulate all of this content, the educator can
fall into the trap of gravitating to an expository form of learning by using various digital
devices to transmit knowledge to the learner.

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As a teacher with a constructivist teaching philosophy, my intention is to make art more
accessible to novice art educators. In my experience, any kind of learning environment
that allows participants some level of control in forming the content and structure of the
curriculum, encourage a greater sense of ownership and control over the learning process
and foster higher levels of engagement and participation. Having the freedom to reinvent
and reconstruct information makes learning more meaningful and interesting for the
student. Support for this assumption comes from one of the conclusions formed in a recent
US report (United States Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation, and
Policy Development, 2010, p. 44-46), a large-scale meta-analysis study of previous research
into online education. It was suggested that manipulations that trigger learner activity or
learner reflection and self-monitoring of understanding, are effective when students pursue
online learning as individuals. A smaller scale study by Ally (2004) similarly concluded
that more can be established through setting self-guided projects, using interactive social
media, posing tasks whereby students reflect upon their actions, and forming authentic
assessment tasks that connect to learner’s personal and professional experiences in real
life settings.
The Internet: A more visual learning environment
For the Visual Arts educator there are great benefits of working in a learning environment
that relies heavily on digital visual media because the expansion of visual resources in
recent years is phenomenal. The Internet delivers a vast array of free videos, artists
and gallery tours and associated educational materials, pre-recorded Art tutorials and
demonstrations, visual archives and so forth. However, this is not entirely free of problems.
As Selinger (cited in Ash 2004, p. 94) states, “The Internet is the world’s largest library,
but it is also a huge junkyard, and has been described as a library where all the books
have been thrown on the floor”.
Shifting and sorting through the junk to find quality resources takes critical evaluation and
judgment as well as long computer hours but engaging with, researching, and critiquing
web-based resources can be empowering for these students. It allows them the opportunity
to be co-creators in a resource-based learning environment, contributing to the search for
Internet sourced materials and sharing their discoveries.
There is an assumption that aesthetic experiences, which emerge from digital encounters
with art through the Internet, must be different from traditional patterns of consumption
wherein the audience has direct contact with artworks. While screen-based digital

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presentations of artworks create a loss of aesthetic feeling, some authors point to the
fact that the opportunities afforded for everyday consumption and greater participation
amongst society helps to shape social meaning and improve communication between artist
and audience. However, some arts practitioners and educators propose a more positive
vision for the screen-based visual practice. Beyl and Bauwen (2010, p. 3) argue that, ‘…
digital media, and more specifically the interactive Internet, allow for the audience to
become a legitimate meaning creator and, thus, to act on the same level as the artist.’
Two educational practices that assist tertiary distance students to move from a paradigm
in which they are passive viewers to one in which they are active creators and collaborative
visual communicators, is the inclusion of virtual exhibition spaces and electronic visual
diaries or portfolios. Practices such as these, can help compensate for the lack of direct
interaction and artistic mentoring that occurs in distance education. Visual portfolios
and diaries have had a long-standing function in regards the development of artmaking
at the secondary school level. In the New South Wales’ school system the Visual Arts
Process Diary or VAPD suggests and provides evidence of secondary student’s artmaking,
however it is not specifically included in the Higher School Certificate (HSC) examination
of a student’s body of work (BOSTES, 2014). Through portfolios and visual diaries students
and teachers can systematically collect and organize student artifacts as a means to
demonstrate achievement or improvement over time. For Visual Arts in education, the
benefits of electronic portfolios for storing visual artifacts are numerous. A digitized
portfolio allows greater access and easy browsing by students and teachers alike, it
does not demand physical storage, and reproductions of artifacts cannot be damaged
as easily as the originals. The main downside to creating digitized portfolios can be the
amount of time required to reproduce artifacts (scan or photograph and then digitally
edit and upload items). In tertiary education it becomes easier to shift the responsibility
for developing e-portfolios to students themselves, which is an important consideration
when there are often large student cohorts enrolled in units. Apart from this, one needs to
acknowledge that a slight aesthetic shift occurs because of the somewhat less personal
and individual appearance that e-portfolios can have when compared to handcrafted/
handwritten portfolios.
In Moodle LMS there is fortunately a way to create an art gallery database, whereby,
students load digital photos or scans of their completed artworks. This is a major
improvement over past situations in which a lecturer, like myself, had firstly to work with
technicians to craft a tool to facilitate this, and secondly, to do all the preparatory work

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of photography, photo editing, uploading and typing of identifying descriptors within the
LMS web site. One of my current online units has over 400 student artworks in the online
gallery database. Students are able to search through this, reference works and provide
critical feedback to other student artists about their work. Unfortunately, one can only
view these artworks in a linear manner (one at a time in page sets of 10) rather than as
a complete display or in a more natural 3D virtual display. One future solution to these
presentation problems may be to go outside the university LMS and use freely available
software or social media to set up an independent site.
After some personal trial and error working within the structure of Moodle LMS introduced
to my university in 2012, I embarked on a small-scale research study. The intention was
to canvas the perspectives of learners who were then enrolled in a core first year visual
arts education unit I was teaching online. I anticipated that this would create a better
understanding of how to tailor this web-based curriculum to suit future cohorts of students.
The students recruited for the study were studying in a semester-long first year level
undergraduate primary teacher education unit. The following passages detail aspects of:
the rationale for the study, context to research, participants and procedures, approach to
analysis, and discussion of findings.
The research study
Rationale
In higher education there is an expectation that academics not only teach but also
conduct research in their field or domain and this research typically extends to and
involves the actions and behaviours of ‘others’. Research that can be characterised as
autoethnographic, that examines one’s own practice, offers a way to theorize and re-
frame one’s own teaching. Such research is performative and creative in orientation but
requires a level of critical objectivity on the part of the researcher. In taking the first steps
towards this kind of research, I undertook a small scale study to probe a cohort of students
about their experience of studying foundational primary pre-service teacher education
unit in an off campus mode. The main aim of the research was to understand how well
students engaged with the visual arts course content and assessment tasks without the
extra support of supplementary face-to-face classes. In the years prior to conducting this
study, the same unit had been taught on campus as well as off campus in conjunction with
a four day intensive on campus school that included face-to-face lectures, workshops, and
tutorials. In the year that this study was conducted, the off campus mode operated for the

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first time without the option of on campus intensive school.
Context to the research: the curriculum
In terms of curriculum content, apart from visual arts theory and pedagogy elements
students were also expected to work independently in their own homes on practice-based
tasks. Students submitted the results of their work on-line through a gallery database.
Notes about the process, the techniques and materials they used were also posted along
with uploaded photos of artworks.
As a substitute for FTF workshops there were guided slideshows and videos with lecturer’s
demonstrations and commentary that could be accessed online. Further selected web
links to information on visual arts concepts, forms, techniques and skills, as they applied to
the practice tasks (modeled on what may be taught at primary school level), were made
available for students who might be motivated to look in greater depth at the topics or
felt they needed more guidance with the set activities. These materials and links offered
support in technical aspects of art practice but the art activities and tasks themselves
were designed to be more open-ended so that students could adopt different approaches
and directions within the parameters of the subject matter and themes.
One of the key assessment tasks was to develop a primary focused teaching unit of work
based on a current art exhibition held at an Australian art gallery or museum. Students
were encouraged to select an exhibition in the area where they lived. Sometimes those
that lived in very remote geographical areas did not have access to these Art institutions
but they were permitted to explore alternative options, such as visits to an artist’s studio
or researching a virtual online exhibition. More successful exhibition kits produced
provided engaging, thoughtful and varied artmaking possibilities that explicitly connected
to the chosen exhibition theme. Students were expected to provide clear modeling and
demonstrations for children taken directly from a chosen artist’s practice.
In developing the online content I had given a lot of thought to the way audio, visual and
textual information combined to make learning more accessible and less time consuming.
Wherever possible, audio-visual information was chosen over word texts such as PDF
documents. Posted lectures were also kept to a viewing time of around fifteen minutes
(sometimes converted to iMovie). These contained lots of visual content and only brief
accompanying transcripts of the lecturer’s talk. Each slide would have no more than two
to three minutes of voice recording. Despite these constraints, the file sizes would still

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often be massive and take students too long to download with a slow Internet service.
Participants
First year Bachelor of Primary Education students were the student cohorts that contributed
to this research. There were 180 students altogether studying in the undergraduate
semester-long unit that I both coordinated and taught. A number of students studying
in the unit were preparing for primary teaching and had very little or no background or
specialisation in the Visual Arts. Around two thirds of the students had not studied Visual
Arts beyond Year 8 of secondary school. The majority of these distance education students
had been out of schooling for some time and would therefore be considered ‘mature age’
students within the university sector. This lack of discipline specific knowledge, skills and
experience may have hampered the participants stated understandings about learning in
Visual Arts through a virtual learning environment and this is acknowledged as a limitation
to the study findings.
Procedures
In an online Moodle website forum I asked students about their perceptions of distance
education more generally and whether they found the way that the online Moodle delivery
of the course was arranged gave them the support they needed for learning in visual arts
education. Fifteen percent of the total student cohort (27 students) voluntarily responded
to five key questions. The intention of the research was not to establish generalizability
of the findings such that the responses were representative of the whole student cohort
in the unit. The findings were also not applicable to other units of distance study in other
subject areas within the curriculum because the focus was upon the practice based
elements of the discipline content in this particular unit of study. The value of the research
findings were that they would provide me with some initial insights into student response
to features on the website I had designed. My key concern was that measures I had taken
to establish a practice-based element in distance learning were successful but I also saw
the opportunity to consider other ways of presenting information. The conversation forum
also enabled sharing of student reflections upon their learning experience and exchange
of strategies students had found useful in managing online learning through distance
education. Furthermore, student respondents gave their permission for their answers to
be used in research.

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The questionnaire
There were five key questions that the tertiary students were asked and they were as
follows:
• Do you as a distance education student perceive yourself as being disadvantaged
compared to other students completing the same unit with face-to-face classes? If so,
what might be the areas of disadvantage?
• When you enrolled in this visual arts unit, did you have any thoughts as to how visual
arts practice /learning may be taught effectively in a purely on-line environment?
• After some weeks of doing distance study what are some of the challenges you face
with this kind of learning structure and environment?
• How important do you think it is to incorporate visual arts practice – for example, samples
of artworks, artists practice samples, self directed practical tasks - when you are doing
an on-line education unit?
• Have you developed any personal strategies (over the time you have been doing distance
studies) that assist you in dealing with on-line learning?
Analysis
Information gathered through this forum was later placed in an excel table, with identifying
names (names were later changed to protect respondents’ identities), questions numbers,
responses, and codes in column headers. Because questions were more open-ended (not
simple yes or no answers or rating scales) descriptive codes were assigned to response
items prior to entering the data in the table. Cells were left blank if questions were
unanswered. The frequency and percentages of positive or negative responses to survey
items were established. Qualitative analysis was later conducted through comparing and
contrasting student responses to each set of questions.
Discussion of Findings
In responding to the set of questions posed in the discussion forum there were two distinct
types of student responses: those that gave a more broad picture of eLearning experiences
(typically in other previous units of study) and those that addressed specific aspects of the
delivery of the visual arts curriculum. The presentations of findings that relate to these

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different student responses are therefore addressed separately in the following passages.
The majority of students expressed the opinion that studying on campus in face-to-face
classes would be the more ideal mode of study but explained that this wasn’t really an
option for a variety of personal reasons. Having made the deliberate choice of study
mode it was fairly typical that the students expressed the opinion that they had less right
to complain about aspects of eLearning that they found challenging. After completing
a small number of eLearning units already, students perceived there were both areas of
advantage and disadvantage (compared to on campus students). Interestingly, there was
a level of uncertainty about what the differences in study modes might be. Comments such
as, ‘I guess on campus students have to …’, ‘Face-to-face may help…’ or ‘I was wondering
how on campus students …’, illustrated that there was somewhat of an imagined situation
for on campus students.
Most commonly the student respondents felt on-campus students had advantages in
regards to: having questions answered in real time; being in the moment and therefore
having the ability to bounce ideas around; gaining a sense of identity as a student and
physical belonging to the class group; having a first-hand experience when engaging with
objects such as paintings; support with research and library access; having individual time
with a lecturer at the end of classes; feeling comfortable asking lots of questions (verbally);
and gaining motivation through direct interactions and sharing of learning experiences.
The most frequent personal challenge students voiced in their written responses was the
difficulty they had establishing relationships with peers and the lecturers through eLearning
and this appeared to be strongly connected to sustaining their motivation to learn. To
offset dropping levels of motivation, students described having to be very self disciplined
when it came to completing work. In citing one of her three main study challenges one
student wrote, ‘It is motivation - both finding it and maintaining it’. Ray confessed to having
developed few mechanisms to help cope with the lack of personal interaction. He said, “I
would like to think that I have, but really I haven’t. I take each semester as it comes and go
with the flow of the class and the lecturer as to how much interaction is required”.
Two other students had independently established friendships amongst other students
studying through eLearning at the same university and they met regularly as study groups
in one physical location that was convenient to all. This practice gave them more confidence
and motivation to continue with their studies. A few students stated that being active in
posting to discussion forums, bulletin boards or chat rooms had helped them to feel a

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greater sense of belonging to the class group. For example, Rebecca said, “The main
strategy is to keep up with the threads on the discussion forums. These are very helpful
and the cooperative learning environment has assisted my progress through this unit”.
The quality of the learning experience for off-campus students many believed was improved
greatly when lectures were presented as short podcasts or vodcasts rather than the usual
45 minute to hour long recorded lecture presentation. One student drew attention to the
habit that some lecturers had of loading unedited on-campus lecture recordings on their
eLearning unit. Another reason cited for becoming less engaged in eLearning was when
students encountered a lot of written material (described as theory and reading) online.
Ten per cent of the students were critical of the attitude of other lecturers (in previous
units) to online teaching and felt they did not spend enough time adapting their units
to suit the particular needs of off-campus students. On this last point, for example, one
student commented that there were inconsistencies across units. She said,
I was worried that the content would be disorganised - as some subjects seem to have
a lack of coherence in the way they are taught. I found some had too much content,
some too little and there was always a feeling of being slightly out of the loop - how
are they organising what we learn and how we practice as teachers?
Another ten per cent of the student respondents described a more a positive experience
of organisation of content in eLearning units and their comments also showed that they
were aware of the demands on lecturers.
In the context of the current Arts education unit, the majority of students responded
positively to having practical examples in a variety of multi media formats embedded in
their weekly study modules. Analysis of data clearly showed that students were motivated
to engage in distance learning when a greater focus was given to art practice - both their
own as well as other contemporary artists.
The majority of students who responded had not thought much about how the Visual Arts
might be taught effectively in a purely on-line environment prior to starting their study in a
visual arts unit. Just one student stated that they believed Visual Arts should not be taught
on-line. The general consensus (90% of respondents) was that although they were aware
that art practice was a very ‘hands-on’ experience they felt they were compensated for the
lack of direct instruction by the fact that they had enough practical art tasks they could
explore in their own time. Many commented (75% of respondents) that the ability to tune

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in to pre-selected free internet materials was a key aspect of their sense of engagement in
the Visual Arts. For example Elizabeth wrote, “Researching now is so much easier because
of the Internet. As a student who remembers the microfiche and card catalogues in the
early 80’s, it’s sooooo fast to research now”.
On this same point Georgiana also commented,
I was worried that the online environment would require a lot of uploading of artworks,
or long tedious art theory lectures. But so far it hasn’t been like that at all and I have
loved all the u tube [sic] links to get some movement into what we are learning.
Just two students (10% of respondents) expressed regret that they had to engage with
artworks in a screen-based environment rather than viewing the original works when
discussing and analysing them. One of these students said that the experience felt very,
‘second hand’.
The fact that many students did not have much prior training and experience in visual arts
made a number of students anxious that there would be expectations and assumptions
about their level of artistic skill. For Katja, bad memories of art study and teacher negativity
towards her work in her middle school years had made her actively fearful of re-engaging
in art study. Another student Rae, commented that despite the fact that she had little
exposure to Art in her life,
I am amazed at how much I have looked inwards to artworks and have gained valuable
information on how and why artists have created their artworks. As a person not
knowing much about visual arts, I found the at home practical tasks, the you tube clips
and information you gave us on artists through the use of power point presentations
was brilliant.
When students were asked about the value of incorporating visual arts practice – examples
of artworks, artists’ practice samples, guided practical tasks, and virtual exhibitions of
artifacts– students unanimously were in favour of this being a core aspect of the unit.
Kerrie, for example, said,
I think without it people like me who have had very little to do with visual arts would
miss the real joy it can bring and would be less likely to practice art with their students
when we get into the classroom.

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Conclusion
The reflections of the author and the findings from the small-scale study that canvassed
student attitudes, conducted by the author, are not intended to be representative of
the perspectives of teachers and students engaged in online learning. However, they
do provide insights into what concerns and issues there might be for both the teacher
educator and pre-service teacher education students. Due to the fact that there are a
very low percentage of all higher education students in Australia who currently study
creative arts subjects entirely through eLearning (a non-blended model), it is important
to learn from those who are engaged as to what makes the learning experience positive
and educationally rewarding. What was immediately apparent in conducting a survey of
students’ views was that there was an openness and honesty of reflection amongst the
students who volunteered to be a part of the study.
It should also be acknowledged that pre-service teacher education distance students
cannot necessarily lead the way in the development of instructional models because in
many cases they have limited experience of what it means to study Visual Arts in other
ways – to put it bluntly ‘they do not know what there is to know’. A limitation to this study
was that because many of students involved had low levels of discipline specific knowledge
and experience, their stated understandings of the differences in learning visual arts in an
on-line unit (rather than through direct FTF instruction) was limited. Consequently this
impacted upon the findings of the study. While canvassing student perspectives proved
useful to me I strongly believe that the impetus is for the teacher educator to be informed
about what constitutes ‘best practice’ in this new learning paradigm.
In discussing teaching practices in schools through to higher education, inclusive education
Simmonet and Modrick (2010, p. 4) comment that, a ‘one size fits all curriculum’ usually
only benefits a minority of learners. Overall, the available research evidence appears to
suggests that promoting self-reflection, self-regulation and self-monitoring leads to more
positive online learning outcomes. One of the main outcomes of this study was to set
a teaching path to establish more cooperative and interactive tasks in my units and to
look at alternative assessment models that give students greater control of their learning.
Further time will be needed to craft the curriculum to suit the particular needs of different
individuals within the future cohorts of off campus students.

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Despite the obvious technical hurdles, the success of virtual learning and teaching in my
experience often comes down to attitude - the attitude of both lecturers and students
to the subject and to technological forms of delivering content knowledge and skills. My
experience with online education has forced me to radically re-consider my role as an
art educator, as well as my teaching philosophy and methodologies. Ideally, I will become
better at exploiting and harnessing visual communication to teach curriculum content
in an exciting and engaging way in a screen-based learning environment. Becoming
more experimental about teaching approaches and learning what students think and
feel about the different teaching strategies tailored to this environment is crucial to this
success. A self-reflective and reflexive teacher can develop and refine their practice over
time through challenging their own assumptions about the way that things are taught.
Underpinning this is the ability to be introspective: examining, questioning, and looking
critically at one’s role in an educational context. Improvements to education through the
use of new technologies might be largely to do with teacher’s rethinking of their teaching,
rather than the technologies themselves. In my experience virtual learning environments
if innovative and not homogenized, require a great deal of academic time and expertise.
Looking outside the immediate concerns of my own teaching context, I can see that there
are complex issues that need to be debated and researched further within the tertiary
teacher education sector. For example, the benefits of blended learning over purely online
teacher education has not been explored in this paper but this is something that probably
needs to be highlighted as another viable alternative for the tertiary sector. Whilst this was
not the subject of the current study it certainly is a matter that warrants further research.
Comparisons between these two distance education models, in terms of how effective they
are in maintaining the quality and strength of delivery of both the primary and secondary
Visual Arts curriculum in NSW, is vitally important. It is essential to maintain quality across
primary, secondary and tertiary curriculum and pedagogy if at all possible, and this paper
seeks to reveal some of the complexity of the debate in terms of online delivery. Further
issues involved in online pre-service teacher education will no doubt be brought forward
with the roll out of the Australian curriculum over the next few years and nationwide
large scale reviews of quality standards within Australian university teacher education
sector, such as, the recent study of online initial teacher education courses currently being
conducted as part of the Great Teaching Inspired Learning initiative (BOSTES, 2014).

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Alexandra Cutcher
DRAWING ON EXPERIENCE: THE CHALLENGES
THAT GENERALIST TEACHERS FACE IN DELIVERING
VISUAL ARTS EFFECTIVELY IN PRIMARY SCHOOL
Southern Cross University
Abstract
This paper examines contemporary challenges in providing relevant and quality Visual
Arts education in the Primary school setting in Australia. To that end, implications and
issues surrounding an effective Visual Arts education delivered by generalist teachers are
discussed. Based upon the growing field of research, it is also argued that a robust Arts
education is crucial for 21st century learners, never before more vital than in the current
economic, technological and social milieux. It is suggested that in the current climate of
high-stakes testing and standardisation, an education in the Arts and through the Arts
can reform education in ways that attend to the needs of our children as well as to the
prevailing political demands regarding creativity and innovation.
A man paints with his brain, and not his hands - Michelangelo
Orientation
This paper is inspired in part by the professionalism and commitment of 23 primary school
educators from 6 schools in 3 learning communities in northern New South Wales (NSW),
Australia. In late 2013, I had the pleasure of delivering a professional development program
in Visual Arts education (VAPDP) over a 10 week period to teachers who had responded
to an expression of interest. In light of the national curriculum in the Arts, it is my belief
that there is a need for such professional development and my role as the only Visual Arts
academic at the local university to address such a need. What I didn’t expect was the
depth of that need, as well as the depth of frustration regarding the current educational
climate and the conflicting demands upon primary school teachers. Unintentionally, the
teachers became a focus group; the professional development course became an inquiry;
my personal reflections on their progress became critical research evidence and their
hearty willingness to be surveyed about their concerns and issues became useful data to
inform this paper.
The first section of this paper examines the contexts for the discussion regarding the

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contemporary situation of Primary education. Ensuing from this, the challenges to
implementing Visual Arts effectively in Primary schools are reviewed. This is done in the first
instance through the responses to a survey and informal interviews with the focus group
of teachers. By way of linking their perspectives, a discussion related to the prevailing
contexts in Australian education, specifically the state of New South Wales (NSW) are
then examined. This is followed by an argument supported by the current research,
regarding the myriad and powerful benefits of a Visual Arts education and the reasons
for its necessary presence in the primary curriculum. Finally, a discussion of the needs of
generalist primary teachers in implementing Visual Arts effectively is explored.
Contexts
Every first world nation maintains the importance of the Arts in education, for the culture and
for a range of social benefits (Bamford, 2006; Gadsen, 2008). Yet despite the prevailing
political rhetoric around the need for such essentials as creativity and innovation (Garrett,
2013) as can be realised through a robust Arts education, time in the curriculum is not
necessarily authorized and Visual Arts tends to linger at the margins of the curriculum
(Ewing, 2011). In Australia, where a new national curriculum has been designed in the Arts
assigning five discipline areas from K- 8 for compulsory implementation, the syllabus does
not mandate hours of engagement and enactment will rely entirely upon the grace of
individual principals.
Thus, these ironies have resulted in an atmosphere of ambiguity with respect to curriculum
priorities and delivery. Whilst in Australia, we have a partially realised national curriculum
(Phases 2 and 3 are yet to be effected) that mandates participation in a wide range of
subject areas including the Arts (from Foundation to Year 8), scheduled for implementation
in 2014 (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA], 2011). On
the other hand, there is the prevailing culture of accountability, standardisation and national
testing in the form of NAPLAN (National Assessment Program - Literacy and Numeracy),
which has resulted in political pressure asserted onto schools and teachers, as well as a
concomitant narrowing of the curriculum (Alter, Hays & O’Hara, 2009a; Carbonell, 2012;
Gibson & Ewing, 2011; Hosking, 2012; Mather, 2012).
A further complicating factor is that whilst several states have implemented the Arts
curriculum, the Board of Studies, Teaching and Educational Standards (BOSTES), which
is the state based authority responsible for educational content in NSW, has not yet
incorporated Phase 2 of the national curriculum into its syllabus content and has been

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somewhat opaque in its communication of plans to do so (BOSTES, 2012). Together with
a federal government that does not adhere to the previous government’s educational
policies and is reviewing many of their curricular imperatives (Wiltshire, 2014), it would
appear that the curriculum is not only in limbo, but also risks breakdown.
In such an environment, the pressures and responsibilities upon school principals to
balance these competing tensions are becoming increasingly complex and difficult, with
school data being publicly reported (see www.MySchool.edu.au) and the new curriculum
demands being an additional challenge. Concurrently, and largely due to the national
testing regime, there exists a culture of dissembling, competition, fear and blame when
there should instead be genuine transparency, collaboration, respect and openness (Reid,
2009).
Meanwhile, most of the pressure is brought to bear on classroom teachers who are
expected to make sure that their students are able to perform in the national testing
regime whilst ensuring the curriculum they deliver is both broad and relevant. This creates
an educational bottleneck, with teachers being caught in the crush.
Challenges
Through survey responses and informal focus group interviews, the teachers in the VAPDP
attested to the challenges and complications in delivering Visual Arts in their schools and in
many ways their concerns reflect the literature in the field. This is not surprising, yet it was a
confronting realisation that the issues were so consistent across all 6 schools represented
(23 teachers) and that the frustrations were so deeply felt. The difficulties identified fall
into three categories, namely resources, lack of awareness and accountability. Firstly, the
identified resource themes included:
• absence of professional learning support and funding;
• the material cost of supplies;
• shortage of non-carpeted spaces to conduct ‘wet’ practical lessons;
• lack of time;
• organisational issues.
Despite the systemic issues identified, the teachers found these challenges surmountable.

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They felt that they could overcome many of these issues with collegial support and ingenuity.
However, they identified that the other categories were more problematic. These (lack
of awareness and accountability) were regarded as being somewhat overwhelming. The
second of these, a lack of awareness regarding Visual Arts education included themes
such as:
• principals who don’t understand the benefits;
• devaluation because of lack of mandated time in the curriculum;
• lack of testing in this area equated with lack of curriculum importance;
• lack of data regarding achievement in Visuals Arts;
• stereotypical, negative beliefs regarding Visual Arts;
• lack of interest;
• not a professional development priority;
• lack of/ poor quality pre-service training;
• lack of confidence, knowledge, understanding, skills;
• absence of information regarding Visual Arts and employability.
These issues were seen as being concrete obstacles in their schools. These are not problems
that can be overcome with an enthusiastic attitude and a willingness to improvise; rather,
it was felt that these issues actively impede the ability of primary teachers to implement a
successful Visual Arts education. Nevertheless, the teachers agreed that with good quality
information and support, these impediments could also (ultimately) be overcome.
However, it was the last category that they found most intransigent. The issue of
accountability loomed as the largest barrier to successful and regular Visual Arts
education in primary schools, as influence typically rests with those directly accountable
for curriculum delivery – the school principals. The teachers were quick to assert that
this was not always the case, however numerous were vigorous in their claims that many
school leaders inhibited Arts implementation. The themes included:
• principals with tunnel vision regarding NAPLAN results;

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• principals not giving educational priority to the Arts;
• principals’ personal and professional accountability for NAPLAN results;
• principals giving directives to teachers regarding curriculum focus areas tied
directly to NAPLAN.
These themes are inextricably linked to the climate of standardisation that is a contemporary
global trend in education, despite its questionable history of success (Eisner, 2011; Ewing,
2011, 2012; Robinson, 2006; Wu & Hornsby, 2012). The work of the primary teacher thus
largely attends to the standards regime, and as acknowledged by the teachers in the
VAPDP, this is reinforced in their undergraduate preparation. Generalist primary teachers
in NSW are expected to have skills, knowledge and understandings across all areas of
the school curriculum in the key learning areas (KLAs) of English, Mathematics, Science,
Human Society and its Environment, History, PDHPE, Creative Arts and Languages. This
is a complex, challenging and complicated demand (Alter, et al., 2009a) in light of the
attendant reality that their pre-service training largely focuses on the ‘core’ subjects such as
English, Mathematics and Science. This has resulted in limited exposure to the development
of both skills and knowledge about the discipline, a lack of confidence (Barton, Baguley &
MacDonald, 2013; Alter, et al., 2009a; Dinham, 2011; McArdle & Bolt, 2013) and a lack of
pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1987) development.
When teachers graduate and enter schools, they are too often underprepared for the
challenges of a broad curriculum, often lacking in interest and positive experiences in
Arts education (Alter et al., 2009a; Barton, et al., 2013). In the current climate it is sadly
misguided to assume that pre-service education can wholly prepare generalist teachers for
the demands of a diverse and comprehensive curriculum. As identified by the teachers in
the VAPDP, in-service training and professional development in Visual Arts education are
also rarities, further complicating teachers’ ability to deliver effective Visual Arts education.
Yet the reality is that these same teachers are charged with delivering mandatory Arts
education - providing that the principal supports it.
The teachers in the VAPDP reported that many of their principals, often driven by the reality
of their personal accountability for improved NAPLAN results, had specifically directed
them to focus upon only literacy and numeracy at the expense of all other curriculum areas.
This confirms the literature that asserts teachers are ‘teaching to the test’ (Carbonell,
2012; Hosking, 2012; Mather, 2012) and consequently narrow the curriculum offerings

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for students. Further, the teachers reported they were somewhat afraid to implement
marginalised subjects such as Visual Arts at all, as it would risk the ire of their principals and
require extensive justification and defence. This type of fraught leadership by principals
has dire implications for quality teaching, holistic education and student engagement.
When we privilege ideas and actions, we make a statement about what we value as a
society. In the case of contemporary education in Australia, we value sameness, uniformity
and homogeneity through standardisation (Ewing, 2011; Hosking, 2012; Wu & Hornsby,
2012). We value quantitative and verbal skills and the ability to regurgitate information
(Winner & Hetland, 2007). These skills that we value and test are poor predictors of
life satisfaction and eventual success and reveal very little about the depth of students’
knowledge, abilities and desire to learn (ibid).
And yet, despite all of these challenges and issues, the reality is that we have a prospective
national curriculum in the Arts about to be implemented, indeed in some states it is already
implemented. Primary teachers will be required to teach it and to date there has been an
obvious lack of professional and systemic support for this curriculum. Before a discussion of
what teachers will need in order to do so effectively, a discussion regarding of the benefits
of Arts education is necessary, by way of advocacy and endorsement for the discipline.
Whilst this may seem redundant or misplaced in this argument, given that the national
curriculum document already exists for the Arts and is mandatory, the previous discussion
would strongly suggest that there is an urgent need to persistently inform the educational
community about the advantages of this vital area of education.
The benefits of an education in the Arts and through the Arts
As a fundamental cultural practice, humans are innately aesthetic, cultural producers and
evidence of Arts making in every culture from every place and time has been consistently
documented; it is normal, necessary, social behaviour (Dissanyake, 2007). Expressing
oneself is a deep human need (Dinham, 2011); the Arts are central to human development
(Gibson & Ewing, 2011).
Accordingly, the evidence that attests to the benefits for students of a robust Arts education
is profuse and has been growing for more than a decade (Ewing, 2011). These reports and
many other research accounts, books and papers unilaterally claim a correlation between
engagement in the Arts and a range of educational, social and economic benefits. These
benefits are seen as both essential to the development of the whole child and to their

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educational success (Catterall 2009; Davis 2008; Davis 2012; Eisner 2002, 2006, 2011;
Ewing 2011; Fiske 1999; Gibson & Ewing 2011; Jensen 2001; McCarthy, Ondaatje, Zakaras
& Brooks, 2004; Robinson 2009).
In terms of academic achievement, the benefits are extensive. Arts students are more
successful in their learning (Winner, Goldstein & Vincent-Lacrin, 2013), the advantages
grow over time (Catterall, 2009) and the positive effects from Arts learning last well into
adulthood (Rabkin, in Catterall, 2009). In a study by Burton, Horowitz and Abeles (1999)
it was reported that students who have more exposure to Arts instruction experienced a
20% increase than their (less exposed) peers on creative thinking measures, as well as
fluency, originality, elaboration and resistance to closure (cited in Ewing 2011). Positive
achievements in reading, language and mathematics development, including higher test
scores in standardised measures (Vaughn, Harris and Caldwell, 2011), as well as increased
higher order thinking skills and capacities are also advantages of an Arts-rich learning
environment (Deasy, 2002; McCarthy, et al., 2004). Improvements in imaginative
thinking and cognitive growth have also been described (Catterall, 2002; McCarthy, et
al., 2004) and the capacity for reflection and metacognition are also enhanced (Winner,
et al., 2013). The Arts also have the ability to transform the learning environment, by
challenging those students who are already successful (Fiske, 1999) to push themselves
further, and significantly, are most beneficial for students from lower socioeconomic status
(SES) (Catterall, 2009; Vaughn, et al., 2011).
Students from low SES backgrounds are more likely to graduate if they attend schools where
they have access to the Arts and these Arts programs are well resourced. The benefits
range from the very beginnings of schooling to the end and beyond. The advantages of
an Arts-rich education for children was found to be particularly overwhelming in the early
years of schooling (Catterall, 2002) and students who are in Arts-rich school environments
are more likely to be in the top third of their graduating class (Davis, 2012). These benefits
are made possible through students being “co-constructors of a dynamic education rather
than recipients of schooling and shapers of knowledge rather than recipients of knowledge”
(Gadsen, 2008, p.34).
In terms of social accomplishment, the benefits are pertinent to both educational success
and to the society at large (Gadsen, 2008). The creation of social bonds (through sharing,
discussion, collaboration) and expression of communal meanings (shared history, identity,
cultural critique) are exemplified in an Arts education (McCarthy, et al., 2004). Students

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understand the Arts through understandings of the social and cultural contexts that sustain
and shape them (Gadsen, 2008). Such knowledge encourages empathy and appreciation
of the other. Teacher-student relationships are enhanced, teacher and student morale is
increased and it is suggested that this is due to “deeper and more conceptual learning”
(Catterall, 2009, p. 125) that takes place in Arts classrooms. This is a particularly powerful
finding, as Hattie (2003) asserts, the teacher-student relationship is the single most
powerful indicator of educational success.
Student engagement, particularly those students who have been previously difficult to
motivate, is another advantage of Arts learning – connecting students to themselves, to each
other as well as to the world through Arts education (Fiske, 1999) leads to improvements
in effective social behaviours and increased motivation to learn (Deasy, 2002; McCarthy,
et al., 2004; Winner et al., 2013). Arts students have higher levels of enthusiasm and
commitment to their studies and a more ambitious approach to their academic work
(Winner, et al., 2013). Arts education also facilitates the creation of a sense of community
identity, and the building of social capital and organisational capacity (McCarthy, et
al., 2004), with Arts students most likely to demonstrate pro-social behaviour such as
voluntary work and political involvement (Catterall 2009) and are more likely to become
lifelong learners and productive, social contributing citizens (ibid).
In terms of emotional development, the benefits are myriad. McCarthy et al., (2004)
report that an improvement in attitudinal and behavioural qualities (e.g. self-discipline and
efficacy, attitudes, increased attendance, decreased dropout rates) makes educational
success a more concrete possibility. To that end, Arts learning also engages students,
ensuring they experience captivation (a state of focused attention) and pleasure (deep
satisfaction) (ibid), which are in and of themselves, motivating factors. Davis (2012) reports
that Arts-engaged students are more likely to enjoy their school experience and be
positively engaged in their learning, and experience an expanded capacity for compassion
which can lead to the potential for creating social bonds. This can in turn lead to better
understanding of the consequences of one’s behaviour (McCarthy, et al., 2004). Such
an understanding can also result in an increased ability to work in teams and a greater
ability to accept constructive peer critique (ibid). Arts students are also likely to develop
and sustain resilience (Stride, 2013; Vaughn, et al., 2011). These pro-social behaviours,
developed through shared experiences of Art, improve self-discipline and self-efficacy and
are also associated with improved school attendance and reduced drop-out rates (Davis,
2012). It has also been suggested that engaging in an Arts-rich educational program can

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have ramifications for improved mental health (Ewing, 2011).
In terms of economic implications, the benefits are tangible (McCarthy, et al., 2004).
For example, for every £1 invested in the Creative Partnerships program in the U.K.
over almost a decade, the country received £15.3 worth of returns in social benefits
(PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2010). This is a substantial return on the initial investment.
If Arts education students earn higher grades and score better on standardised test
measures than those with little or no Arts involvement, regardless of their socioeconomic
background (Catterall, Chapleau & Iwanaga, 1999), this also has real economic implications
for a more prosperous nation. Indeed, when low SES students engage in Arts education,
they will often outperform not only their non-Arts peer, but all of the average students and
are more likely to attend and succeed at university (Catterall, 2009). Such students are
also more likely to be lifelong learners (UNESCO, 2013). Although such yields are only
beginning to be documented, it is anticipated that with increased participation in Arts
programs and Arts education, economic benefits will continue to be forthcoming.
The evidence is therefore quite clear regarding the advantages of learning in and through
the Arts (Gibson & Ewing, 2011; Jensen, 2001; Robinson, 2009). When taught well, the
Arts are a lens for teaching about the world (Bamford, 2006; Gadsen, 2008).
This last issue is critical; such benefits are only achieved in an Arts education of quality
within a comprehensive education (Ewing, 2011), and a quality education in any curriculum
area must be reinforced if it is to be fully realised. Such support can be categorised under
three basic themes that address the difficulties and challenges identified by the teachers
in the VAPDP, namely authentic curriculum recognition, systemic provisions and adequate
funding support.
What generalist teachers need in order to deliver Visual Arts e"ectively in Primary
School
Authentic curriculum recognition
Whilst it is certainly a positive development for Australian education, the proposed national
curriculum in the Arts only delivers a fragment of the necessary educational piece. Although
it recognises the important position of Arts learning in the education of our children, it does
not specifically mandate engagement, nor is it accompanied by the support required in
order to ensure its smooth implementation. It does not promote Arts learning as a central
focus of the curriculum and it is not tied to assessment or accountability in any form.

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Principals will decide how much time will be given to the Arts in the curriculum in each of
their schools (ACARA, 2011). If the status quo is maintained, as the teachers in the VADP
have identified, this will be very little time at all.
It is not suggested that the Arts be tied to a system of standardised assessment; such
a scheme would be diametrically opposed to the individuation that an Arts education
encourages (Eisner, 2011, 2006). However, in the current educational climate, as identified
by the teachers in the VAPDP, curriculum importance is in fact linked to what we value as a
society (Eisner, 2006). Because of the omnipotence of standardised testing of literacy and
numeracy in Australia, principals and therefore the community, deem such mechanisms as
significant indicators of what is valued educationally. A culture shift is necessary to move
towards a situation where principals do not suffer the anxiousness of accountability that
currently drives curriculum priorities and their subsequent sometimes myopic choices.
Rather than arguing for a reductionist system of standardised testing and uniformity
such as NAPLAN, many in the academic community argue for its abolishment (Ewing,
2012; Wu & Hornsby, 2012). There are better ways to ensure students’ achievement is
measured, ways which are less intrusive, less expensive and more relevant. Instead of
modelling our educational imperatives on systems from countries that rank below us in
educational achievement (as we have done with NAPLAN), perhaps we should look towards
educational systems that outshine us on international measures of achievement, such as
the often quoted Finland (PISA, 2009). Such systems have less emphasis on standardised
testing and more emphasis on the Arts and on play. A curriculum that is truthfully broad
and which engages a wide range of thinking and doing, a wide range of languages and
learning is a desirable educational ideal. A curriculum that recognises the importance of
each existing subject in practice, meaning the actual provision of aspects such as time
and other genuine stipulations, is a worthy goal. This is the first of the recommendations
necessary for effective delivery of Visual Arts education in primary schools, that of authentic
curriculum recognition for Visual Arts. This imperative is an important first step in ensuring
quality delivery of Visual Arts in primary school, upon which further strategies can be built.
Once authentic curriculum recognition has been realised, a series of systemic imperatives
would then be able to be implemented. For example, pre-service teacher training could
then be aligned with such recognition, gaining parity with subjects such as English and
Mathematics. If the Visual Arts were to attain curriculum parity, the requirement would then
be to prepare teachers in a commensurate approach to the other curriculum essentials.

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Primary teachers need to understand what practice in the Visual Arts actually is from
an experiential perspective, in order to ensure that they can provide quality learning
experiences for their students. Although Duncum (1999) has previously argued that
generalist teachers only need to know about teaching strategies in Visual Arts in order
to effectively deliver it, I do not concur. Until specialist Visual Arts teachers exist in every
primary school, generalist teachers need to have an understanding of what it is to make
Art in their undergraduate preparation, in order that they can teach their students how
to do likewise. In this way, their teaching draws from their own experience and becomes
truly authentic and empathic; it will also have better motivational outcomes for both the
teacher and the learner (Winner, et al., 2013). Teacher preparation must have creative
and expressive elements that involve higher-order thinking, the synthesising of knowledge,
encounters with critical thinking, imagination and sophisticated cognitive activity (Bresler,
1994).
Systemic provisions
If the Visual Arts were to be genuinely recognised and stipulated in the curriculum, it
would follow that professional learning would be able to be activated in legitimate ways.
This would mean that it would be funded and delivered effectively for maximum impact.
The approach would be similar to the preparation imperatives suggested above. In the
VAPDP, this was exactly the approach; we made Art and we studied Art. Drawing from
this direct experience, the teachers developed their understandings of the field from a
practitioner perspective.
Such direct experience is vital to primary teachers’ understandings and to the development
of pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1987). If we expect generalist teachers to
teach Visual Arts authentically, they must be aware of the dynamics of the domain. Thus,
they also must have a straightforward understanding of the Art world and the agencies
that operate within it. This can be described as a conceptual framework of the artist,
artwork, world and audience (Maras & Barbousas, 2010). In this way, generalist teachers
experience what it is to authentically, experientially create artworks and to interpret the
Art of others.
Despite the challenges they faced in their schools as mentioned above, the responses from
the teachers in the VAPDP were overwhelmingly optimistic. Despite the program occurring
after a long school day, the teachers were enthusiastic and energetic in their response to
the artmaking activities and to the discussion about the Art world. Most reported that

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they felt it was a ‘luxury’ – time to make Art for themselves that had the happy outcome of
positively informing their teaching practice. One teacher asserted,
So enjoyable… I have gained the most in terms of how and what I can take back to the
classroom. This is the first time I’ve been to a course (during or after hours) where time
flies and you leave feeling that you have learnt and done something useful. I will be more
relaxed [in my teaching of Visual Arts]. I will give things a go and be more encouraging –
there is no right or wrong. I have a good understanding now… I will relax and incorporate
more Arts lessons across all subjects.
Our dialogue and discussion also inspired a new Visual Arts network in our region for
collegial sharing, resource development and additional professional learning. Such
opportunities for in-service professional development programs need to be systemically
supported, with resources and support documents being accessible, meaningful and
shared. Presently in NSW, there are many available resources as well as curriculum support
for the current Creative Arts syllabus from both BOSTES and the NSW Department of
Education and Communities (for details, see http://k6.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/go/
creative-arts; http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/primary/creativearts/),
yet the teachers in the VAPDP were largely unaware of the existence of these quality
teaching and curriculum materials. This is no doubt due to a lack of support in guiding
teachers to these resources, as well as a lack of time and educational leadership. If the
national curriculum in the Arts is going to be successfully implemented, such absences
must be addressed.
Adequate funding support
All of the initiatives mentioned above require policy adjustment and additional
investment. Increasing the ‘market share’ of Arts preparation in undergraduate training
will require funding as will in-service professional learning. Resource development and
support documentation will also need to be fully funded, at least in the early phases of
implementation of mandatory Visual Arts.
There is no denying that delivering authentic Visual Arts in any educational setting is a
relatively expensive undertaking when compared to other subject areas. It is not, however,
prohibitive, and the educational returns are well worth the initial investment for such
an essential subject area. Although budgetary arguments are often made, quality Art
materials are essential. Studio spaces or at least studio areas within classrooms must be

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provided that will cope with ‘wet work’ and the attendant classroom management issues.
Perhaps the most pressing need for funding support is time; time for teachers to prepare,
time to develop and share resources and time for collegial support. Developing curricula
for Arts programs is at its best when it is a collaborative affair and dialogue and discussion
are necessary inspirational processes in such endeavours. Educational networks can
sustain these activities, as can Arts specialist teachers in local high schools and universities.
Principals can support these efforts by acknowledging the importance of the Arts and
actively providing for their implementation.
Animating prospects
In order to be successful in their work, the artist needs to see – to understand the qualitative
relationships in their own work and to make judgments about them; these relationships
and judgements will be idiosyncratic to that particular work (Eisner, 2006, 2002).
Exploration and discovery are important, as is opening up our students to the uncertain
(Isgreen, 2009). In order to do this well, intuition is fundamental and the Arts teach us
to act and to judge without rules, to work with the particular and to do what “feels right”
(Eisner, 2002). One cannot succeed in Art without developing this cognitive ability, being
able to integrate feeling and thinking in ways that ensure that they are inseparable. In the
teaching of the Arts, we use purposeful eclecticism in our approaches (Delacruz, 2009).
We feel the results, we feel the relationships, we become more “qualitatively intelligent”
(Eisner, 2002).
Artmaking fits this imperative, in its inquiry based nature, and its eclectic, creative,
process based, constructivist, adaptive learning (Delacruz 2009). Visual Arts instruction
teaches students to be aware not just of what is being said, but how the argument is being
constructed (Eisner, 2002). This self-conscious posture creates learning experiences that
refine students’ perception. The uncertain and the element of surprise are factors that
exist in the process of artmaking and it makes thinking flexible and responsive. Artists
pay attention to the particular, and different mediums have different cognitive demands
(ibid). Thinking through the materials of artistic practice is an experience students do
not get from any other source and the sensual qualities of the materials matter Eisner,
2011). Thus, the Visual Arts gives very specific forms of experience, diverse satisfactions
and different pleasures. To operate at their best, students need to be able to deal with
mixed messages, make judgments when there are no rules, understand and deal with the
ambiguous and create imaginative solutions to complex problems (Eisner, 2006). In a

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culture of homogeneity and teaching to a standardised test, the opportunities to develop
these important life skills are largely ignored.
Learning in the Visual Arts is different to learning in English and Mathematics and it utilises
different ontological and epistemological positions (Eisner, 2011, 2006, 2002). This is
necessary in education; the notion of idiosyncrasy and the peculiar balance conceptions
of uniformity and consistency. If we are indeed to prepare 21st century citizens, we ought
to attend to the eternal qualities in us all. We must, in good faith, ensure that our children
have opportunities to know, to learn, to create, to think and to feel.
If we ignore a fundamental aspect of what it is to be human, to express ourselves through
materials and the physical representation of ideas, then we risk inadequate preparation
for the demands of life and experience. We must move towards a model of education that
embraces the whole self in all of its imaginative, creative, intellectual, and experiential
splendour. The kind of schools we need (Eisner, 2002) are those who embrace this model;
the kind of schools that embrace artistry, that realise potential (Ewing, 2010). The kind
of schools we need recognise the peculiar, the individual and the distinctive. The kind of
schools we need deliver Visual Arts effectively to their students.
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DRAWING CONCLUSIONS: WHAT PURPOSE
DO CHILDREN’S DRAWINGS SERVE?
University of Canberra
Abstract
Drawing and writing have been a part of primary classrooms for decades, but have they
been used in mutually informing and beneficial ways or, has drawing been misunderstood
and under utilised in the primary school classroom? As well as serving its own important
learning purposes, drawing can enhance learning in other curriculum areas. This article
focuses in particular upon the ways in which drawing can support the development of
writing skills and present a framework for analysing purpose in children’s drawings.
Introduction
When asked the question ‘Doesn’t your painting interfere with your writing?’ poet
e.e.cummings replied, ‘On the contrary, they love each other’ (Nikitina, 2009, p.3). Can
this ‘mutual affection’ which e.e.cummings observed in his creative work, be applied usefully
in primary school classrooms? Unquestionably drawing and writing have been a part of
primary school classrooms for decades, but this paper argues that drawing may be under
utilised. Numerous studies suggest that, as well as serving its own important learning
purposes, drawing can enhance learning in other curriculum areas (Neu and Berglund,
1991; Brooks, 2005).
In schools today, writing is the predominant way in which students demonstrate their
understanding of learned concepts and share their understandings of those concepts. No
matter how multimodal the outside world is, mastering writing is of paramount importance,
and is currently the key to success in schools (Millard & Marsh, 2001; Wright, 2003).
The National Assessment Program for Literacy and Numeracy (Australian Curriculum
Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA], 2012b) in Australia and the Australian
Curriculum in English (ACARA, 2012a), the National Literacy Strategy in the UK (Stannard
& Huxford, 2007) and the No Child Left Behind policy in the USA ( United States Department
of Education, 2001) and its successor Race to the Top (United States Department of
Education, 2012) are all indications of the importance governments place on literacy in
schools, and of the likelihood print literacy will retain its privileged status in schools. It is

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important, therefore, for educators to be accountable for literacy learning outcomes in
schools. But there is a danger that in doing so educators may narrow their pedagogical
responses to the challenge (Garvis & Pendergast, 2010), including discounting the role of
drawing in learning to read and write.
In this article, I briefly review the ways in which mainstream classroom teachers have
traditionally understood children’s drawings, before reporting on a study that investigated
the drawings of a class of 8 and 9 year old English second language learners. Extracting
data from that study I examine the role of drawing in the development of conceptual and
process understandings of the written genres of procedures and explanations. I identify
parallels between the procedural and explanatory drawings and writing the children
produce, and present an analytical tool for examining ways in which purpose is achieved
in children’s informational drawings. The article concludes with a discussion of why current
narrowing curriculum agendas make it even more urgent for art educators to articulate
the learning benefits that drawing can bring to the primary school classroom.
Drawing in mainstream primary classrooms
Research indicates that mainstream classroom teachers acknowledge the value of drawing
with young learners, but curriculum constraints and their own pedagogical strengths
(Bowell, 2011; Garvis & Pendergast, 2010; Mackenzie, 2011) result in a decline in the
use of drawing in mainstream classroom settings. Drawing has classically been seen by
mainstream classroom teachers as an innate talent possessed by some, and useful for
decorating the classroom, or filling in time (Garvis & Pendergast, 2010). This perception
fails to recognise the communicative nature of drawing. We know that young children are
prodigious visual communicators (Anning, 2000; Dyson, 1983, 1986; Hubbard, 1989). In
fact they successfully use all the symbol systems available to them, including drawing, to
represent and make sense of the world and to communicate those understandings to those
around them (Wright, 2003). However children’s propensity to draw declines at about
the same time that writing begins to predominate as the school’s preferred communicative
symbol system – at around 8-9 years of age (Anning, 2003; Baghban, 1992; Gardner, 1980;
Wilson & Wilson, 1982). This has led some researchers who investigate writing to surmise
that writing is the natural replacement as the primary communication system (Clay, 1975,
1979; Graves, 1983) leading to a general reduction on the focus of drawing as a tool for
learning in literacy (Baghban, 1992; Bottrell, 2011; Mackenzie, 2011).
This view of writing as the evolutionary successor of drawing fails to capitalise on the

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mutual benefits drawing and writing have for one another if both are nurtured (Bottrell,
2011; Caldwell & Moore, 1991; Cameron, 1997; Dyson, 1983; Mackenzie, 2011). As a
consequence too many teachers celebrate the disappearance of drawing in their writing
classrooms, perceiving drawing as a ‘crutch’ to be thrown away as soon as possible
(Anning, 2000; Millard & Marsh, 2001). The disappearance of drawing from children’s
communicative repertoire is thus more likely to be a consequence of schooling itself rather
than a consequence of ‘natural’ drawing development.
The perception of drawing as an optional expressive activity, an innate talent, may be
traced, in part, to movements within Art education itself. There has been a theoretical
divide around how drawing develops in children, between the ‘perceptualists’ and the
‘conventionalists’ (Hopkins, 1998; McFee & Degge, 1980). ‘Perceptualists’ conceive of
drawing as a natural and innate ability, which unfolds through predictable and inevitable
stages that should not be interfered with by external intervention or instruction (Cisek
cited in Smith, 1985; McFee & Degge, 1980). ‘Conventionalists’ emphasise the importance
of graphic conventions in the drawing process, contending that these conventions are
learned from others, from other people’s drawings or from surrounding imagery and they
can be explicitly taught (Eisner, 1978; Imms, 2010). The two perspectives have parallels
within theories of writing development. Perceptualists beliefs closely align with nativist
theories, that understand language acquisition as natural and innate. Conventionalists
align with social interactionist theories that understand language acquisition as scaffolded
through social interaction and direct instruction from others (Eisner, 1978; Vygotsky, 1978).
The use of drawing in most primary school classrooms, knowingly or otherwise, reflects a
perceptualist paradigm, indicative of the widely held belief amongst mainstream classroom
teachers that the Visual Arts are concerned primarily with creativity, and creativity is an
innate trait which a teacher cannot, or should not, influence (Anning, 2000; Coates,
2002; Wilks, 2005). This view is perpetuated in the curriculum materials provided to
mainstream teachers, as reported in Bottrell (2011). The study reported in this article takes
a conventionalist and social interactionist view of drawing and writing; in other words
both may serve social purposes as well as expressive purposes. Moreover they can both
be taught, rather than simply ‘caught’ through the provision of a sympathetic learning
environment.
The relationship between writing and drawing
Whilst some of the literature in the field of art education reflects a perceptualist perspective

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which describes children’s drawings as expressions of self or reproduction of the immediate
environment or imaginings (Caldwell & Moore, 1991; Cameron, 1997; Coufal & Coufal,
2002). there is a significant body of literature that describes the purpose of drawing
beyond the creative and aesthetic, to include meaning making and interactions with those
around them (Ivashkevich, 2009). McFee and Degge (1980) describe drawing as a means
of recording information, of closely observing the world around us, recording what we
observe and using that record of observation as the basis for further enquiry. When Wolf
and Perry (1989) compared a seven-year old’s picture of her house with her map of it, they
noted the picture contained details like flowers and the surrounding environment, whilst
the map concentrated on size and position of rooms within the house. These drawings
served different purposes, fulfilled differing intentions of the creator and were constructed
quite differently. Similarly Cox’s observed (2005) that children draw ‘trees’ differently
dependent upon the purpose of the drawing, resulting in the conclusion that ‘it is varying
purposes that determine the way the representation is made’ (Cox, 2005, p. 121) and not
an innate intractable stage determined perceptual ability. Caldwell and Moore (1991)
conducted an investigation the effectiveness of drawing as a preparation for story writing
with second and third graders, and compared this with oral discussion as preparation.
They found that the quality of the writing from the drawing group was significantly higher
than that of the discussion group and concluded that using drawing as a preplanning
strategy for writing allows for easier revision and expansion of ideas. The study reported
in this paper sought to determine whether these findings from Caldwell and Moore’s (1991)
study were replicable for non-narrative writing, that is, would the quality of writing in non-
narrative texts improve if the children were given the opportunity to draw before they
wrote.
Non-narrative texts were chosen as the focus of the study as they predominate in the
curriculum areas of Science and Social Science. There are many kinds of non-narrative texts,
and this study focused upon the non-narrative text types of ‘procedures’ and ‘sequential
explanations’. These text types are challenging for primary school age learners, (Christie
& Derewianka, 2008) as they are technical texts written for a general reader rather
than the more personalised texts like narrative and personal recounts they more usually
produce. Helping children ‘into’ these texts can be a significant challenge for educators
(Hammond & Macken-Horarik, 2001).
Procedures are texts that instruct someone to make or do things; sequential explanations
are texts that explain how processes occur in our social and physical worlds (Wing

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Jan, 2008). When these text types are written, they follow a predictable, but socially
constructed structure – that is, the structure of these texts is not innate knowledge. In order
to successfully write each of these texts, a student must follow a particular structure, and
use specific vocabulary and grammatical features. In this study, the aim was to investigate
the ways in which drawing before writing may support students to recreate these linguistic
features of writing.
The study
The study reported in this paper involved 10 children from a Year 3/4 class in a government
Introductory English Centre situated in a primary school in the Australian Capital Territory
(ACT). The ACT is one of eight government jurisdictions which make up the federal States
and Territories of Australia. The Introductory English Centres are for students who are
newly arrived in the ACT with a language and cultural background other than English and
who have limited English language.
Description
In two different activities all of the children shared two experiences, namely:
making pikelets (small pancakes); and
watching a video about how honey is made.
After each experience they were split into two groups. One group (the Treatment group)
was asked to draw their two experiences, specifically, ‘how to make pikelets’ and ‘how
honey is made’, whilst the second group (the Control group) went back to their normal
classroom routine of quiet reading. Then both groups were asked to complete two writing
tasks - write a procedural text for making pikelets and write an explanatory text of how
honey is made. The Treatment group had their drawings to refer to as they completed the
writing task.
Methods
The study had two components. The first component of the study was to determine whether
the drawing impacted upon the quality of the writing, using a quantitative methodology.
Through the process of looking at the data, the drawings became as compelling as the
writing they inspired, and the research methodology expanded to include a secondary
investigation. This second component of the study was a qualitative analysis of the

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children’s drawings which sought to identify correlations between the verbal conventions
of the writing and the visual conventions of the drawings. The mixed methodologies
chosen for the study reflect the researcher’s position that knowledge is conjectural, but
has a basis of probable facts (Guba and Lincoln 1998). The study can be characterised as
‘postpositivist’. ‘Postpostivism relies on multiple methods as a way of capturing as much
of reality as possible’ (Denzin and Lincoln 2000) and therefore is a research approach
which suits this study. It allows the qualitative researcher to use quantitative measures
in the data analysis without reporting in complex statistical terms (ibid). In this study the
writing analyses provided statistical data, but it obviously was not appropriate to apply
the same numerical analysis to the drawings. Instead the drawings have been examined
qualitatively.
The first component of the study found that drawing before the non-narrative writing
improved the quality of the students’ writing. The writing was assessed against a series of
linguistic criteria at text, sentence and word level to determine its quality. Text level criteria
measured whether all the structural features of the text type were in place, for example,
title, ingredients and method for procedural writing. Sentence level criteria measured
the complexity of the sentences, through their use of phrases and clauses. Word level
criteria measured the appropriateness and breadth of the vocabulary used. The writing
produced by the children who drew before they wrote was significantly better at text and
sentence level and marginally better at word level. This was true in both the procedural
and explanation texts. A full description of the findings of the first component is reported
in Adoniou (2013). In this paper, the focus is on the findings of the second component
of the study, where the focus is on the visual conventions of the drawings the students
produced and which would be of significant interest to art educators.
The second component of this study involved the analysis of the children’s drawings
to identify correlations between the verbal conventions of the writing and the visual
conventions of the drawings that may explain why the drawing had been supportive of the
children’s writing. This second investigation crossed two distinct disciplinary fields, the Arts
and Literacy education. In selecting a methodology it was important to acknowledge the
concerns of some Arts educators (Bracey, 2001; Flood, 2004; Garvis & Pendergast, 2010)
who have expressed concern about people working in the Literacy field commandeering
the Arts and the possibility this will may result in a narrowing and devaluing their field.
As such it was important to develop an analysis tool that was cognizant of the distinctive
features of the visual arts and the language arts. Accordingly, an analytical framework

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was developed specifically for the study which drew upon traditions in both the Arts and
linguistic fields, which is discussed below.
Analysis of drawings
The analytical framework
In order to investigate the ways in which the drawings may have supported the writing they
generated, a framework was required with which to carry out a more systematic analysis of
the drawings and these features. To develop the framework, I first turned to existing tools
emerging from the visual literacy field (see Unsworth, 2001) but was concerned that these
were developed essentially to analyse images constructed by adults, for example artwork
in picture books, rather than children’s drawings. To supplement these tools, I also turned
to tools developed by those working primarily in the Art Education (e.g. Flood, 2004). A
full description of the analysis framework that was developed is provided below. Figures
1 and 2 are typical of the drawings from the study. Figure 1 provides an example of the
drawings that preceded the procedural writing task and Figure 2 provides an example of
the drawings that preceded the explanatory writing task.
Figure 1

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Figure 2
Specialist tools have been developed for analysing adult constructed images in school text
books and picture books (Callow, 1999; Kress & van Leeuwen, 1996; Unsworth, 2001). These
were drawn upon in order to develop a framework to analyse child constructed images
which serve non-narrative purposes. In this study, these were drawings which instruct and
explain. The framework developed for the analysis in this study and described in the next
section, sought to uncover the ways in which these children’s drawings were achieving
these non-narrative communicative purposes. As such the framework places the drawing
at the centre of analysis. This moves away from viewer-centred approaches to drawing
analyses, which are linked to a perceptualist view of drawing as an innate and essentially
self-expressive activity. The framework described in this paper is grounded in the work
of Callow (1999, 2013), Kress & van Leeuwen (1996) and in particular, Unsworth’s (2001)
Systemic Functional Linguistic framework for viewing the visual, through the following
three domains:
• Ideational (field) refers to the visual construction of the events, the objects and
participants involved in the image, and the circumstances in which they occur.
• Interpersonal (tenor) refers to the visual resources used to communicate the relationship
between participants within the image but also the relationship between creator and
the viewer;
• Textual (mode) refers to the tools used to cohere elements within the image in order to
realise the intended message.

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Unsworth’s (2001) framework has previously been used by the author (see Macken-
Horarik & Adoniou, 2008) for a constructive analysis of children’s multimodal narratives
that contained both the visual and the verbal within the text. For the present study, this
framework was further expanded to develop these three domains of field, tenor and mode,
with additional descriptors drawn from more conventional drawing analysis schemes
(Flood, 2004). The expanded framework follows.
Field – refers to the events, objects and participants involved in the image, and the
circumstances in which they occur. The features of children’s drawing which may realise
‘field’ are as follows:
• The image successfully conveys an intended message (Flood, 2004) achieved by the
arrangement and execution of the elements within;
• Participants (animate or inanimate objects) are represented by concrete and realistic
representations of or stylised shapes representing beings/objects;
• Objects are further characterised as actors, goals, recipients, reactors, phenomena,
sayer, or senser (Unsworth, 2001, p. 78);
• The elements of the image are identifiable in themselves, but also as part of the whole
(Flood, 2004). These elements can also be organised into categories suggestive of the
hierarchical relationship they have with one another. This is shown evident particularly
through ‘images that show part /whole relationships’ (Unsworth, 2001, p. 80);
• Processes may be indicated by action lines, vectors, lines and arrowheads (Unsworth
2001). They may also be represented by a drawing of an the object that is to carry out
an action, e.g. a hand holding a spoon in a bowl indicates ‘to mix’;
• A causal chain of events may be represented, where the result of one process becomes
the beginning of the next process (Kress and Van Leeuwen,1996, p.68);
• Processes can also be realised through speech bubbles (Unsworth 2001) or captions;
• The image may be topologically or topographically accurate (Kress and Van
Leeuwen, 1996). Topological accuracy is when the components of the drawing are
logically represented and all the components and their relationships are represented.
Topographical accuracy does all of this but also accurately represents relative size and
distance of and between objects (albeit scaled).

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Tenor – refers to the relationship between participants within the image but also the
relationship between creator and the viewer. The features of children’s drawings which
may realise ‘tenor’ are as follows:
• The image prompts a response in the viewer (Flood, 2004). This may be achieved
by the use of various visual techniques as well as through the deliberate selection of
content. Visual techniques are outlined below;
• Demand and offer - demand is when the participant demands the attention of the viewer
with a front-on gaze. Offer is when participants don’t ask for the viewers’ attention.
‘What is depicted is offered to the viewer quite impersonally for his or her information’
(Unsworth, 2001, p. 95);
• Distance can be described as close-up, medium or long-shot. The further away the
viewer is from the image the more depersonalised the image becomes;
• Attitude is realised through frontal or oblique views. Frontal views ask for maximum
involvement with the drawing whilst oblique views invite detachment, something for you
to ‘spy’ upon but not an invitation to participate in;
• Power relationships between the drawer and the viewer are realised through high
angle, low level and eye level images. With bird’s eye or high-angle views the viewer
is powerful over the participants in the image. With low-angle views the participants
within the image are powerful over the viewer. Eye level images denote equality between
participants and viewer;
• Visual techniques are also used to ensure that the relationship between the elements
within the image is obvious to the viewer (Flood, 2004).
Mode – refers to the tools used to cohere elements within the image in order to realise the
intended message. In children’s drawings these may include:
• The use of effective techniques of image placement but also through the effective use
of the elements of line, colour, texture, tone and shape (Flood, 2004);
• Technical competence (ibid4);
• Salience, achieved through size, colour, foregrounding, or framing (Callow, 2013);
Salience is viewed as an indication of what is important, personally, socially, contextually,

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or what is new knowledge to the child;
• The given or the known is represented on the left-hand side of the image, whilst the new
is presented on the right-hand side of the image (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1996);
• The ideal or the promise is presented at the top of the page whilst the real or the actual
is presented on the bottom of the page (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1996);
• Framing of elements in an image - where elements are not connected they are strongly
framed, where the elements are more integrated they are weakly framed. Framing can
occur through borders, or using sets of colour or shape to delineate elements within an
image (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1996).
This framework is not intended for use as an assessment of quality, but is rather a means of
investigating the ways in which children’s drawings achieve the communicative purposes
across the three variables of field, tenor and mode. Figures 3 and 4 illustrate how the
framework was applied to both a procedural and explanatory drawing from the study.

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Figure 3. Analysis of the Procedural Drawing.

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Figure 4. Analysis of an Explanatory Drawing.
Findings
Using the framework described above and applying it across the children’s drawings in the
study a number of commonalities were identified across the children’s drawings for each
task, and across each of the identified domains of field, tenor and mode. The common
visual features in the drawings that preceded the procedural writing are described in
Table 1 and the common visual features in the drawings that preceded the explanatory
writing are described in Table 2.

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Table 1
Commonalities in the ‘Procedural’ Drawings
Field All images conveyed an instructional message through:
• A differentiated representation of the structural elements – ingredients and
method
• A differentiated representation of the participants – each ingredient an
identifiable and separate element
• A representation of quantities of ingredients
• A representation of action through action lines and other symbolic means
Tenor All images convey an appropriate generalised and impersonal message through:
• The absence of ‘‘participants’ – i.e. there is no need to include the ‘actor’ in the
instruction
• The presentation of the image through ‘democratic’ frontal eye-level views
Mode All images employ the following visual techniques to convey their message:
• Differentiated elements (noun phrase equivalents) in the drawing through
boxing or colour choice
• The use of colour, arrows or numbers to indicate sequence
• The placement of elements on the page to mirror their order in writing

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Table 2
Commonalities in the Explanatory Drawings
Field All images conveyed an explanatory message through:
• A differentiated representation of each stage in the process
• A presentation of the whole process
• A representation of cause and effect within the process through arrows
or page placement
• A representation of action through action lines and other symbolic
means
Tenor All images convey a generalised and impersonal message through:
• A focus on the processes
• The presentation of the image through ‘democratic’ frontal eye-level
views
Mode All images employ the following visual techniques to convey their message:
• The identification of salient participants through the use of size
• The use of colour, arrows or numbers to indicate sequence
The content of the tables represents a list of visual features that make a drawing either
‘explanatory’ or ‘procedural’. With these commonalities identified it is possible to tentatively
identify them as the visual elements children use intentionally, to convey meaning and
realise purpose, thus creating either instructional or explanatory drawings. There are also
consistent differences between the two types of drawings to consolidate the hypothesis
that the explanatory and procedural drawings are intentionally different and visual tools
have been selected by the children to construct images, which achieve the specific purposes
of explaining or instructing.

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In summary, the children’s drawings in this study were demonstrably different according to
purpose. The drawings in themselves were reflective of the written text types the children
later constructed. The visual features described in Tables 1 and 2 provide a point of
comparison between the children’s drawing and their subsequent writing, which allows a
discussion of the ways in which the drawings may be supporting the writing.
The children used visual tools such as numerals in the drawings, careful quantifying of
materials, arrows to explain sequence and cause and effect and careful schematic
representations of objects salient to the image’s purpose, to construct their drawings.
Each of these visual tools has parallels in the verbal tools children must use to successfully
construct the written text types of explanations and procedures. For example, procedures
follow the structure of goal, materials and instructional steps. Each step typically begins
with a sequence word such as ‘first’, ‘next’ or a number. Each step must clearly indicate
quantities and include all materials required, alongside clear indications of the actions e.g.
cut, slice, paste, pour. Explanations follow the structure of a description of the phenomenon
being explained, a logical sequence of cause and effect events and a conclusion. The
grammatical features of explanations include the use of the passive voice and cause and
effect conjunctions like ‘so’, ‘therefore’ and ‘as a result’.
The framework described requires further validation against larger sets of drawing
samples, however it is a starting point for the analysis of purpose and intention in children’s
communicative drawings.
Conclusion
This article responds to a call for further research into the ways in which visual and verbal
skills work together in learning (Bottrell, 2011) and calls for more integrated approaches
to learning (Garvis & Pendergast, 2010). It has laid out exploratory ground for analysing
and identifying children’s drawings as intentional endeavours that can serve instructional
and explanatory purposes. This identification of purposes in drawings which have parallels
with purposes in writing has contributed to a research field where there currently much
agreement in principle that visual and verbal modes work together (Cope & Kalantzis,
2000; Dyson, 1990; Jewitt & Kress, 2003; Kress, 2000; Vygotsky, 1978), but much less
description of how this occurs. The drawing analysis framework provides a means for
understanding the ways in which drawing and writing may be mutually supportive.
The study reported in this article confirms the well established position that both writing

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and drawing are systems for making meaning, and describes the visual tools the children
used in their drawings to achieve explanatory or procedural purposes. It is likely that
where drawing and writing are given the same attention, and children have the necessary
skills and opportunities to use them in tandem, they will become more competent as
communicators. Moreover, it provides them with more resources to draw upon for the
construction of new learning (Coufal & Coufal, 2002). Art educators should broadcast
this understanding beyond their discipline into the influential world of the Language
Arts and English, by seeking out spaces both within the Visual Arts curriculum but also
in the other curriculum areas where children can be encouraged to draw their way into
understanding the curriculum content and enhancing their writing skills. Whilst children
begin school using a variety of symbol systems, society and schools continue to privilege
writing above the Arts (Bottrell, 2011; Garvis & Pendergast, 2010; Mackenzie, 2011). It
seems apparent the strong dialogic relationship between the two which is so noticeable
in young children is reduced and discouraged by approaches to writing that fail to make
the most of the potential learning benefits of allowing children’s writing and drawings to
‘love each other’(cummings, cited in Nikitina, 2008). Consequently children are stripped
of an important meaning making tool. This is a tragedy for their drawing development and
for all that mode has to offer the individual, but it is also to the detriment of their writing
development.
Where the curriculum allows space for the deliberate use of drawing, we ‘permit’ children
to make use of the visual symbol system in a way that helps them to understand concepts
and transform those understandings into other contexts. It is therefore vital the drawing
is allowed to retain, or perhaps regain, its status as core to learning in schools. This
is challenging in a curriculum environment that is becoming increasingly crowded, and
the Visual Arts risk being pushed out of a core curriculum that is becoming increasingly
narrow (Garvis & Pendergast, 2010; Maras, 2013; Sabol, 2010) against a backdrop of
standardized testing, using narrow linguistic criteria (Bowell, 2011). It is critically important
that teachers do not restrict their pedagogies. Art educators can advocate for drawing
in the classroom, not only for its own import and relevance, but also for the distinct role
it can play in learning across the curriculum, particularly, as reported in this article, to
support writing. Doing so is one response to Wesley Imms’ (2010) call to Art educators,
made in this journal, to find spaces to inhabit in the curriculum.

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