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Original article
Fructans, water-soluble fibre and fermentable sugars in bread and
pasta made with ancient and modern wheat
Pierre G
elinas,* Carole McKinnon & Fleur Gagnon
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Food Research and Development Centre, Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec J2S 8E3, Canada
(Received 27 August 2015; Accepted in revised form 27 October 2015)
Summary The aim of this study was to determine wheat constituents in bread and pasta that might result in intesti-
nal gas production. Fructans, water-soluble arabinoxylans, arabinogalactan proteins and fermentable sug-
ars were followed in bread and pasta made with ancient (Khorasan wheat; emmer) and modern wheats
(common wheat; durum). After fermentation for 180 min, 80% of fructans were eliminated and higher
levels of fructose than glucose accumulated in bread dough supplemented with sucrose. Whole-grain
Khorasan wheat and emmer flours inhibited yeast fermentative activity. Half of fructans, arabinogalactan
proteins and sugars were washed out in cooking water for pasta. Water-soluble wheat arabinoxylans
increased in bread and cooked pasta. With very low levels (0.3–0.8%, dry basis), fructans in cooked pasta
and, in particular, long-fermentation bread prepared with modern or ancient wheat would unlikely act as
major gas-forming triggers of gastrointestinal discomfort associated with noncoeliac gluten sensitivity.
Keywords Arabinoxylans, bread, emmer, fermentable sugars, fructans, fructose, Khorasan wheat, noncoeliac gluten sensitivity, pasta,
wheat.
Introduction
In the recent years, much interest has been given to
health benefits of wheat-based foods. However, the
growing popularity of gluten-free foods suggests that
many consumers now avoid gluten-rich foods prepared
from wheat (Brouns et al., 2013; Kucek et al., 2015).
This market addresses the needs of those suffering
from coeliac disease as well as other individuals that
appear to show some sensitivity to wheat. Potential
reasons for the latter noncoeliac gluten sensitivity or
intolerance to gluten-containing products have not
been clearly established although some clinical studies
have pointed to fructans (Biesiekierski et al., 2013;
Guandalini & Polanco, 2015). In some individuals
such as those suffering from the irritable colon syn-
drome, consumption of fructan-rich foods might lead
to noncontrolled bloating and general discomfort (Bar-
rett & Gibson, 2012).
Present in many plant foods, fructans are fructose-
rich and water-soluble fibre constituents which have
been praised for their potential prebiotic properties, to
stimulate the growth of probiotic bacteria in the
colon. Only one month after an individual ceases to
ingest fructans, such as wheat-free foods, the microbial
flora in the intestines is considerably modified, which
suggests that wheat is a rich source of constituents
with prebiotic potential, including fructans (De
Palma et al., 2009). Techniques for the analysis and
characterisation of fructans and other sugars showing
prebiotic potential have been reviewed (Benkeblia,
2013). Although inulin extracted from chicory roots
is a very popular additive to enrich foods with fruc-
tans, scientists have searched innovative ways to fur-
ther increase the level of fructans in wheat bread
or pasta through wheat breeding (Shimbata et al.,
2011), wheat agronomy practices (Paradiso et al.,
2006) and yeast technology (Verspreet et al., 2013).
In addition to fructans, wheat contains water-soluble
fibre components such as arabinoxylans and arabino-
galactan proteins that might stimulate the activity of
gas-producing micro-organisms in the intestines and
cause gastrointestinal discomfort (Saeed et al., 2011;
Franc
ßois et al., 2014).
Potential health problems associated with modern
wheat lines compared to more ancient wheat types
have been much debated (Kasarda, 2013; de Lorgeril
& Salen, 2014). Historically important wheat types
have not been subjected to recent major genetic
improvements, including durum–wheat types such as
emmer (Marconi & Cubadda, 2005) and Khorasan
wheat (Carnevali et al., 2014). Showing some prebiotic
*Correspondent: E-mail: pierre.gelinas@agr.gc.ca
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2016, 51, 555–564
doi:10.1111/ijfs.13022
©2015 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada International Journal of Food Science and Technology
©2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Agriculture and Agri-Food
555
potential (Marotti et al., 2012), Khorasan wheat has
even been considered as a potential candidate for
relieving nongluten gluten sensitivity, especially whole-
grain flour (Carnevali et al., 2014).
This report is mainly addressed to food scientists as
well as specialists interested in better understanding
the potential causes of noncoeliac gluten or wheat sen-
sitivity. Considering that wheat flour is normally not
consumed raw, the aim of this study was to determine
wheat constituents in bread and cooked pasta that
might result in intestinal gas production, focusing on
fructans in ancient and modern wheats.
Materials and methods
Materials
For bread-making, three types of flours were used: one
commercial white flour (bran-free Spring Patent;
ADM Milling Company, Montreal, QC, Canada) and
two whole-grain flours prepared in the laboratory
from ancient wheat (emmer; Khorasan wheat or
Kamut
Ò
) using kernels from La Meunerie Milanaise
(Milan, QC, Canada). Whole-grain flour was prepared
by milling 500 g of grain with a Perten disk mill (disk
#2; Model 3301; Perten Instruments, Huddinge, Swe-
den) equipped with a mill feeder. For pasta-making,
three types of semolina were provided by La Meunerie
Milanaise: refined and whole-grain durum (both from
same grain sample), and whole-grain Khorasan wheat
(from a different grain sample than bread flour experi-
ments). More information on wheat flour and semo-
lina samples is given in Table 1.
Flour analyses
All analyses were performed in duplicate according to
the following AACC methods (AACC, 2000): ash (08-
12), moisture (44-15A) and falling number (56-81B).
Protein content was measured with the combustion
method (vario Max cube; Elementar Analysensysteme
GmbH, Hanau, Germany).
Bread-making procedure
Experiments were performed according to G
elinas &
McKinnon (2011) with minor adjustments. Dough
water absorption was determined at 25 °C(G
elinas &
McKinnon, 2013) from farinograms according to
AACC Method 54-21 (AACC, 2000). Bread was pre-
pared according to AACC Method 10-10.03 (AACC,
2000), using 200 g flour (14% moisture), water (vari-
able), sugar (12 g), shortening (6 g), salt (3 g), dry
yeast (2.4 g) and a solution giving 50 mg ascorbic acid
per kg flour. A 100-200 g Swanson pin mixer was used
(National Mfg. Co., Lincoln, NE, USA). For commer-
cial flour, good fit was obtained between the flour
water absorption determined at the farinograph
(+0.5%) and at the bench with the pin mixer (64.8%,
flour basis; 14% moisture). Water absorption of Kho-
rasan whole-grain flour was 57.7%. Whole-grain flour
from emmer was very difficult to mix because dough
water absorption determined by the farinograph was
much too high; as a correcting measure, about 25%
more flour had to be added to the mix so 50.8% water
absorption (flour basis) was finally used in the baking
test. Overall, dough was fermented for 180 min, includ-
ing bulk fermentation for 120 min and final proofing in
pan for 60 min at 35 °C and 85% relative humidity
(Picard
Equipements de Boulangerie, Victoriaville, QC,
Canada). Tin size was 127 962 mm (bottom);
144 980 mm (top); and 53 mm (height). Dough was
baked for 24 min or overbaked for 34 min at 215 °Cin
a revolving oven (Picard
Equipements de Boulangerie).
Bread-making experimental design
In duplicate, dough batches were prepared with white
flour (common wheat; modern wheat type) or whole-
grain flour (emmer or Khorasan wheat; ancient wheat
Table 1 Description of flour and semolina samples for bread- and pasta-making
Food prepared Wheat type Wheat name Flour or semolina type Composition (d.b.)
Bread Modern Common wheat
(Triticum aestivum spp. aestivum L.)
Bran-free flour
(commercial)
0.56% ash; 15.2% protein; 12.3% moisture;
falling number, 532 s
Ancient Emmer
(Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccum)
Whole-grain flour 1.60% ash; 14.3% protein; 12.1% moisture;
falling number, 70 s
Ancient Khorasan wheat
(Triticum turgidum ssp. turanicum); Kamut
â
Whole-grain flour 1.51% ash; 14.5% protein; 11.5% moisture;
falling number, 372 s
Pasta Modern Durum (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum) Bran-free semolina
(commercial)
0.97% ash; 15.8% protein; 12.1% moisture;
falling number, 621 s
Modern Durum (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum) Whole-grain semolina
(commercial)
1.35% ash; 15.3% protein; 10.7% moisture;
falling number, 563 s
Ancient Khorasan wheat
(Triticum turgidum ssp. turanicum); Kamut
â
Whole-grain semolina
(commercial)
1.55% ash; 18.4% protein; 9.5% moisture;
falling number, 524 s
©2015 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canad a International Journal of Food Science and Technology
©2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Agriculture and Agri-F ood
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2016
Fructans in bread and pasta P. G
elinas et al.556
types). In addition, dough was prepared with or with-
out yeast. After mixing, dough was divided into two
pieces of 175 g. The first one was processed into
dough as described above. In preparation for chemical
analyses, the second dough piece (175 g) was divided
into two portions, so the first one (87 g) was rolled
and cut with a knife into small pieces that were placed
into plastic bags and frozen at 45 °C; the second
dough portion (87 g) was proofed for 3 h, and then,
dough was cut into small pieces and frozen. Two bak-
ing times were tested: 24 min (control) and 34 min
(overbaked), the latter with dough specifically pre-
pared with 100 g flour. After cooling for 1 h at room
temperature, bread was divided into two portions cor-
responding to the crust and crumb, each being broken
by hand into small pieces. After freezing at 45 °C for
at least 48 h, dough and bread pieces were lyophilised
for 48 h (Lyo-Tech, Lyo-San Inc., Lachute, QC,
Canada). Dry samples were then ground with a coffee
mill (Braun Mexico, Naucalpan de Ju
arez, Mexico);
between each run, the mill was cleaned and rinsed with
ethanol 60%.
Pasta-making and cooking
The pasta-making procedure was adapted from Vil-
leneuve & G
elinas (2007), using commercial samples of
refined durum, whole-grain durum or whole-grain
Khorasan wheat semolina. In preliminary assays, opti-
mal water absorption at 25 °C was set at 33% and
35% for bran-free semolina and whole-grain semolina,
respectively. In duplicate, one kg semolina and water
(variable) were mixed at room temperature for 15 min
with a flat beater (low speed; Professional 600 Model
6-Quart Bowl-Lift Stand Mixer, KitchenAid, St
Joseph, MI, USA). The mix was transferred into a
pasta extruder (Dymasters Pasta Dies & Extruder,
Port Coquitlam, BC, Canada) equipped with a metallic
predie (1.9 mm-sieve openings) and a Teflon die
(2.5 mm). During extrusion, vacuum pressure was
applied at 78 kPa and temperature was controlled at
50 °C. Extruded pasta was deposited on metallic rods
and dried in an environmental chamber (Model RTH-
16P-2; Burnsco Technologies Inc., Kanata, ON,
Canada). Air velocity was set at 1–2ms
1
, and rela-
tive humidity was 85%. Pasta was dried at 40 or
80 °C for 20 h, then cut, packaged in plastic bags and
stored at room temperature. In duplicate, pasta was
cooked in boiling water; optimal cooking time and
cooking loss were determined according to AACC
Method 66-50.01 (AACC, 2000).
Fructans analysis (enzymatic method)
Only for bread experiments, total fructans (dry basis)
were determined in duplicate according to the
enzymatic/spectrophotometric AOAC Method 999.03
(McCleary et al., 2000) using the Fructan Assay Proce-
dure (K-Fruc; Megazyme International Ireland, Wick-
low, Ireland).
Extraction of fructans and fermentable sugars (HPLC
method)
Method was adapted from Huynh et al. (2008) and
Verspreet et al. (2012). In duplicate, 100 mg of dry
sample was placed into a 15-mL centrifuge tube with
9.5 mL boiling water. After addition of 500 lL adoni-
tol as internal standard (10 mg mL
1
; Sigma-Aldrich
Canada Co., Oakville, ON, Canada), solution was
mixed with a magnetic stirrer for 30 min at 90 °C into
a Reacti-Therm I 18821 heating block (Thermo, Fisher
Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA) and then cooled. To
remove proteins, 5 mL of extract was transferred into
a 15-mL centrifuge tube containing 0.5 mL of C-18-E
Sepra powder (Phenomenex, Torrance, CA, USA).
Tubes were agitated for at least 1 min at 18 rpm (360°
Rotator, Fisher Scientific, Whitby, ON, Canada) and
then centrifuged at 4500gin a benchtop Allegra-6R
centrifuge (Beckman Coulter, Palo Alto, CA, USA).
Three mL of the extract was taken with a 5-mL syr-
inge and filtered (0.22 lm) directly into another car-
tridge (Strata ABW; Phenomenex) preconditioned with
1 mL water to eliminate salt. Another filter (0.22 lm)
was added at the end of the cartridge, and the extract
was eluted and filtered into a 2-mL HPLC vial from
which 1 mL was kept for fructans analysis and the rest
was injected into HPLC to determine the sugar profile.
In preparation for fructans hydrolysis, 50 lLof
1.26 Mhydrochloric acid was added to 1 mL of
extract. Tubes were placed at 70 °C for 90 min in the
Reacti-Therm and then cooled for 3 min. Neutralisa-
tion of the hydrolysate was performed by adding
40 lLof1
MNa
2
CO
3
. Each sample was passed
through a Strata ABW cartridge previously condi-
tioned with 1 mL water. Another filter was added at
the end of the cartridge (Chromspec syringe filter,
13 mm, Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF), 0.45 lL;
Chromatographic Specialties, Inc., Brockville, ON,
Canada). The hydrolysate was eluted and filtered
directly into a 2-mL HPLC vial.
Analysis of fructans and fermentable sugars (HPLC
method)
Free sugars before and after hydrolysis were analysed
by HPLC, using a RI 2300 detector (Knauer Smartline
Chromatography System, Berlin, Germany). 35 lLof
sample were injected on a Carbo Sep CHO-682/C car-
tridge coupled with two Carbo Sep CHO-682 LEAD
columns (Transgenomic, Omaha, NE, USA) maintained
at 80 °C with a column heater (Gecko-2000; amchro
©2015 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada International Journal of Foo d Science and Technology
©2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Agriculture and Agri-Fo od
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2016
Fructans in bread and pasta P. G
elinas et al. 557
GmbH, Hattersheim, Germany). Water eluent at a flow
rate of 0.35 mL min
1
for 85 min allowed the determi-
nation of raffinose, sucrose, maltose, melibiose, glucose,
fructose and adonitol (internal standard).
Fructose and glucose released from fructans were
obtained by substracting the amount of sugars before
and after hydrolysis (Verspreet et al., 2012). Fructans’
concentration in the extract was then calculated as the
sum of fructose and glucose multiplied by a correction
factor kthat included the average degree of polymeri-
sation.
Extraction and analysis of water-extractable
arabinoxylans (AX) and arabinogalactan peptides (AG)
Extraction and hydrolysis techniques were adapted
from Hashimoto et al. (1987) and Liu & Rochfort
(2014), respectively. In duplicate, samples (0.5 g) were
agitated (18 rpm; 360°Rotator, Fisher Scientific,
Whitby, ON, Canada) for 2 h with 4.5 mL water and
0.5 mL internal standard (adonitol, 5 mg mL
1
)ina
15-mL tube. Supernatant (1.5 mL) was combined with
0.1 g C-18E Sepra powder (Phenomenex), vortexed for
20 s and agitated again for 5 min (18 rpm; 360°Rota-
tor). Extract was centrifuged for 10 min at 15 000 rpm
(Model 5424, Eppendorf AG, Hamburg, Germany),
and 1 mL of extract was filtered on PVDF (0.45 lm;
Chromatographic Specialties, Brockville, ON, Canada).
Extract (0.75 mL) was transferred to a 15-mL tube and
mixed with 0.25 mL of 4 MHCl, and then heated with
a magnetic stirrer in a Reacti-Therm unit at 90 °C for
90 min. After cooling, the solution was neutralised with
2MNaOH (0.48 mL), and 0.5 mL was passed through
an ABW Phenomenex cartridge (1 g) previously condi-
tioned with water (4.5 mL). A PVDF filter (13 mm)
was added at the end of the cartridge, and the solution
was eluted and filtered into an HPLC vial.
After hydrolysis, free sugars were analysed with the
HPLC Knauer system described previously for fruc-
tans and sugar analyses, except evaporative light scat-
tering detector (ELSD) was used (SEDEX 80LT;
SEDERE S.A., Alfortville, France). About 30 mL of
sample was injected on a Carbo Sep CHO-682/C car-
tridge coupled to a Carbo Sep CHO-682 LEAD col-
umn (Transgenomic, Omaha, NE, USA) maintained at
80 °C with a column heater (Gecko-2000). The follow-
ing elution conditions for the analysis of xylose, galac-
tose, arabinose and adonitol (internal standard) were
used: water; 0.40 mL min
1
; 45 min. Arabinoxylans
and arabinogalactan peptides concentrations were cal-
culated according to Ingelbrecht et al. (2001).
Statistical analyses
Analysis of variance was performed with SAS (Version
9.3, TS1M2, 2012, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC,
USA). A multiple comparison test (LSD 0.05) was per-
formed to compare variables for which variance was
significantly different.
Results
Effects of bread-making
Total fructans content was about 1% in bran-free
commercial bread flour and 1.5–2% in whole-grain
flour, dry basis (Table 2). With or without baker’s
yeast, fructans concentration dropped by 20% after
dough mixing. About 82% fructans were lost in
fermented dough for 180 min with baker’s yeast. Stan-
dard baking or overbaking did not further reduce the
level of fructans either in bread crust or in crumb.
Overall, fructans’ concentration in crumb varied
slightly according to flour but was similar after bread
baking with yeast, 0.3% on dry basis or less than
0.2% on wet basis. Although some differences were
seen for some samples, data obtained with HPLC were
significantly correlated with those obtained with the
K-Fruc enzymatic kit (r
2
=0.8936; Pvalue <0.0001).
Whatever the wheat flour, chain length of fructans was
about four units and did not change during bread-
making.
In these experiments, sucrose was added to the
dough, giving 6–7% sugar on dry basis in accordance
with typical North American pan bread formulations
(Table 3). When baker’s yeast was present, sucrose
concentration was greatly reduced after mixing. In
nonyeasted dough prepared from whole-grain emmer
or Khorasan wheat flour, some loss in sucrose was
seen, which suggests that the latter flours had some
invertase activity as further evidenced by the produc-
tion of small amounts of fructose (Table 3) and glu-
cose (Table 4) during dough mixing and fermentation.
In particular, whole-grain emmer flour had high enzy-
matic activity, as shown by its low falling number
(Table 1).
As revealed by fructose and glucose levels in dough,
yeast fermentative activity was inhibited in both
whole-grain flours prepared from ancient wheat, espe-
cially emmer (Tables 3 and 4). Depending on wheat
type, bread crumb had 2–4% fructose, most of it origi-
nating from sucrose added to the formulation. Maltose
concentration increased during yeasted dough fermen-
tation, giving 1.3–2.5% in bread crumb (Table 4).
Mixed dough had very low levels of raffinose and meli-
biose (≤0.3%); raffinose was eliminated in yeasted
dough but not melibiose (data not shown). Higher
levels of water-soluble AX and AG were found in
bread compared to flour, except for AG in bran-free
flour from common wheat (Table 5). Compared to
water-extractable arabinoxylans, the level of arabino-
galactan proteins in bread was slightly lower. The total
©2015 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canad a International Journal of Food Science and Technology
©2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Agriculture and Agri-F ood
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2016
Fructans in bread and pasta P. G
elinas et al.558
amount of individual xylose, galactose and arabinose
units was constant (data not shown).
Effects of pasta-making
Pasta was prepared to check the effect of drying tem-
perature and cooking in boiling water, compared to
baking-fermented bread dough in the oven. Optimal
cooking time increased according to pasta drying tem-
perature; cooking losses were variable and no specific
trend was seen depending on pasta drying conditions
either with bran-free or with bran-rich semolina
(Table 6). Overall, little differences in fructans content
were seen during pasta drying at 40 or 80 °C although
Table 2 Effect of bread-making condi-
tions on fructans content (%, dry basis)
as determined by enzymatic analysis or
HPLC* Bread-making step
Common wheat
(bran-free)
Emmer
(whole-grain)
Khorasan
(whole-grain)
Enzyme HPLC Enzyme HPLC Enzyme HPLC
(A) Flour 0.96 abc 0.91 a 1.46 bc 1.54 a 1.96 a 1.92 a
(B) Dough, no yeast
Mixed 0.86 bc 0.67 abcd 1.25 d 1.15 b 1.50 b 1.55 a
Fermented 0.86 bc 0.82 ab 1.38 cd 1.46 a 1.55 b 1.81 a
Baked, crumb 0.98 ab 0.81 ab 1.55 ab 1.45 ab 1.59 b 1.54 a
Baked, crust 1.11 a 0.81 ab 1.56 ab 1.47 a 1.50 b 1.80 a
Overbaked crumb 1.00 ab 0.70 abc 1.62 a 1.63 a 1.59 b 1.76 a
Overbaked crust 0.91 bc 0.71 abc 1.60 a 1.52 a 1.57 b 1.92 a
(C) Dough, with yeast
Mixed 0.82 c 0.89 a 1.07 e 1.16 b 1.32 c 1.61 a
Fermented 0.27 d 0.38 bcde 0.31 f 0.17 d 0.36 d 0.48 b
Baked, crumb 0.26 d 0.29 cde 0.22 f 0.53 c 0.33 d 0.04 b
Baked, crust 0.25 d 0.22 de 0.22 f 0.22 d 0.27 d 0.19 b
Overbaked crumb 0.29 d 0.31 cde 0.19 f 0.28 cd 0.38 d 0.14 b
Overbaked crust 0.28 d 0.04 e 0.21 f 0.35 cd 0.31 d 0.42 b
*Mean data were obtained from two repetitions. Within columns, means followed by the same
letter are not significantly different at the P<0.05 level. In HPLC analyses, degree of polymerisa-
tion of fructans was 5.5, 3.9 and 4.0, respectively, for common bread wheat (bran-free flour),
emmer flour (whole-grain) and Khorasan wheat flour (whole-grain).
Table 3 Effect of bread-making condi-
tions on sucrose and fructose contents
(%, dry basis)*
Bread-making step
Common wheat
(bran-free)
Emmer
(whole-grain)
Khorasan
(whole-grain)
Sucrose Fructose Sucrose Fructose Sucrose Fructose
(A) Flour 0.29 d 0.00 g 0.93 d 0.00 i 0.90 d 0.00 f
(B) Dough, no yeast
Mixed 7.19 ab 0.00 g 6.27 a 0.12 h 7.59 d 0.00 f
Fermented 7.15 ab 0.09 fg 4.60 b 0.79 g 5.98 c 0.62 e
Baked, crumb 7.49 a 0.15 f 4.48 c 0.94 ef 6.58 b 0.63 e
Baked, crust 6.70 c 0.12 fg 4.45 c 0.99 e 6.53 b 0.61 e
Overbaked crumb 6.82 bc 0.1 f 4.47 c 0.91 ef 6.42 b 0.57 e
Overbaked crust 6.78 bc 0.19 4.53 bc 0.84 fg 6.60 b 0.58 e
(C) Dough, with yeast
Mixed 0.19 d 3.87 a 0.44 e 4.06 ab 0.46 e 3.95 a
Fermented 0.12 d 2.05 d 0.21 f 3.97 bc 0.24 f 3.50 cd
Baked, crumb 0.18 d 2.12 d 0.22 f 4.11 a 0.24 f 3.71 b
Baked, crust 0.19 d 1.91 e 0.20 f 3.90 c 0.22 f 3.64 bc
Overbaked crumb 0.18 d 2.75 b 0.20 f 3.96 bc 0.25 f 3.64 bc
Overbaked crust 0.19 d 2.37 c 0.19 f 3.77 d 0.21 f 3.43 d
*Mean data were obtained from two repetitions. Within columns, means followed by the same
letter are not significantly different at the P<0.05 level.
©2015 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada International Journal of Foo d Science and Technology
©2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Agriculture and Agri-Fo od
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2016
Fructans in bread and pasta P. G
elinas et al. 559
lower levels were obtained for Khorasan pasta dried at
40 °C (Table 7). Whatever the semolina type, 40–50%
fructans were lost in boiling water during pasta cook-
ing and such phenomenon did not appear to be related
to cooking time or loss (Table 6). Small concentrations
of sucrose were present in semolina; fructose and glu-
cose slightly increased during pasta drying (Tables 8
and 9). After drying at 40 °C, maltose level increased
to 1.7–4.3% (Table 9). Half of the sugars (sucrose,
fructose, maltose, glucose) and 25% of arabinogalac-
tan proteins were extracted by boiling water during
pasta cooking (Tables 8–10). Compared to semolina,
water-extractable AX increased after fresh pasta-
making and drying, especially at 40 °C, and no loss
was seen during cooking (Table 10).
Discussion
Fructans and other water-soluble fibre components
Bread dough fermentation eliminated most traces of
wheat fructans, giving 0.2–0.3 g per 100 g flour, dry
Bread-making step
Common wheat
(bran-free)
Emmer
(whole-grain)
Khorasan
(whole-grain)
Maltose Glucose Maltose Glucose Maltose Glucose
(A) Flour 0.15 h 0.00 f 0.14 f 0.00 i 0.25 g 0.00 j
(B) Dough, no yeast
Mixed 1.65 f 0.04 f 1.36 bcd 0.21 i 0.83 e 0.11 i
Fermented 2.20 cde 0.23 e 1.29 d 1.19 g 1.00 d 0.76 gh
Baked, crumb 3.02 a 0.28 e 1.62 ab 1.35 f 1.14 bc 0.92 e
Baked, crust 2.36 bc 0.25 e 1.41 bcd 1.18 g 1.04 cd 0.79 g
Overbaked, crumb 2.83 a 0.28 e 1.60 abc 1.33 f 1.12 bc 0.85 f
Overbaked, crust 2.53 b 0.28 e 1.35 cd 1.07 h 0.96 d 0.72 h
(C) Dough, with yeast
Mixed 1.22 g 3.58 a 0.99 e 3.62 a 0.66 f 3.72 a
Fermented 2.08 de 0.43 d 1.28 d 2.32 c 0.98 d 1.42 c
Baked, crumb 2.25 cd 0.43 d 1.82 a 2.41 b 1.35 a 1.62 b
Baked, crust 2.05 e 0.49 c 1.55 abc 2.02 d 1.19 b 1.39 c
Overbaked crumb 2.47 b 1.01 b 1.78 a 2.35 bc 1.33 a 1.44 c
Overbaked crust 2.07 e 0.96 b 1.42 bcd 1.77 e 1.05 cd 1.10 d
*Mean data were obtained from two repetitions. Within columns, means followed by the same
letter are not significantly different at the P<0.05 level.
Table 4 Effect of bread-making condi-
tions on maltose and glucose contents
(%, dry basis)*
Bread-making step
Common wheat
(bran-free)
Emmer
(whole-grain)
Khorasan
(whole-grain)
AX AG AX AG AX AG
(A) Flour 0.46 h 0.43 a 0.11 g 0.24 g 0.22 g 0.33 e
(B) Dough, no yeast
Mixed 0.54 f 0.35 bc 0.33 f 0.44 cd 0.29 f 0.45 ab
Fermented 0.68 bc 0.34 bcd 0.63 d 0.50 a 0.53 d 0.44 bc
Baked, crumb 0.63 d 0.31 de 0.70 a 0.51 a 0.61 a 0.47 a
Baked, crust 0.65 cd 0.33 cd 0.71 a 0.46 bc 0.60 ab 0.43 c
Overbaked crumb 0.59 e 0.35 bc 0.62 d 0.48 ab 0.55 c 0.45 ab
Overbaked crust 0.60 e 0.31 de 0.62 d 0.39 ef 0.53 d 0.44 bc
(C) Dough, with yeast
Mixed 0.55 f 0.34 bc 0.32 f 0.41 de 0.29 f 0.44 bc
Fermented 0.71 a 0.33 cd 0.66 c 0.49 a 0.54 cd 0.45 abc
Baked, crumb 0.70 ab 0.38 b 0.69 ab 0.44 cd 0.59 b 0.46 ab
Baked, crust 0.66 bcd 0.32 cd 0.67 bc 0.45 bc 0.60 ab 0.45 ab
Overbaked crumb 0.56 ef 0.33 cd 0.62 d 0.39 ef 0.53 d 0.38 d
Overbaked crust 0.51 g 0.28 e 0.55 e 0.37 f 0.49 e 0.37 d
*Mean data were obtained from two repetitions. Within columns, means followed by the same
letter are not significantly different at the P<0.05 level.
Table 5 Effect of bread-making condi-
tions on water-soluble arabinoxylans and
arabinogalactan peptides contents (%, dry
basis)*
©2015 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canad a International Journal of Food Science and Technology
©2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Agriculture and Agri-F ood
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2016
Fructans in bread and pasta P. G
elinas et al.560
basis. These trends confirmed those by Verspreet et al.
(2013) who also observed that fructans degradation
occurred during mixing of yeasted dough. We hypoth-
esise that, in addition to yeast, the mixing process
itself, including flour oxygenation, contributes to fruc-
tans degradation because similar results were obtained
with yeasted and nonyeasted doughs and no further
fructans losses were seen during fermentation of non-
yeasted dough. We have probably obtained such high
fructans’ degradation because dough was fermented
for 180 min compared to only 100 min in some studies
(Nilsson et al., 1987; Knez et al., 2014). For individu-
als sensitive to fructans, bread produced with dough
fermented for periods as long as 180 min is likely to
be a better choice. This would often apply to artisan
bread but not to bread manufactured with short fer-
mentation processes including the Chorleywood pro-
cess and those associated with fast foods such as
hamburger and hot dog buns.
Cooking pasta in boiling water was also very effec-
tive to eliminate wheat fructans which were reduced by
half, that is 0.8 g fructans per 100 g on dry basis. Sim-
ilar results have been obtained with inulin possibly
because fructan-rich ingredients are not well incorpo-
rated into the pasta matrix (Bustos et al., 2011; Casir-
aghi et al., 2013). In addition, a non-negligible
proportion of water-soluble sugars and arabinogalac-
tan proteins were extracted in pasta cooking water.
Compared to wheat, bread and pasta contained higher
levels of water-soluble arabinoxylans, which confirms
trends reported by Westerlund et al. (1989). Overall,
these results would be of minor significance compared
to major losses in fructans. Whatever the wheat sam-
ple, we have obtained similar levels of fructans and
water-soluble fibre components (AX; AG) in bread
and cooked pasta. This tends to confirm that the
amount of poorly digestible fibre components would
be similar in ancient and modern wheats (Shewry &
Hey, 2015).
In the literature, the importance of wheat fructans
in the diet appears to have been overestimated (Van
Loo et al., 1995; Moshfegh et al., 1999). Such esti-
mates did not consider that most of wheat fructans are
eliminated by bread dough fermentation and pasta
cooked into boiling water. In addition, several authors
have used the Megazyme Fructan HK Assay kit
Table 6 Optimal cooking time and cooking loss for pasta according
to drying temperature*
Wheat semolina
Drying
temperature (°C)
Cooking
time (min)
Cooking
loss (%, d.b.)
Durum
(bran-free)
40 17.5 (0.7) 8.9 (1.0)
80 21.8 (0.4) 9.3 (0.7)
Durum
(whole-grain)
40 13.0 (0.0) 6.0 (0.2)
80 19.0 (0.0) 6.3 (0.2)
Khorasan
(whole-grain)
40 11.5 (0.0) 11.2 (1.5)
80 17.0 (0.0) 8.0 (1.6)
*Mean data (standard deviation) were obtained from two repetitions.
Table 7 Effect of pasta-making conditions on fructans content (%,
dry basis)*
Pasta-making step
Durum
(bran-free)
Durum
(whole-grain)
Khorasan
(whole-grain)
Semolina 1.54 b 1.41 a 2.02 a
Dry pasta (40 °C) 1.64 a 1.23 b 1.46 c
Dry pasta (80 °C) 1.62 a 1.30 ab 1.69 b
Cooked pasta (40 °C) 0.74 d 0.62 d 0.87 d
Cooked pasta (80 °C) 0.88 c 0.77 c 0.99 d
Cooking water (40 °C) 0.57 e 0.53 d 0.59 e
Cooking water (80 °C) 0.69 d 0.59 d 0.66 e
*Mean data were obtained from two repetitions. Within columns,
means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the
P<0.05 level. Analyses were performed by HPLC. Degree of polymeri-
sation of fructans was 3.4, 4.8 and 3.2, respectively, for durum (bran-
free semolina), durum (whole-grain semolina) and Khorasan wheat
(whole-grain semolina), and the latter values did not vary according to
processing conditions.
Table 8 Effect of pasta-making condi-
tions on sucrose and fructose contents
(%, dry basis)*
Pasta-making step
Durum
(bran-free)
Durum
(whole-grain)
Khorasan
(whole-grain)
Sucrose Fructose Sucrose Fructose Sucrose Fructose
Semolina 0.58 a 0.00 b 0.83 a 0.00 d 1.04 a 0.00 d
Dry pasta (40 °C) 0.53 b 0.09 a 0.75 b 0.38 a 0.91 b 0.30 a
Dry pasta (80 °C) 0.60 a 0.05 ab 0.84 a 0.15 b 1.07 a 0.16 b
Cooked pasta (40 °C) 0.30 c 0.09 a 0.42 c 0.18 b 0.50 d 0.17 b
Cooked pasta (80 °C) 0.31 c 0.00 b 0.44 c 0.00 d 0.60 c 0.00 d
Cooking water (40 °C) 0.26 d 0.12 a 0.31 e 0.18 b 0.37 e 0.17 b
Cooking water (80 °C) 0.32 c 0.07 a 0.38 d 0.10 c 0.45 d 0.09 c
*Mean data were obtained from two repetitions. Within columns, means followed by the same
letter are not significantly different at the P<0.05 level.
©2015 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada International Journal of Foo d Science and Technology
©2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Agriculture and Agri-Fo od
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2016
Fructans in bread and pasta P. G
elinas et al. 561
(K-FRUCHK) and they reported fructans levels as
high as 1.0–1.5% in wheat bread, on dry basis
(Biesiekierski et al., 2011; Whelan et al., 2011; Dode-
vska et al., 2013). This technique would be unreliable
for measuring low fructans’ concentrations such as in
wheat (Muir et al., 2007). According to the manufac-
turer of the commercial kit, the Fructan HK method
is not suitable for samples such as cereals foods that
contain high levels of glucose, fructose, sucrose or
maltose (Megazyme, 2014). Based on data obtained
with the latter technique, many gluten-free cereal-
based foods and wheat-based foods, including spelt,
would have similar fructans’ contents (Biesiekierski
et al., 2011; Whelan et al., 2011). However, typical glu-
ten-free cereals such as rice and corn would contain no
fructans (Verspreet et al., 2015). In our bread experi-
ments, we have rather used the K-FRUC Assay kit pro-
cedure which is recommended for such applications and
those data were confirmed by HPLC, showing that
bread contained only 0.2–0.3% fructans rather than
1.0–1.5% dry basis.
Fermentable sugars
Sugar-rich bread contained much more fructose than
glucose which was depleted by yeast, confirming data
obtained by others (Langemeier & Rogers, 1995; Ver-
spreet et al., 2013). In countries where sugar-rich pan
bread is popular, such high fructose levels might con-
tribute to digestive problems experienced by individu-
als showing sensitivity to foods that contain higher
levels of fructose than glucose (Beyer et al., 2005).
According to Erickson & Slavin (2015), most bread
manufactured in the United States would be a major
source of fructose, with 2–4% on wet basis (Li et al.,
2002). Based on an extensive evaluation of labels of
food products available in Australia, gluten-free bread
and standard wheat bread had 3.6% sugar, wet basis
(Wu et al., 2015). However, Biesiekierski et al. (2011)
have reported that commercial bread obtained from
Australia was a poor source of fructose, even poorer
than fructans. According to our data, this is unlikely
because sugar-enriched bread formulations would
rather contain than 5–10 times more fructose than
fructans. Fructose content in bread would vary
according to flour type, the amount of sugar added to
the dough and fermentation time (Langemeier &
Rogers, 1995). More assays are needed to explain why
yeast fermentative activity was inhibited in whole-grain
flour from emmer and Khorasan wheat compared to
bran-free commercial bread flour from common
wheat.
Noncoeliac gluten sensitivity
Bloating, gut pain, diarrhoea and flatulence have been
associated with self-reported noncoeliac gluten sensitiv-
ity (Biesiekierski et al., 2014). Many noncereal foods
that contain FODMAPs (fermentable oligo- di- and
Pasta-making step
Durum
(bran-free)
Durum
(whole-grain)
Khorasan
(whole-grain)
Maltose Glucose Maltose Glucose Maltose Glucose
Semolina 0.15 f 0.00 f 0.11 f 0.00 g 0.14 f 0.00 e
Dry pasta (40 °C) 2.40 a 0.46 a 2.40 a 0.71 a 4.32 a 0.70 a
Dry pasta (80 °C) 1.71 b 0.13 d 1.73 b 0.20 d 2.84 b 0.28 c
Cooked pasta (40 °C) 1.24 c 0.20 c 1.34 c 0.40 b 2.32 c 0.37 b
Cooked pasta (80 °C) 0.84 e 0.09 e 0.87 d 0.12 e 1.55 d 0.14 d
Cooking water (40 °C) 0.99 d 0.22 b 0.86 d 0.27 c 1.53 d 0.27 c
Cooking water (80 °C) 0.82 e 0.09 e 0.73 e 0.10 f 1.13 e 0.13 d
*Mean data were obtained from two repetitions. Within columns, means followed by the same
letter are not significantly different at the P<0.05 level.
Table 9 Effect of pasta-making condi-
tions on maltose and glucose contents
(%, dry basis)*
Table 10 Effect of pasta-making conditions on water-soluble arabi-
noxylans and arabinogalactan peptides contents (%, dry basis)*
Pasta-making
step
Durum
(bran-free)
Durum
(whole-grain)
Khorasan
(whole-grain)
AX AG AX AG AX AG
Semolina 0.25 f 0.37 a 0.20 f 0.49 a 0.38 e 0.58 a
Fresh pasta 0.32 d 0.36 ab 0.24 e 0.37 c 0.47 c 0.54 b
Dry pasta (40 °C) 0.49 b 0.35 b 0.46 b 0.51 a 0.64 a 0.55 b
Dry pasta (80 °C) 0.27 e 0.30 c 0.28 d 0.41 b 0.41 d 0.47 c
Cooked pasta
(40 °C)
0.51 a 0.27 d 0.49 a 0.34 d 0.65 a 0.39 d
Cooked pasta
(80 °C)
0.36 c 0.25 e 0.41 c 0.32 d 0.55 b 0.38 d
Cooking water
(40 °C)
0.02 g 0.12 f 0.00 g 0.10 f 0.02 f 0.17 e
Cooking water
(80 °C)
0.02 g 0.10 f 0.00 g 0.15 e 0.02 f 0.16 e
*Mean data were obtained from two repetitions. Within columns,
means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the
P<0.05 level.
©2015 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canad a International Journal of Food Science and Technology
©2015 Institute of Food Science and Technology Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Agriculture and Agri-F ood
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2016
Fructans in bread and pasta P. G
elinas et al.562
mono-saccharides and polyols), including fructans
from miscellaneous sources such as inulin, would be
potential triggers of the above symptoms. Wheat has
been specifically targeted as a major source of fructans
in food (Biesiekierski et al., 2013; Kucek et al., 2015).
Rye would be a richer source of fructans than wheat
although noncoeliac rye sensitivity does not appear to
be a popular concept (Andersson et al., 2009).
Currently, the daily intake of oligofructoses such as
fructans would be in the range of 1–10 g, which is
considered as a safe dose for most individuals (Van
Loo et al., 1995). According to Coussement (1999),
5–10% of the population would be sensitive to a daily
dose of 10–20 g of inulin and oligofructose from foods
such as bread and pasta. In the future, it is likely that
more foods will be enriched with fructan-rich prebi-
otics from noncereal sources such as inulin, so this
might become an important health issue for some indi-
viduals (Kumar et al., 2015). Higher popularity of
sugar-rich dough formulations would result in more
fructose in bread, and this might contribute to
digestibility problems attributed to wheat fructans.
Hopefully, according to data shown, it is unlikely that
fructans remnants in pasta and, in particular, long-
fermentation bread are a major cause of wheat sensitiv-
ity or digestibility problems. To get 10 g fructans, one
would have to eat the equivalent of 1–2 kg of bread or
cooked pasta per day because such foods contain only
0.5% fructans, as eaten. In the context that noncoeliac
gluten sensitivity is now a recognised syndrome in some
individuals (Catassi et al., 2015), more studies are
needed on the effects of processing techniques on the
degradation of food ingredients and constituents that
might trigger intestinal gas production, including prebi-
otics, fructans, water-soluble fibre and fructose.
Conclusion
Fructans have been specifically targeted as a potential
cause of noncoeliac gluten sensitivity because it might
contribute to excessive gas production in the intestines
of some individuals. It is unlikely that fructans from
bread and pasta would contribute much to such health
disorders, in particular when bread is prepared with
dough fermented for periods as long as 180 min. More
concern should be given to high levels of poorly diges-
tible fructose in bread formulations containing sucrose.
Although whole-grain flour from ancient wheat inhib-
ited yeast fermentation, bread and pasta had similar
levels of fructans compared to modern wheat types.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Robert Beauche-
min and Steve Castegan (La Meunerie Milanaise) for
providing wheat samples and semolina, as well as
Louis-Philippe Des Marchais and S
ebastien Villeneuve
for technical help in preparation for experiments on
pasta-making.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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