Autonomous underwater vehicles: Instrumentation and measurements

Abstract

Oceans exploration and inspection are a great challenge for the industry nowadays. The underwater instrumentation and measurements are improving due to the current technologies, or by development of new ones, to cover the demand of the new industry offshore. The Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV), a subcategory of submarine, is used to perform subaquatic tasks. This vehicle provides advantages for underwater works, e.g., safety and reliability inspections, but it also offers limitations for sensors systems, monitoring and communications systems, autonomous operational endurances, propulsion systems or mapping designs, etc. The main scientific contributions of this paper are: a review of the state of art in novel and main instrumentation and measurement systems embedded in AUVs; an illustration of their future uses and development; and a synthesis of the main and current navigation, mapping and sampling technologies, together with different applications.

Full text

Journal Paper
“Autonomous Underwater Vehicles: Instrumentations and
Measurements”
-IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine-
2020
Pedro José Bernalte Sánchez
Ingenium Research Group, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha
Pedro.Bernalte@uclm.es
Mayorkinos Papaelias
School of Metallurgy and Materials at the University of Birmingham,
M.Papaelias@bham.ac.uk
Fausto Pedro García Márquez
Ingenium Research Group, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha
FaustoPedro.Garcia@uclm.es
Cite as: Sánchez, Pedro José Bernalte, Mayorkinos Papaelias, and Fausto Pedro García
Márquez. "Autonomous underwater vehicles: Instrumentation and measurements." IEEE
Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine 23.2 (2020): 105-114.
D.O.I.: 10.1109/MIM.2020.9062680
www.ingeniumgroup.eu

IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine
Autonomous Underwater Vehicles:
Instrumentations and Measurements
Pedro José Bernalte Sánchez, Mayorkinos Papaelias, Fausto Pedro García
Márquez
Abstract
Oceans exploration and inspection are being a great challenge for
the industry nowadays. The underwater instrumentations and
measurements are being improving due to the current
technologies, or by development new ones, to cover the demand
of the new industry offshore. The Autonomous Underwater
Vehicles, a subcategory of submarine, is used to perform the
subaquatic tasks. This vehicle provides advantages for
underwater works, e.g. safety and reliability inspections, but it
also offers limitations as sensors systems, monitoring and
communications systems, autonomous operational endurances,
propulsion systems or mapping designs, etc. The main scientific
contributions of this paper are: An review of the state of art in
novel and main instrumentation and measurement systems
embedded in AUVs; It is showed the future uses and
development; The paper synthesis the main and current
navigation, mapping and sampling technologies, together with
different applications.
Introduction
The oceans cover more than two-thirds of the planet. Only
the equivalent of 15% of the oceans has been explored. The
exploitation of the available ocean resources has been
predominantly associated with fishing, tourism, and offshore oil
and gas production, with limited activity ongoing in mining or
other sectors with significant industrial and societal interest [1].
“The sea is everything. It covers seven tenths of the
terrestrial globe. Its breath is pure and healthy. It is an immense
desert, where man is never lonely, for he feels life stirring on all
sides. The sea is only the embodiment of a supernatural and
wonderful existence. It is nothing but love and emotion; it is the
Living Infinite.”
– Julio Verne
The need appears in terms of submarine inspections in
order to fix any industry offshore. To explore submarine
environments presents many problems, e.g. the absence of
human ability to breathe underwater and the water column
pressure. There are many ways of underwater inspections, from
diving or snorkel to the most sophisticated devices as
submarines or underwater vehicles [2].
There are various types of underwater vehicles, mainly
divided in two categories: manned and unmanned systems.
They can be also grouped into a number of different sub-classes,
e.g. unmanned systems towed by a ship. An autonomous
underwater vehicle (AUV) is a submerged system that contains
its own power and is controlled by an onboard computer.
Although these vehicles could be called as remotely operated
vehicles (ROV), unmanned underwater vehicles (UUV),
submersible devices, or remote-controlled submarines, AUV is
able to follow a preset trajectory [3].
AUV offers many advantages, e.g. it does not require of
human operator, leading a reduction of operational costs and
increasing the safety for the workers. They operate in severe
conditions and perform complex tasks [4]. The first AUV was
developed at the Applied Physics Laboratory, University of
Washington [5]. The purpose was to study the diffusion, acoustic
transmission and submarine sinks. AUV was also developed in
the Soviet Union at the same time for similar propose [6]. In the
1960’s, AUV was development by the US Navy to perform
offshore rescue and salvage operations. Several industries have
decided to use these devices for different tasks, e.g. the
petrochemical industry to improve the development of offshore
oil fields [7]. In the 1980’s, AUVs came into a new era, being able
to operate at high depths. Falling oil prices and a global recession
resulted in a stagnant period in terms of AUV development in
the mid-1980s. During the 1990s, there was a renewed interest in
AUVs in research universities, and the first commercial
prototypes appears: OKPO 6000 by Daewoo (Figure 1). This
research was followed by more commercial AUVs in 2000 [8].
Since then, these vehicles have been suffered a great
development. There are being new designs, for example,
GRAALTECH AUVs, see Figure 2, are now being used in a wide
range of applications such as track down historic ship wrecks,
e.g. the sunken ships inspection, mapping the offshore floor,
object detection, ensuring harbors and searching for sea mines,
etc. [9].

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Fig 1. Korean AUV, OKPQ-6000, that can dive up to 6.000 meters
depth, developed by Daewoo Heavy Industries Ltd.(DHI) [10]
This paper considers a novel, complete and update survey
of the main instrumentation and measurement systems
embedded in AUVs, including future uses and development.
The paper synthesis the main and current navigation, mapping
and sampling technologies and the different applications.
Fig 2. “La Folaga” by GRAALTECH.
Literature Review
Nowadays, the technology used in UAVs is considered
relatively complex due to the morphology of the vehicles and the
working conditions underwater. It will contain certain systems
and sensors regarding to the required work. There are general
configurations in the market, e.g. Dorado class from Monterey
Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI) AUV (Figure 3), and
products developed by specialized offshore inspection
companies as MBARI [11], JAMSTEC [12], Atlas Elektronik [13],
KONGSBERG [14] or ALTUS [15], etc.
Fig 3. Typical structure of an AUV. Design of the MBARI mapping AUV [16].
The embedded systems in AUV can be classified according to the
functionality as:
- Propulsion or drive system. Different systems and elements
are used to impulse the vehicle, e.g. regarding to the
steering rotor and propeller issues [17], with multiple
shapes and materials in the market nowadays [18]. An
appropriate propulsion system is set according to the
vehicle morphology and use [19]. It is studied by
aerodynamics and fluid mechanics science, taking into
account the hull shape, where its design will be relevant for
the correct effectivity of the vehicle [20]. There are some
researches about the optimization of the trajectory control
and propulsion systems, using different mathematical and
algorithmic advances with vectorial positioning of the
vehicles, studying velocity and yaw components to improve
AUV mission autonomy [21,22]. AUVSIPRO is a simulation
software developed for performance prediction with
different propulsion system configuration [23], providing
an effective method for the hull hydrodynamic study.
- Power sources. The most common warehouse and storage
methods are the standard commercial batteries developed,
e.g. magnesium-seawater battery [24], a pressure tolerant
Li-ion battery [25] and an aluminium-hydrogen peroxide
(Al/H2O2) semi fuel cell [26], being used different types of
them, e.g. alkaline cell or fuel cell, in function of buoyancy
changes, system simplicity or depth requirements [27].

IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine
There are novel energy sources under research now, e.g.
based on hydrogen fuel cell or the combination of the
aforementioned systems, being the use of the renewable
energies of special interest [28,29].
- Navigation and positioning systems. These vehicles done
works in large offshore areas and needs properly systems
and methods as trajectories guide. It is important to have a
reliable navigation and positioning for underwater surveys.
AUV navigation and localization techniques can be divide
according to three categories: Acoustic transponders and
modems [30]; Inertial/dead reckoning [31,32], and;
Geophysical techniques [33]. They consist in hardware part
and a software architecture system, e.g. the well-known
Extended Kalman Filter [34,35], range-only localization [36]
and light beacons algorithmic combinations [37,38].
- Mapping and sampling systems. They monitor different areas
or seabed by generating 2-D and 3-D operational maps
employed in multiple applications, e.g. sonar technologies
[39]. The main and current sensors used for this issue are
detailed in Table 1. The optical cameras often employ LED
illumination due to the darkness present in submarine
works, allowing a wide range light condition [40]. The
information collected for these systems can be traduced to
audiovisual documents, providing a real time remote
exploration in some cases, employing techniques as
submarine image processing approaches, e.g. image de-
scattering process, image high definition assessments and
images color restoration [41]. The studies about the optical
capture and camera systems are rising due to the
importance of graphical documents for maintenance works
[42].
One of the main advantages of UAVs are the ability to work
following a programmed route. There are several methods to
follow these routes, for example, using acoustic beacons on the
seabed, GPS location, baseline acoustic communication, inertial
navigation…. It could be based on the combination of
Conductivity [43], Depth and Temperature (CDT) sensors [44],
inertial sensors and Doppler Velocity Log (DVL) [45]. In contrast
to gliders, that use a buoyancy engine and follow a wavy path,
UAVs are able to retain a linear route through the sea [46]. For
this reason, these vehicles are suitable for geoscience
applications that require a constant altitude, such as seabed
mapping and sub-bottom profiling remotely, allowing tasks in a
remote area [47].
Table 1 summarizes the main uses, properties, methods and
references of the sensory systems, doing a dissertation between
navigation and cartography mapping applications, although
both groups are not exclusive use between them. The systems
and sensors could appear in multiple commercialization
configurations.
Table 1. Summary of navigation and mapping UAV embedded systems for Underwater Offshore Inspections
APPLICATIONS
System
Sensor
Technology
Features
Ref.
NAVIGATION
CTD/Sonde
Geophysical sensor
Different simple and singles sensor that
properly configured and assembled, they can
form a functional block like tracking and
positioning applications.
[48,49]
Gyroscope
Geophysical sensor
[50,51]
Magnetometers
Geophysical sensor
[52,53]
Accelerometer
Inertial sensor
[31,52]
Barometer/Pressure
Sensor
Inertial sensor
[54,55]
Doppler Velocity Log
(DVL)
Inertial Sensor
Measure the velocity of the UAV with respect to
the ground. The position estimation accuracy
can improve greatly by Kalman filter. DVL will
consist of 4 or more beams.
[45,56]
Baseline
(Long/Ultra Short)
Beacon (Acoustic)
They can provide a complete ubication
information of the AUV, however, these
methods could present information delay and
low measurement accuracy, producing stability
errors.
[57,58]
MAPPING
Sidescan
Imaging Type Sonar
(Acoustic)
Intensity of returns measure to originate 2D
seabed image. Beams are directed
perpendicular to route direction. Phase
correlation and preprocessing methods have
been used to improve the system.
[59-62]
Multibeam
echosounders
Rating Type Sonar
(Acoustic)
Improving the single beam, obtaining a full
coverage measurement in the area, wide range,
high sensitivity and broadband response with
high sensitivity. Work with time from returns
form bathymetric maps.
[63,64]
Subbottom Profilers
Rating Type Sonar
(Acoustic)
Low frequency echosounders that fathom the
seafloor.
[64,65]
Forward Look
Imaging Type Sonar
(Acoustic)
Similar method to a side-scan sonar, but with
directed forward beams. Recent studies use this
[66-68]

IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine
method combining with convolutional neural
networks for objects detection.
Camera
Geophysical sensor
(Optical)
Optical graphics capturing and imaging
processing. Relevant method for biological and
geological surveys.
[69,70]
The sensors and technologies are often combined in one
programmed functional system to provide improved
performance, e.g. navigation, mapping or drive systems. Until
now, the systems implemented in autonomous vehicles such as
multibeam echosounders (MBES) [71], side-scan sonar (SBP) and
sub-bottom profilers (SSS), together with the photography of the
seabed, have managed to satisfy the requirements for the
underwater offshore cartography [72]. However, the
development of sensors is now focused on monitoring water
column. The Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), in
2000, developed the first geochemical sensor implemented for an
AUV called Autosub, that was fitted with a manganese analyzer
in 2003 [73] and 2005 [74]. This event demonstrated that the
chemical sensors embedded in the AUV can detect variation in
small ranges of distribution of chemical elements, not resolved
by traditional sampling methods. Since then, the chemical
sensors developed in the AUV for geosciences in the high seas
have been used mainly in the search for active hydrothermal
plumes in the water column [75], or for detecting active methane
venting [76]. Nevertheless, the kind of navigation a mapping
system used depends to the different operations or mission
objectives. The main considerations are the required location
accuracy and the size of the region of interest. Combining these
variables can be reach a higher performance in the underwater
vehicle [77], e.g. the simultaneous localization and mapping
(SLAM) technology [78].
The general approaches to solve AUV positioning and
localization are based in ultrashort baseline (USBL) [79] and long
baseline (LBL) [80], and require of a localized and preassigned
infrastructure. Nowadays, SLAM is focused to a dynamic
multiagent system, allowing quick flexibility and deployment
with lowest facilities [81]. Furthermore, these techniques
developed for surface robotics applications [82] are being grown
up for underwater uses, optimizing the navigation design and
operability of these vehicles and missions [46].
The functional outline showed in Table 1 should be correctly
coupled in a complex control system. Figure 4 shows an example
for control AUV unit design process, considering the
aforementioned systems and developing interconnexion
between different systems by a microcontroller [83]. The vehicle
primary design phase considers the interchangeable elements,
with easily extractable parts for maintenance works and optimal
space distribution.
Fig 4. AUV Control unit block diagram
An important challenge for AUV development are the
telecommunication technologies, due to the complexity of
marine and the submarine environment [84]. One of the key
factors about compression and communication architecture [85]
is the bandwidth and distances between AUV and Remote
Monitoring and Control Centre (RMCC), or home ship
limitations [86]. It is determinant the correct choice of hardware
and software configurations for each purpose [87]. Underwater
environment limits the use of regular electromagnetic signals, as
radiofrequency (RF) [88] or Wi-Fi signals [89]. It, together with

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the non-homogeneous density of seawater due to salinity or
temperature, leads the use of acoustic modem technology
bandwidth-limited in the range of kbps, with long connection
gaps [90]. There are some proposals combining data
transmission in submarine technology by using geo-positioning
systems, as Global Positioning System (GPS) [91] or Global
Navigation Satellite System [92] and Wi-fi, 4G or L-band for
aerial data connections, using these for RMCC, satellite and
vehicles communications [93,94], see Figure 5.
Fig 5. AUV and ASV (Unmanned Surface Vehicle) Telecommunication system designed.
Discussion and future challenges.
The instrumentation and measurement systems for AUV is
not enough studied in the literature. The main paradigms to
cover in AUV include progress in routing, mapping sonar,
energy storage and drive systems. The non-linear mathematical
methods for the control unit are beginning to be used [95] to
cover the needs of new and advanced materials, e.g. “smart
materials” [96], and vehicle shape and morphology, modifying
hydrodynamic conditions using flexible hull with new
composite materials above mentioned, modulating the drag and
mass qualities of the hull to get better control of the vehicle’s
forward speed.
The current irruption of transcendental markets in both
commercial and defense government department have led to
increased activity of transforming the research to industrial
production of AUVs. Demand in 2020 is forecast to be 105%
higher than 2016, but the commercial demand will be only 4% of
total AUV demand [97], see Figure 6. The curve of applications
time evolution of these vehicles shows a state of economic
benefit, shown in Figure 7. It is encouraging an outstanding
development drive on the sum of component suppliers to
customize their product manufacture to improve the AUVs [98].
The outcome is a quick growth of AUVs performances [99].

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Fig 6.Global AUV demand by sector 2011-2020 [99].
Fig 7. Possible timetable for the development of AUV technology
shows a current state of continous reserch strategy for the future
economic return [8].
Some recent studies about offshore mapping, the
meticulous testing of sea resources and oceans infrastructures
inspections, have clearly demonstrated the validity and
effectiveness of ROVs and AUVs configured with suitable
acoustic and imaging systems [100]. These vehicles stand out in
the acquisition of data that allow the definition of the seafloor
morphology and topology, the evaluation of underwater
habitats and the analysis of marine infrastructures [101].
Management politic and legal implications that arise AUVs
are important requirements for increasing the reliability of AUVs
in the scientific sector due to the high cost of equipment
employed and the data collected. It has generated several studies
to evaluate and manage the risk associated with AUV
improvements [102]. The increasing use of UAVs will demand
updating in relation to legal matters and diplomatic
authorization. Probably these rules will be different for each type
of user, i.e. commercial, military or scientific research [103]. The
legal definition of AUV generates many doubts regarding kind
of vehicle classification. These bureaucratic issues will become
important in situations of rescue, dangerous trajectories,
incursions in unauthorized areas, equipment failures or
collisions [104,105]. Other benefits of the underwater vehicles
develops related to dangerous and extremely weather condition
areas are the new vehicles, tools and configurations for frozen
environments explorations in polar regions, allowing biological
and geo-chemical researches [106].
According to the literature review, this paper concludes that
AUVs research progress could be decisive for enterprise,
scientist, economic and government advancement. It is being
reflected in the number of the research publication´s evolution,
as it can see in Figure 8, with and important rising in the last
years.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
GLOBAL AUV DEMAND BY SECTOR 2011-2020
Research Military Commercial

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Fig 8. AUV scientist publications over the time [107]
Conclusions
The autonomous underwater vehicle development is an
essential field for scientist research, industrial and military
applications. The ocean explorations need the development and
application of new technologies. The topics to cover are, for
example, physiognomy design, sensors systems,
communications, navigations systems and power endurance and
propulsion system.
The main contributions of the paper have been a general,
complete and updated review of the state of art in the principal
instrumentation and measurement systems embedded in AUVs.
It is also showed their future uses and developments,
summarizing the main and current navigation, mapping and
sampling technologies and their applications.
Acknowledgements
The work reported here with has been supported by the
European Project H2020 under the Research Grants H2020-MG-
2018-2019-2020, ENDURUNS.
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