ChapterPDF Available

Associative and controlled cognition in divergent thinking: Theoretical, experimental, neuroimaging evidence, and new directions

Authors:

Abstract and Figures

Book chapter to appear in The Cambridge handbook of the neuroscience of creativity Citation: Volle, E. (in press). Associative and controlled cognition in divergent thinking: Theoretical, experimental, neuroimaging evidence, and new directions. In R. E. Jung & O. Vartanian (eds.), The Cambridge handbook of the neuroscience of creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Content may be subject to copyright.
1
Associative*and*controlled*cognition*in*divergent*thinking:**
Theoretical,*experimental,*neuroimaging*evidence,*and*new*directions*
!
!
"##$%&'(('!)*(('!
!
!
Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Inserm, CNRS, ICM – FrontLab, Hôpital Pitié-
Salpêtrière, Boulevard de l’hôpital, F-75013, Paris, France
!
!
!
!
Book chapter to appear in The Cambridge handbook of the neuroscience of creativity
Citation: Volle, E. (in press). Associative and controlled cognition in divergent thinking:
Theoretical, experimental, neuroimaging evidence, and new directions. In R. E. Jung &
O. Vartanian (eds.), The Cambridge handbook of the neuroscience of creativity. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
2
+,'!-./'01'%2!2,.%3.%1!45+6!$770*$8,!.9!(.3'(:!2,'!#*92!;0'<&'%2(:!&9'-!$#*%1!2,'*0:=>$9'-!
$770*$8,'9! *;! 80'$2./.2:?! $2! ('$92! .%! %'&0*79:8,*(*1:! $%-! %'&0*.#$1.%1! 92&-.'9! 4@&>$02?!
A*&8,.0*&-?!+*0-B#$%?!C! D'%$9%.?! EFGHI!J&%8*?!EFGFI!J&%8*! C! K8$0?!EFGE6L!M%!8*%20$92! 2*!
2,'*0:=;0''! $770*$8,'9! 2,$2! $.#! 2*! 92&-:! 80'$2./.2:! .%! '8*(*1.8$(! 8*%-.2.*%9?! 2,'*0:=>$9'-!
$770*$8,'9!#$3'!,:7*2,'9'9!*%!2,'!8*1%.2./'!70*8'99'9!*0!#'%2$(!*7'0$2.*%9!2,$2!$((*N!;*0!
2,'!70*-&82.*%!*;!9*#'2,.%1! 80'$2./'! 4O*P>'(2?!Q'1,'22*!C!J&%8*! EFGFI! R$0-!C!O*(*#:29?!
EFGF6L!5+!'S7(*0'9!2,'!$>.(.2:!4*0!7*2'%2.$(6!2*!1'%'0$2'!#&(2.7('!9*(&2.*%9!2*!$%!*7'%='%-'-!
70*>('#! 2,$2! -*'9! %*2! ,$/'! $! 0.1,2! *0! N0*%1! $%9N'0! $%-! 2*! 70*-&8'! #$%:! .-'$9! ;0*#! $!
92$02.%1!7*.%2!4T&.(;*0-?!GUHF?!GUVW6L!5+!2$939!$0'!.-'$!1'%'0$2.*%!2$939!2,$2!0'<&.0'!2,.%3.%1!
$N$:!;0*#!70'='92$>(.9,'-!.-'$9!$%-!1'%'0$2.%1!/$0.*&9!&%&9&$(!4*0.1.%$(6!.-'$9!.%!0'97*%9'!
2*!$!1./'%! 92.#&(&9!*0!9.2&$2.*%L!Q:!'S$#.%.%1!9'/'0$(!8,$0$82'0.92.89! *;!2,'!70*-&829!*;!2,'!
2$93?!2,'!5+!$770*$8,!7'0#.29!2,'!'S7(*0$2.*%!*;!80'$2./'!70*8'99'9L!+,.9!8*1%.2./'!$770*$8,!
*;!5+!2,$2!N.((!>'!-'/'(*7'-!.%!2,.9!8,$72'0!9''39!2*!&%-'092$%-!2,'!#'%2$(!0'70'9'%2$2.*%9!
$%-!*7'0$2.*%9!&%-'0(:.%1!80'$2./'!2,.%3.%1!$%-!2*!0'($2'!2,'#!2*!>0$.%!;&%82.*%.%1L!!
!
!
1. Classical*divergent*thinking*approach**
*
1.1. DT#tasks#and#measures*
*
+,'! %*2.*%! *;! 5+! N$9! .%.2.$2'-! >:! T&.(;*0-! N.2,.%! ,.9! 920&82&0'! *;! .%2'(('82! #*-'(?! N,.8,!
-'980.>'9! 2,'! 70*8'99'9! >:! N,.8,! .-'$9! $0'! 70*-&8'-! .%! -./'01'%2! 49'$08,.%1! ;*0! #&(2.7('!
7*99.>.(.2.'96! $9! *77*9'-! 2*! 8*%/'01'%2! 4(**3.%1! ;*0! *%'! 8*00'82! 9*(&2.*%6! N$:9! 4T&.(;*0-?!
GUHF?! GUVW6L! Q&.(-.%1! *%! 2,.9! .-'$?! +*00$%8'! -'/'(*7'-! 2,'! +*00$%8'! +'92! *;! X0'$2./'!
+,.%3.%1!4++X+6?! N,.8,!#$:!>'!2,'!#*92! '#7(*:'-!$%-!/$(.-$2'-!80'$2./.2:!$99'99#'%2! 2**(!
.%!/$0.*&9!7*7&($2.*%9! 4Y(&83'0! C! A$3'(?! EFGFI! +*00$%8'?! EFFZI! D'%1?! Y0*82*0?! C! [$(/'%-:?!
EFGG6L! \2,'0! >$22'0.'9! .%8(&-.%1! 5+! 2'929! $0'! $(9*! '#7(*:'-! 4%*%='S,$&92./'(:]! R$(($8,=
O*1$%!80'$2./.2:!2'929!^[.(/.$?!EFF_$`!I![=K!80'$2./.2:!2'92!^+$3'&8,.!'2!$(L?!EFGE`?!"Y*X!^@&>$02?!
A*&8,.0*&-?! +*0-B#$%?! C! D'%$9%.?! EFGH`I! J&%8*! X0'$2./'! K99'99#'%2! Q$22'0:!
^,227]aa80'$2./.2:2'92.%19'0/.8'9L8*#a70*-&829a`6L! +,'! ++X+! 8*%9.929! *;! 9'/'0$(! /'0>$(! $%-!
;.1&0$(!$82./.2.'9!2,$2!'(.8.2!-./'01'%2!9'$08,!$%-!70*-&82.*%L!b*0!.%92$%8'?!.%!9*#'!9&>2'929!*;!
2,'! ++X+! 7$02.8.7$%29! $0'! $93'-! 2*! .6! (.92! $((! 2,'! <&'92.*%9! 2,':! 8$%! 2,.%3! *;! N,'%! 1./'%! $!
3
-0$N.%1! *;! $! 98'%'I! ..6! 'S7$%-! .%8*#7('2'! ;.1&0'9! 2*! #$3'! -0$N.%19I! $%-! ...6! 1'%'0$2'! $9!
#$%:!.%2'0'92.%1!$%-!&%&9&$(!&9'9!*;!$!8*##*%!*>B'82!$9!7*99.>('?!9&8,!$9!$!8$0->*$0-!>*SL!
+,.9! ($22'0! 2$93?! 8$(('-! 2,'! K(2'0%$2'! c9'9! +$93! 4Kc+6?! .9! ;0'<&'%2(:! &9'-! >:! .29'(;! 4&9.%1!
-./'09'!8*##*%!*>B'829?!;*0!.%92$%8'!$!>0.83!*0!$!%'N97$7'06!2*!$99'99!80'$2./.2:?!'97'8.$((:!
.%!%'&0*.#$1.%1!92&-.'9L!\2,'0!5+! 2'929!.%8(&-'!80'$2./'!92*0:!*0!9'%2'%8'!1'%'0$2.*%!2$939!
42,'!9&>B'829!$0'!$93'-!2*!1'%'0$2'!$!92*0:!*0!9'%2'%8'!>$9'-!*%!$!9'2!*;!N*0-9I!Q'8,2'0'/$!
'2! $(L?! EFFZI! d*N$0-=e*%'9?! Q($3'#*0'?! [$#&'(?! [&##'09?! C! X($S2*%?! EFFHI! [,$,! '2! $(L?!
EFGf6?!2,'!J'#*2'!K99*8.$2'9!+'92! 4JK+]!2,0''!&%0'($2'-!8&'!N*0-9! $0'!70'9'%2'-?!$%-!2,'!
9&>B'82!,$9!2*!70*/.-'!$!;*&02,!N*0-!0'($2'-!2*!$((!2,0''!8&'!N*0-9I!'L1L?!g0$2?!8*22$1'?!>(&'h!
('$-9!2*!2,'!9*(&2.*%!N*0-!g8,''9'hI!A'-%.83?!GUVE6?!$%-!8*%8'72&$(!'S7$%9.*%!4'S7$%-!2,'!
8*%8'72!*;!$%!*>B'82!2*!1'%'0$2'!%*/'(!$%-!*0.1.%$(!.-'$9I!K>0$,$#?!Y.'0.2P?!'2!$(L?!EFGE6L!+,'!
8*%920&82!$%-! 70'-.82./'! /$(.-.2.'9! *;! 5+! 2'929! $0'! ,.1,?! $(2,*&1,! 2,'!0'9&(29! ;0*#! 70'/.*&9!
92&-.'9! $0'! %*2! $(N$:9! 8*%9.92'%2! 4O.#?! EFFV?! EFF_I! @''! C! +,'00.$&(2?! EFGfI! A'%-'(9*,%?!
GUWVI!Y(&83'0?!i.$%?!C![8,#$('%9''?!EFGZI!J&%8*!C!K8$0?!EFGEI!D'%1!'2!$(L?!EFGG6L!
M%!8*#7('2.%1!5+!2$939?!9&>B'829!9,*&(-!9.#&(2$%'*&9(:!'S7(*0'!-.;;'0'%2!*72.*%9!$%-!
;*0#! -.92$%2! $%-! &%&9&$(! $99*8.$2.*%9! >'2N''%! -.;;'0'%2! 9'#$%2.8! 8*%8'729L! +,'!
79:8,*#'20.8!$770*$8,!*;!5+! 70*/.-'9!$!70*8'-&0'!;*0!$-#.%.92'0.%1!$%-!98*0.%1!80'$2./.2:L!
+:7.8$((:?! 5+! 2$939! $0'! 98*0'-! ;*0! ;(&'%8:! 4%&#>'0! *;! 0'('/$%2! 70*-&82.*%96?! ;('S.>.(.2:!
4%&#>'0!*;!-.;;'0'%2!8$2'1*0.'9!*;!70*-&82.*%96?!*0.1.%$(.2:!4%&#>'0!*;!&%&9&$(!70*-&82.*%96?!
$%-!'($>*0$2.*%!42,'!-'10''!*;!'%0.8,#'%2!*;!70*-&82.*%96L![%:-'0!$%-!8*(('$1&'9!4[%:-'0?!
A.28,'(?! Q*99*#$.'0?! C! Y$((.'0?! EFFZ6! 70*7*9'-! $! g80'$2./.2:! <&*2.'%2h! 2,$2! 2$3'9! .%2*!
$88*&%2!2,'!%&#>'0!*;!.-'$9!4;(&'%8:6!$%-!2,'!%&#>'0!*;!-.;;'0'%2!8$2'1*0.'9!2,'!0'97*%9'9!
>'(*%1! 2*! 4;('S.>.(.2:6L! +,.9! #'$9&0'! .9! >$9'-! *%! 2,'! .-'$! 2,$2! 0'97*%9'9! 2,$2! ;$((! .%2*!
-.;;'0'%2!8$2'1*0.'9!9,*&(-!>'!N'.1,2'-!#*0'!2,$%!2,*9'! 2,$2! ;$((! .%2*! 2,'! 9$#'! 8$2'1*0:L!
Y*2'%2.$((:! #*0'! 8(*9'(:! 2,'*0'2.8$((:! 2.'-! 2*! 80'$2./.2:! 2,$%! ;(&'%8:?! *0.1.%$(.2:! .9! $! 80.2.8$(!
;$82*0!*;!5+!>&2!#$:!>'!#*0'!-.;;.8&(2!2*!#'$9&0'L!\0.1.%$(.2:!,$9!>''%!*7'0$2.*%$(.P'-!$%-!
98*0'-!.%!$!/$0.'2:! *;! N$:9?!.%8(&-.%1!2,'!&9'!*;! $! 7$%'(! *;!0$2'09!4O$&;#$%!C!Q$'0?! EFGE6?!
2,'! 0$2'09! 9*#'2.#'9! >'.%1! 2,'! 7$02.8.7$%29! 2,'#9'(/'9! 4'L1L?! [.(/.$?! j&9>$&#?! C! Q'$2:?!
EFGH6L![.(/.$!$%-!8*(('$1&'9!4[.(/.$?!EFF_>6!,$/'!70*7*9'-!$!9&>B'82./'!2*7=98*0.%1!#'2,*-!.%!
N,.8,!7$02.8.7$%29! $0'! $93'-! 2*! 9'('82! 2,'.0! #*92! 80'$2./'! .-'$9?! N,.8,! 2,'%! $0'! '/$(&$2'-!
;*0! 80'$2./.2:L! +,.9! #'2,*-! '('1$%2(:! -.99*8.$2'9! 2,'! %&#>'0! ;0*#! 2,'! <&$(.2:! *;! .-'$9! $%-!
,$9! >''%! ;*&%-! 2*! .#70*/'! -.980.#.%$%2! /$(.-.2:! 4Q'%'-'3?! A&,(#$%%?! e$&3?! C! j'&>$&'0?!
4
EFGf6?! $(2,*&1,! 2,'! 70*8'-&0'! .9! $(9*! 0$2'0=-'7'%-'%2L! K(2'0%$2./'(:?! $%! *(-a%'N! 98*0.%1!
#'2,*-! ,$9! >''%! 0'8'%2(:! 70*7*9'-! 4[.(/.$! '2! $(L?! EFGH6! >$9'-! *%! 2,'! ;$82! 2,$2! 5+! 2$939!
'%1$1'! 2,'! 1'%'0$2.*%! *;! %*/'(! $%-! 80'$2./'! .-'$9! 4g%'Nh6! $%-! 2,'! 0'8$((! *;! .-'$9! ;0*#!
#'#*0:!4g*(-h6! 4Q'%'-'3! '2! $(L?! EFGfI! Q'$2:! C! [.(/.$! EFGEI!T.(,**(:?! b.*0$2*&?! K%2,*%:?! C!
R:%%?! EFFWI! [.(/.$! '2! $(L?! EFGH6L! +,.9! 98*0.%1! 70*8'-&0'! ,$9! 9,*N%! 8*00'($2.*%9! N.2,!
70'-.82*09! *;! 80'$2./'! $>.(.2:! $%-! ,$9! 2,'! $-/$%2$1'! *;! 70*/.-.%1! .%9.1,2! .%2*! ,*N! 7'*7('!
1'%'0$2'!2,'.0!.-'$9L!d*N'/'0?!9&>B'82./'!98*0.%1!#'2,*-9!,$/'!2,'!.%8*%/'%.'%8'!*;!>'.%1!
-'7'%-'%2!*%!2,'!.%-./.-&$(!70';'0'%8'9!$%-!*7'%=#.%-'-%'99!*;!2,'!0$2'09!$%-!2*!.%80'$9'!
.%2'0=0$2'0!/$0.$>.(.2:?!N,.8,!#$:!-.#.%.9,! 2,'! 0'(.$>.(.2:! *;! 2,'!*0.1.%$(.2:!98*0'9!4b*092'0!C!
5&%>$0?! EFFU6L! \>B'82./'! #'$9&0'9! *;! *0.1.%$(.2:! $0'! 98*0.%1! #'2,*-9! >$9'-! *%! 2,'!
;0'<&'%8:!*;!0'97*%9'9!;0*#!$!%*0#$2./'!9$#7('!4+*00$%8'?!EFFZ6!*0!;0*#!2,'!'S7'0.#'%2$(!
9$#7('!49''!J&%8*!C!K8$0?!EFGE6L!+,.9!98*0'!0';('829!2,'!0$0.2:!*0!&%.<&'%'99!*;!0'97*%9'9!*;!
$%!.%-./.-&$(!8*#7$0'-!N.2,!$! 10*&7L!M2!,$9!>''%!*>B'82'-! 2,$2!$(2,*&1,!.2!.9!*>B'82./'?!2,'!
&%.<&'%'99!#'$9&0'!0'-&8'9!2,'!#'$9&0'! *;!80'$2./.2:!2*! &%.<&'!*0!0$0'! 0'97*%9'9!97'8.;.8!
2*!$!1./'%!9$#7('!!45&#$9!C!5&%>$0?!EFGZI!j&9>$&#!C![.(/.$?!EFGG6?!#$:!>'!%*2!9&;;.8.'%2(:!
.%-'7'%-'%2!*;!2,'!;(&'%8:!$%-!;('S.>.(.2:!98*0'9!4Q'%'-'3?!A&,(#$%%?!'2! $(L?!EFGfI!Y(&83'0!
'2!$(L?!EFGZ6?!$%-!#$:!#.99!'S7(.8.2!80.2'0.$!;*0!$770*70.$2'%'99!4@''!C!+,'00.$&(2?!EFGf6L!!
j'/'02,'('99?! 2,'! 8($99.8$(! 5+! $770*$8,! 98*0.%1! 9:92'#! ,$9! 70*/.-'-! 2,'! 'S7'0.#'%2$(!
>$9.9!;*0!'S7(*0.%1!.29!8'0'>0$(!8*00'($2'9L!+,'!$;*0'#'%2.*%'-!5+!#'$9&0'9!,$/'!>''%!&9'-!
.%!%'&0*.#$1.%1!92&-.'9!2*!'S7(*0'!2,'!>0$.%!8*00'($2'9!*;!80'$2./.2:?!N.2,!/$(&$>('!9.1%.;.8$%2!
0'9&(29!.%;*0#.%1!&9!*%!,*N!2,'!>0$.%!$((*N9!%'N!.-'$9!2*!'#'01'?!$%-!,*N!.%2'0=.%-./.-&$(!
8'0'>0$(!/$0.$>.(.2:!8*%/':9!,.1,'0!80'$2./'!$>.(.2.'9L!!!
!
*
1.2. Brain#correlates#of#DT#
#
b&%82.*%$(!.#$1.%1!92&-.'9!,$/'!$22'#72'-!2*!'S7(*0'!2,'!8'0'>0$(!>$9'9!*;!80'$2./.2:!&9.%1!
/$0.*&9!'S7'0.#'%2$(!2$939!49''!K0-'%?!X,$/'P?!T0$P.*7('%'?!C!e&%1?!EFGFI!5.'20.8,!C!O$%9*?!
EFGFI!e&%1!'2!$(L?!EFGf?!;*0!0'/.'N96L!A*92!*;!2,'!2$939!2,$2!N'0'!'S7(*0'-!,$/'!-0$N%!;0*#!
2,'*0'2.8$(!8*1%.2./'!#*-'(9! 9&8,!$9!5+!$%-!.%9.1,2?!*0!'S7(*0'-! $02.92.8!80'$2./.2:L!Y0'/.*&9!
0'/.'N9!>$9'-!*%!;&%82.*%$(!.#$1.%1!92&-.'9!*;!80'$2./.2:!,$/'!,.1,(.1,2'-!2,'!,'2'0*1'%'.2:!
*;!2,'!0'9&(29!>*2,!N.2,.%!$!2$93!8$2'1*0:!4'L1L!5+6!$%-!>'2N''%!2$93!8$2'1*0.'9!4K0-'%!'2!$(L?!
5
EFGFI! 5.'20.8,! C! O$%9*?! EFGFI! ! >&2!9''!b.%3! C! Q'%'-'3?! EFGf6L! d*N'/'0?! 0'8'%2! #'2$=
$%$(:9'9!$%-!2,'!10*N.%1!%&#>'0!*;!%'&0*.#$1.%1!0'9&(29!%*N!*;;'0!$!8('$0'0!7.82&0'!*;!2,'!
>0$.%!8*00'($2'9!*;!-.92.%82!$97'829!*;!80'$2./'!2,.%3.%1!$%-!*;!5+L!
M%! $! 0'8'%2! #'2$=$%$(:9.9! 9&##$0.P.%1! 2,'! ;&%82.*%$(! .#$1.%1! ;.%-.%19! *%! 80'$2./.2:!
4T*%'%=k$$8*/.!'2!$(L?!EFGf6?!$!9'2!*;!>0$.%!0'1.*%9!.%/*(/'-!.%!/$0.*&9! 80'$2./.2:! 2$939! N$9!
*>9'0/'-L!X0'$2./.2:=0'($2'-!0'1.*%9! N'0'!70'-*#.%$%2(:!(';2=9.-'-!$%-! .%8(&-'-!2,'!8$&-$(!
7$02!*;!2,'!($2'0$(!70';0*%2$(!8*02'S!4YbX6?!>*2,!/'%20$((:!$%-!-*09$((:?!2,'!#'-.$(!$%-!($2'0$(!
7*02.*%!*;!2,'!0*920$(!YbX?!2,'!.%;'0.*0!7$0.'2$(!(*>&('?!2,'!($2'0$(!2'#7*0$(!0'1.*%?!2,'!.%;'0*=
2'#7*0$(!8*02'S?!$%-!2,'!8.%1&($2'!8*02'SL!M%!2,.9!#'2$=$%$(:9.9?!80'$2./.2:!2$939!2,$2!.%/*(/'-!
$%! 'S7(.8.2! 0'<&'92! 2*! ;0''(:! 1'%'0$2'! $%! &%&9&$(! 0'97*%9'! 4$9! .%! 5+! 2$9396! N'0'! $%$(:P'-!
9'7$0$2'(:L! J'1.*%9! $99*8.$2'-! N.2,! .-'$! 1'%'0$2.*%! 2$939! .%8(&-'-! $! (';2! ($2'0$(! ;0*%2*=
7$0.'2$(! %'2N*03?! 2,'! 7*92'0.*0! .%;'0*=2'#7*0$(! 8*02'S! $%-! 8'0'>'((&#! >.($2'0$((:?! 2,'! (';2!
7$0$,.77*8$#7$(!0'1.*%?!2,'!8.%1&($2'!8*02'S!$%-!2,'!(';2!#'-.$(!;0*%2$(!7*('L!+,'9'!;.%-.%19!
N'0'!0'7(.8$2'-!$%-!'S2'%-'-!>:!$%*2,'0!#'2$=$%$(:9.9!;*8&9'-!*%!5+!2$939!97'8.;.8$((:!4R&!
'2! $(L?! EFGH6! $%-! >:! Q*88.$?! Y.88$0-.?! Y$('0#*?! j*0.?! C! Y$(#.'0*! 4EFGH6L! +,'! (';2! ;0*%2*=
7$0.'2$(!%'2N*03! $%-! 8.%1&($2'! 8*02'S! $77'$0'-! 2*! >'! #*0'! 920*%1(:! 0'80&.2'-! >:! 5+!2$939!
2,$%!>:!*2,'0!80'$2./.2:!2$939L!
+,'9'!0'9&(29!$0'!.%!$10''#'%2!N.2,!2,'!9#$((!%&#>'0!*;!92&-.'9!2,$2!,$/'!'S$#.%'-!
2,'!8'0'>0$(!>$9'9!*;!5+!.%!%'&0*(*1.8$(!7$2.'%29!4K>0$,$#?!Q'&-2?!\22?!C!k/'9!/*%!X0$#*%?!
EFGEI! -'! [*&P$! '2! $(L?! EFGFI! A.(('0! C! +.77'22?! GUUVI! J$%3.%! '2! $(L?! EFFWI! [,$#$:=+9**0:?!
K-('0?!K,$0*%=Y'0'2P?!Y'00:?!C! A$:9'('99?! EFGG6L! b*0! .%92$%8'?! -'! [*&P$! '2! $(L! 4EFGF6! &9'-!
>0$.%! 7'0;&9.*%! 2*! 'S$#.%'! 7$2.'%29! N.2,! ;0*%2*=2'#7*0$(! -'#'%2.$?! $! %'&0*-'1'%'0$2./'!
-.9'$9'!$;;'82.%1!2,'!;0*%2$(!$%-!2'#7*0$(!8*02.8'9L!+,'!0'9&(29!9,*N'-!$!9'2!*;!>0$.%!0'1.*%9!
.%!N,.8,!7'0;&9.*%!8*00'($2'-!N.2,!80'$2./.2:!7'0;*0#$%8'!*%!2,'!++X+?!N.2,!9'/'0$(!*/'0($79!
N.2,!;&%82.*%$(!.#$1.%1!0'9&(29!.%!;0*%2$(!$%-!2'#7*0$(!0'1.*%9!4b.1L!G6L!
j'&0*.#$1.%1!0'9'$08,!*%!80'$2./.2:!$(9*!$22'#729!2*!-.92.%1&.9,!2,'!>0$.%!8*00'($2'9!
*;!-.92.%82!8*1%.2./'!$97'829!*;!5+!>$9'-!*%!2,'!8($99.8$(!98*0.%1!#'2,*-L!K!7.*%''0.%1!92&-:!
'#7(*:.%1!2,.9!$770*$8,!.9!2,'!*%'!>:!X,$/'P="$3('?!T0$;;=T&'00'0*?!T$08l$=J':%$?!)$&1.'0?!
C!X0&P=b&'%2'9!4EFFW6?!N,.8,!-'#*%920$2'-!9'7$0$2'!%'&0$(!8*00'($2'9!;*0!;(&'%8:?!;('S.>.(.2:!
$%-!*0.1.%$(.2:!5+!98*0'9!.%!,'$(2,:!9&>B'829L!\0.1.%$(.2:!N$9!$99*8.$2'-!N.2,!2,'!0*920$(!YbX?!
N,'0'$9! ;(&'%8:! $%-! ;('S.>.(.2:! N'0'! $99*8.$2'-! N.2,! $! 7*92'0.*0! YbX! 0'1.*%L! +,'9'! 0'9&(29!
8*%/'01'-!N.2,!2,*9'!*;!$!('9.*%!92&-:!2,$2!-'#*%920$2'-!2,'!80.2.8$(!0*('!*;!2,'!0*920$(!YbX!
6
.%!70*-&8.%1!*0.1.%$(!0'97*%9'9!*%!2,'!++X+!4[,$#$:=+9**0:!'2!$(L?!EFGG6L!\2,'0!92&-.'9!,$/'!
$(9*!;*&%-!97'8.;.8! 8*00'($2'9!*;!-.92.%82!$97'829!*;! 5+!!>$9'-!*%! -.;;'0'%2!98*0.%1!#'2,*-9!
4Q'%'-'3?!e$&3?!'2!$(L?!EFGfI!"(($#.(?!5*>9*%?!Q''#$%?!C!X,0.92*;;?!EFGG6L!!
\/'0$((?! $(2,*&1,! 0'8'%2! #'2$=$%$(:9'9! ,$/'! 9,*N%! 9*#'! 8*%9.92'%8.'9! .%! 2,'! >0$.%!
8*00'($2'9! *;! 80'$2./.2:?! $! >'22'0! 8,$0$82'0.P$2.*%! $%-! #'$9&0'#'%2! *;! 2,'! 8*1%.2./'!
70*8'99'9! &%-'0(:.%1! 5+! .9! 92.((! %''-'-! 2*! >'22'0! &%-'092$%-! ,*N! 80'$2./.2:! '#'01'9! ;0*#!
>0$.%!;&%82.*%.%1L!
*
*
2. Cognitive*processes*and*their*brain*correlates*
*
"S.92.%1! 2,'*0.'9! $%-! 0'8'%2! 79:8,*(*1.8$(! $%-! %'&0*.#$1.%1! 92&-.'9! 9&11'92! $! 9'2! *;!
8*1%.2./'! 70*8'99'9! .%/*(/'-! .%! 5+! 2,$2! $0'! -.920.>&2'-! .%2*! 2N*! #$.%! $S'9]! 2,'! 8*1%.2./'!
8*%20*(!$%-!2,'!$99*8.$2./'!70*8'99.%1!$S'9L!
*
*
2.1. Cognitive#control#processes#
!
+,'*0:!
X*1%.2./'! 2,'*0.'9! 7*92&($2'! 2,$2! 9'/'0$(! 'S'8&2./'! ;&%82.*%9! 49&8,! $9! 8*1%.2./'! ;('S.>.(.2:?!
;(&'%8:?! 9'('82.*%?! 7($%%.%1?! N*03.%1! #'#*0:?! *0! $>920$82! 2,.%3.%16! $0'! 3':! 8*1%.2./'!
70*8'99'9! *;! 80'$2./.2:! 4X,$%1'&S?! 5$#$9.*?! [.%1'0?! C! X,0.92'%?! EFFHI! 5.'20.8,?! EFFZI!
A'%-'P?! EFFZI! R$0-?! EFFW6L! +,'! ;(&'%8:! $%-! ;('S.>.(.2:! $97'829! *;! 5+! 2$939! #$:! >'!
7$02.8&($0(:! 0'($2'-! 2*! 2,'9'! ;&%82.*%9?! $(2,*&1,! 2,'! &9'! *;! 9.#.($0! 2'0#9! .%! 2,'! 'S'8&2./'!
;&%82.*%9! $%-! 5+! (.2'0$2&0'9! -*'9! %*2! %'8'99$0.(:! #'$%9! .-'%2.8$(! 8*1%.2./'! 70*8'99'9L!
M%,.>.2.*%!.9!$(9*!$! 70*8'99! 2,$2! ,$9! >''%! 7&2! ;*0N$0-L! +,.9! .9! >'8$&9'! 5+! 2$939?! $9! N'((! $9!
*2,'0! 80'$2./.2:! 2$939?! 0'<&.0'!*%'! 2*! >0'$3! $N$:! ;0*#! *>/.*&9! 0'97*%9'9! $%-! 8*##*%!
#'%2$(!9'29!2*!1'%'0$2'!$(2'0%$2./'!&%&9&$(!0'97*%9'9L!!
!
Y9:8,*(*1:!
['/'0$(!0'8'%2!92&-.'9!,$/'! 'S$#.%'-!$!0$%1'!*;!8*%20*(('-! 70*8'99'9! .%!80'$2./.2:?!9&8,!$9!
;(&'%8:?!8*1%.2./'!.%,.>.2.*%?!;('S.>.(.2:! $%-! 9N.28,.%1?!N*03.%1!#'#*0:?!$%-!>0*$-!0'20.'/$(!
7
$>.(.2.'9! 4Q'%'-'3?! b0$%P?! d''%'?! C! j'&>$&'0?! EFGEI! 5'! 50'&?! j.B92$-?! Q$$9?! R*(9.%3?! C!
J*93'9?!EFGEI!@''!C!+,'00.$&(2?!EFGfI!j.B92$-?!5'!50'&!C!J.'2P98,'(?!EFGFI!j&9>$&#!C![.(/.$?!
EFGGI![.(/.$?!Q'$2:?!C!j&9>$&#?!EFGf6L!X*00'($2.*%$(!92&-.'9!,$/'!;*&%-!$!9.1%.;.8$%2!0'($2.*%!
>'2N''%! 5+! 2$939! $%-! /'0>$(! ;(&'%8:! 2$939! 4T.(,**(:! '2! $(L?! EFFWI! @''! C! +,'00.$&(2?! EFGfI!
j&9>$&#!C![.(/.$?! EFGG6L!d*N'/'0?!;(&'%8:!2$93! 7'0;*0#$%8'! -'7'%-9!*%!$!8*#7('S! 9'2!*;!
8*1%.2./'!70*8'99'9?!.%8(&-.%1!9'(;=.%.2.$2.*%!*;!$82.*%?!9'#$%2.8!0'20.'/$(?!9N.28,.%1!>'2N''%!
8$2'1*0.'9!*;!0'97*%9'9?!.%,.>.2.*%?!&7-$2.%1!$%-!#*%.2*0.%1!2,'!8*%2'%2!*;!N*03.%1!#'#*0:!
4Y'00'2?! GUWZI! +0*:'0?! A*98*/.28,?! C! R.%*8&0?! GUUWI! c%9N*02,?! [7.(('09?! C! Q0'N'0?! EFGG6L!
+,&9! 2,'! 8($99.8$(! &9'! *;! ;(&'%8:! 2$939! #$:! %*2! >'! 9&;;.8.'%2(:! '('#'%2$0:! 2*! 70'8.9'(:!
.-'%2.;:! 2,'! 70*8'99'9! .%/*(/'-! .%! 5+L! d.1,'0! 8$7$8.2.'9! *;! 8*1%.2./'! ;('S.>.(.2:! *0! 9N.28,.%1!
>'2N''%!8$2'1*0.'9!*;! .-'$9! ,$/'!$(9*!>''%!$99*8.$2'-! N.2,!>'22'0!5+!$>.(.2.'9! 45'! 50'&!'2!
$(L?! EFGEI! j&9>$&#! C! [.(/.$?! EFGG6L! j.B92$-?! 5'! 50'&! $%-! 8*(('$1&'9! ,.1,(.1,2'-! 2,'!
.#7*02$%8'!*;!>*2,!;('S.>.(.2:! 42,0*&1,! 9N.28,.%1!$>.(.2.'96!$%-!7'09.92'%8'!42,*&1,! N*03.%1!
#'#*0:!$%-!;*8&9'-!$22'%2.*%6!.%!2,'.0!-&$(!7$2,N$:!2*! 80'$2./.2:!#*-'(!4j.B92$-?! 5'!50'&!
C!J.'2P98,'(?!EFGF6L!M%! 2,.9! #*-'(?! N*03.%1!#'#*0:!.%;(&'%8'9!80'$2./.2:!4>*2,! ;(&'%8:! $%-!
*0.1.%$(.2:6!>:!.#70*/.%1!7'09.92'%8'! 4$>.(.2:! 2*!;*8&9!$%-!97'%-!2.#'! *%! 2$93?!$%-!2$3'!2,'!
#*92!*;!$! 1./'%! 8$2'1*0:!*;!.-'$96?!N,'0'$9! #'%2$(!;('S.>.(.2:!$((*N9!;*0! 9N.28,.%1! >'2N''%!
-.;;'0'%2!8$2'1*0.'9!*;!.-'$9L!!
M%,.>.2.*%! *;! 70'7*2'%2! 0'97*%9'9! .9! $%*2,'0! 8*1%.2./'! 70*8'99! 2,$2! ,$9! >''%!
$99*8.$2'-!N.2,!5+!$>.(.2.'9!4Q'%'-'3?!b0$%P?!'2!$(L?!EFGEI!"-(?! Q'%'-'3?!Y$7*&9'3?!R'.99?!C!
b.%3?! EFGZ6L! X*1%.2./'! .%,.>.2.*%! ,$9! $(9*! >''%! 9,*N%! 2*! >'! .#7*02$%2! .%! */'08*#.%1! 2,'!
#'%2$(!;.S$2.*%!*%!70*2*2:7.8$(!0'97*%9'9!2,$2!70'/'%29!2,'!70*-&82.*%!*;!*0.1.%$(!0'97*%9'9!
4X$99*22.?!K1*1&m?!X$#$0-$?!d*&-m?!C!Q*092?!EFGV6?!$%-!#$:!>'!$!3':!70*8'99!;*0!9*(/.%1!2,'!
J'#*2'! K99*8.$2'9! +'92! 4JK+6! 4T&72$?! e$%1?! A'-%.83?! C! d&>'0?! EFGE6L! d*N'/'0?! $! 0'8'%2!
92&-:!2,$2!#$%.7&($2'-!.%,.>.2.*%!2*!'S7(*0'!$!#*0'!8$&9$(!(.%3!>'2N''%!.%,.>.2.*%!70*8'99'9!
$%-!80'$2./.2:!4J$-'(?!5$/0$%8,'?!b*&0%.'0?!C!5.'20.8,?!EFGH6!*>2$.%'-!8*%20$-.82*0:!0'9&(29L!
M%!2,.9!92&-:?!2,'!.%,.>.2.*%!';;.8.'%8:!*;!2,'!7$02.8.7$%29!N$9!.#7$.0'-!>:!'S,$&92.*%!2,0*&1,!
2,'! .%2'%9./'! 70$82.8'! *;! %*%=/'0>$(! %*%=9'#$%2.8! .%,.>.2.*%! 2$939! 42,'! [.#*%! *0! "0.39'%!
b($%3'0! 2$9396L! K(2'0.%1! .%,.>.2.*%! 0'9*&08'9! ('-! 2*! $%! .#70*/'#'%2! .%! 2,'! %&#>'0! $%-!
*0.1.%$(.2:! *;! .-'$9! .%! $%! Kc+! 2$93?! 9&11'92.%1! 2,$2! .%,.>.2.*%! .9! %'1$2./'(:! 0'($2'-! 2*! 5+L!
M#7$.0'-!.%,.>.2.*%!('$-.%1!2*!7$0$-*S.8$(!;&%82.*%$(!;$8.(.2$2.*%!*;!$02.92.8!80'$2./'!$>.(.2.'9!
,$9! >''%! -'980.>'-! .%! %'&0*(*1.8$(! 7$2.'%29! N.2,! ;0*%2$(! -$#$1'! 45'! [*&P$! '2! $(L?! EFGZI!
8
[8,*22?!EFGE!;*0!0'/.'N96L!K!;'N! %*%=.%/$9./'! >0$.%! 92.#&($2.*%! 92&-.'9! $0'! 8*%9.92'%2! N.2,!
2,.9! /.'N?! >:! -'#*%920$2.%1! $! ;$8.(.2$2./'! ';;'82! *;! 8$2,*-$(! 4.%,.>.2*0:6! 20$%980$%.$(! -.0'82!
8&00'%2! 92.#&($2.*%! *;! 2,'! (';2! YbX! *%! 7'0;*0#$%8'! .%! $! 5+! 2$93! 4X,0:9.3*&! '2! $(L?! EFGfI!
A$:9'('99!C![,$#$:=+9**0:?!EFGH6L!d*N'/'0?!*2,'0!>0$.%!92.#&($2.*%!92&-.'9!,$/'!0'7*02'-!
8*%/'09'! 0'9&(29! 4X'00&2.! C! [8,($&1?! EFFUI! X*(*#>*?! Q$02'9$1,.?! [.#*%'((.?! C! K%2*%.'22.?!
EFGHI! D#.10*-?! D#.10*-?! C! d*##'(?! EFGH6L!+,'! 7$0$-*S.8$(! (.%3! >'2N''%! .%,.>.2.*%! $%-!
80'$2./.2:!#$:!0'($2'!2*!2,'!,'2'0*1'%'.2:!*;!2,'!8*%920&82!*;!g.%,.>.2.*%h?!.L'L?!-.92.%82!2:7'9!
*;!.%,.>.2.*%!'S.92!&%-'0! 2,'! 9$#'!2'0#L!+,'0'!$0'! .%! ;$82!-.;;'0'%2!8*%8'72.*%9!$>*&2!,*N!
.%,.>.2.*%!.9!0'($2'-!2*!80'$2./.2:L!X0'$2./.2:!,$9!>''%!$99*8.$2'-!N.2,!(*N'0!.%,.>.2*0:!8*%20*(!
4J$-'(!'2! $(L?!EFGH6?!9*8.$(!*0!>',$/.*0$(! -.9.%,.>.2.*%!4-'![*&P$!'2!$(L?! EFGF6?!,.1,'0!$>.(.2.'9!
.%,.>.2.%1! 70'7*2'%2! 0'97*%9'9! 4"-(! '2! $(L?! EFGZ6?! $! -'80'$9'! .%! ($2'%2! .%,.>.2.*%! 4X$09*%?!
Y'2'09*%?!C!d.11.%9?! EFFf6?!*0!$%! $-$72./'!'%1$1'#'%2!*;!.%,.>.2.*%! 45*0;#$%?!A$02.%-$('?!
T$99.#*/$?! C! )$02$%.$%?! EFF_I! )$02$%.$%?! EFFU6L! T$.%.%1! $! >'22'0! &%-'092$%-.%1! *;! ,*N!
2,'9'!-.92.%82!2:7'9!*;! .%,.>.2.*%! $0'! 0'($2'-!2*!80'$2./'!2,.%3.%1!$%-! 80'$2./'! $>.(.2.'9!.9!$%!
.#7*02$%2!$/'%&'!;*0!;&2&0'!0'9'$08,L!!
!
j'&0*.#$1.%1!!
+,'!.#7*02$%8'!*;!'S'8&2./'!*0!8*%20*(('-!;&%82.*%9!.%!80'$2./.2:!.9!$(9*!9&77*02'-!>:!92&-.'9!
-'#*%920$2.%1!2,'!.%/*(/'#'%2!$%-a*0!2,'!80.2.8$(!0*('!*;!>0$.%!0'1.*%9!9&77*02.%1!'S'8&2./'!
$%-! 8*1%.2./'! 8*%20*(L! M%! ;&%82.*%$(! .#$1.%1?! 2,'! 8$&-$(! $%-! 0*920$(! ($2'0$(! YbX?! 7*92'0.*0!
7$0.'2$(!$%-!8.%1&($2'!8*02'S!$0'!9*#'!*;!2,'!#*92!0'7*02'-!0'1.*%9!$99*8.$2'-!N.2,!5+!2$939!
4T*%'%=k$$8*/.!'2!$(L?!EFGf6L![2&-.'9!2,$2!&9'-!*2,'0!#'2,*-9!.%!80'$2./.2:!0'9'$08,?!9&8,!$9!
/*S'(=>$9'-!#*07,*#'20:?!-.;;&9.*%!N'.1,2'-!.#$1.%1?!*0!8'0'>0$(!>(**-!;(*N!4Q'8,2'0'/$!
'2!$(L?!EFFZI!X,$/'P="$3('!'2!$(L?!EFFWI!e&%1!'2!$(L?!EFGfI!e&%1?!T0$P.*7('%'?!X$70.,$%?!X,$/'P?!
C!d$.'0?!EFGFI!e&%1?!['1$((?!'2!$(L?!EFGFI!+$3'&8,.!'2!$(L?!EFGF$?!EFGF>6!,$/'!$(9*!9,*N%!$!(.%3!
>'2N''%! 80'$2./'! 7'0;*0#$%8'! $%-! 2,'! ($2'0$(! YbX! *0! .29! 8*%%'82.*%9L! +,'9'! 0'1.*%9! $0'!
($01'(:!$99*8.$2'-!N.2,!'S'8&2./'!;&%82.*%9?!$%-!$0'!7$02!*;!2,'!g8*1%.2./'!8*%20*(h?!g;0*%2*=
7$0.'2$(h! *0! g#&(2.=-'#$%-h! %'2N*039! 2,$2! .%/*(/'! YbX! $%-! 7$0.'2$(! 0'1.*%9! 4X*('! '2! $(L?!
EFGfI! b'-*0'%3*?! 5&%8$%?! C! O$%N.9,'0?! EFGfI! e&%1! C! d$.'0?! EFFWI! Y*N'0! $%-! Y'2'09*%?!
EFGfI! [''(':! '2! $(L?! EFFWI! [#.2,! '2! $(L?! EFFUI! [0.-,$0$%?! @'/.2.%?! C! A'%*%?! EFF_I! ).%8'%2?!
O$,%?! [%:-'0?! J$.8,('?! C! Q&83%'0?! EFF_I! R**(1$0! '2! $(L?! EFGF6L! ['/'0$(! 8*%20*(=0'($2'-!
%'2N*039!,$/'!>''%!-'980.>'-?!>&2!2,'!70'8.9'!0*('!*;!'$8,!%'2N*03!$%-!*;!2,'!8*%92.2&2./'!
9
0'1.*%9! ,$/'! %*2! >''%! '(&8.-$2'-! 4Y*N'0! C! Y'2'09'%?! EFGf6L! X*%20*(=0'($2'-! %'2N*039! $0'!
0'80&.2'-! >:! -./'09'! 8*1%.2./'! ;&%82.*%9?! .%8(&-.%1! N*03.%1! #'#*0:?! 8*%20*(('-! 0'20.'/$(! .%!
'7.9*-.8! *0! 9'#$%2.8! #'#*0:?! #&(2.2$93.%1! $%-! 70*97'82./'! #'#*0:?! 0'($2.*%$(! 0'$9*%.%1!
$%-!$>920$82!2,.%3.%1?!8*1%.2./'!.%,.>.2.*%!$%-!;('S.>.(.2:?!$%-!N*03.%1!#'#*0:!4Q$-0'?!EFF_I!
Q&01'99?! T*%'%=k$$8*/.?! C! )*(('?! EFGGI! 5&%8$%?! EFGFI! b0.'-#$%! C! A.:$3'?EFGVI! d*>'.3$?!
5.$0-=5'2*'&;?!T$08.%?!@'/:?!C!)*(('?!EFGVI!e&%1!C!d$.'0?!EFFWI!e&%1!C!d$.'0?!EFGfI!O*'8,(.%?!
\-:?! C! O*&%'.,'0?! EFFfI! O*%.9,.! '2! $(L?! EFGFI! c0>$%93.! '2! $(L?! EFGVI! )*(('! '2! $(L?! EFF_I!
R**(1$0!'2!$(L?!EFGF6L!K!>0$.%! 9:92'#! 97'8.$(.P'-! .%! 9'#$%2.8! 8*%20*(!$%-!-.92.%82!;0*#!2,'!
#&(2.=-'#$%-!%'2N*03!,$9!$(9*!>''%!-'980.>'-?!'%8*#7$99.%1!2,'!(';2!.%;'0.*0!;0*%2$(!1:0&9!
$%-! 7*92'0.*0! #.--('! 2'#7*0$(! 1:0&9! 45$/':! '2! $(L?! EFGVI! j**%$%! '2! $(L?! EFGf6L! +,'! (';2!
.%;'0.*0! ;0*%2$(! 1:0&9! .9! .%/*(/'-! .%! 8*%20*(('-! 0'20.'/$(! $%-! 9'('82.*%! .%! 9'#$%2.8! #'#*0:!
4Q$-0'!'2!$(L?!EFFHI!+,*#79*%=[8,.((!$%-!Q*2/.%.83?!EFFV6L!
A*0'!80.2.8$((:?!7$2.'%2! 92&-.'9! ,$/'! -'#*%920$2'-! 2,$2! 80'$2./'! 7'0;*0#$%8'! .%!5+!
2$939! -'7'%-9! *%! 2,'! .%2'10.2:! *;! 2,'! YbXL! [2&-.'9! N.2,! ;0*%2$(! /$0.$%2! ;0*%2*=2'#7*0$(!
-'#'%2.$!7$2.'%29!,$/'!9,*N%!2,'!.#7$.0#'%2!*;!$((!5+!98*0'9!.%!2,'9'!7$2.'%29?!8*00'($2'-!
N.2,! 'S'8&2./'! -:9;&%82.*%9! .%! ;('S.>.(.2:! $%-! ;(&'%8:! 4-'! [*&P$! '2! $(L?! EFGFI! J$%3.%! '2! $(L?!
EFFW6L! +*! 8*#7('#'%2! ;.%-.%19! *>2$.%'-! ;*0! 7$2.'%29! N,*! ,$/'! -.;;&9'! >0$.%! -$#$1'?!
92&-.'9!*%!7$2.'%29!N.2,!;*8$(! ('9.*%9!$((*N!;*0!#*0'!70'8.9'!920&82&0'=;&%82.*%!8*00'($2.*%9!
4)*(('?! @'/:?! C! Q&01'99?! EFGf6L! +,'! ;'N! ('9.*%! 92&-.'9! 2,$2! ,$/'! 'S7(*0'-! 80'$2./'! $>.(.2:!
8*%;.0#!2,'!80.2.8$(!0*('!*;!2,'!YbXL![,$#$:=+9**0:!'2!$(L!4EFGG6!$%$(:P'-!ZF!7$2.'%29!N.2,!
;*8$(! ;0*%2$(! *0! 7$0.'2$(! -$#$1'L! +,'! 0'9&(29! 0'/'$('-! 2,$2! -$#$1'! 2*! 2,'! 0*920$(! YbX!
0'9&(2'-! .%! (*N'0! 5+! $>.(.2.'9?! $%-! (*N'0! *0.1.%$(.2:! 98*0'9L! K>0$,$#! $%-! 8*(('$1&'9!
4K>0$,$#?! Q'&-2?! '2! $(L?! EFGE6! 8*%-&82'-! $! 92&-:! N.2,! WZ! 7$2.'%29! N.2,! ;*8$(! ('9.*%9!
$;;'82.%1! 2,'! ($2'0$(! YbX?! >$9$(! 1$%1(.$! $%-! 2'#7*0*=7$0.'2$(! 0'1.*%9L! +,'! 0'9&(29! .%-.8$2'-!
2,$2!7$2.'%29!N.2,! 70';0*%2$(!*0!2'#7*0*=7$0.'2$(!-$#$1'! ,$-!(*N'0!*0.1.%$(.2:!$%-! ;(&'%8:!
98*0'9! .%! 5+! 2$939! 2,$%! *2,'0! 10*&79L! d*N'/'0?! 7$2.'%29! N.2,! $%2'0.*0! >&2! %*2! 7*92'0.*0!
($2'0$(! YbX! -$#$1'! $77'$0'-! 2*! >'! >'22'0! $2! */'08*#.%1! 2,'! 8*%920$.%29! *;! 'S$#7('9!
70*/.-'-!2*!2,'#L!
\/'0$((!7$2.'%2!$%-!;&%82.*%$(!.#$1.%1!92&-.'9!.%-.8$2'!2,$2!2,'!8*1%.2./'!8*%20*(!0'1.*%9?!
'97'8.$((:! 2,'! YbX?! $0'! .#7*02$%2! ;*0! 80'$2./.2:?! >&2! $! ;'N! ;.%-.%19! 8,$(('%1'! 2,.9! .-'$! >:!
9,*N.%1!>'22'0! 7'0;*0#$%8'!$;2'0!2,'!$(2'0$2.*%!*;!.%,.>.2*0:!8*%20*(!#'8,$%.9#9!4J$-'(! '2!
$(L?!EFGH6L!+,'!YbX!.9!$!($01'!$%-!,'2'0*1'%'*&9!0'1.*%!2,$2!.9!8*%%'82'-!2*!-.;;'0'%2!>0$.%!
10
9:92'#9!4X$2$%.!C![8,*22'%?!EFGEI!).%8'%2!'2!$(L?!EFF_6L!M2!.9!2,&9!(.3'(:!2,$2!-.;;'0'%2!;0*%2$(!
9&>=0'1.*%9! $0'! .%/*(/'-! .%! -.92.%82! ;0*%2$(! %'2N*039! $%-! 7($:! -.92.%82! 0*('9! .%! 5+L! b*0!
.%92$%8'?!$#*%1!2,'!*2,'0!70*8'99'9!.%/*(/'-!.%!5+?!2,'!$99*8.$2./'!70*8'99'9!$77'$0!2*!0'(:!
*%!-.;;'0'%2!>0$.%!%'2N*039!2,$%!8*%20*(('-!70*8'99'9?!.%/*(/.%1!-.92.%82!;0*%2$(!9&>=0'1.*%9L!!
!
!
2.2. Associative#processes#
#
+,'*0:!
K99*8.$2./'! 2,.%3.%1! -'980.>'9! 2,'! 70*8'99! >:! N,.8,! $! 1./'%! 92.#&(&9! *0! 2,*&1,2!
$&2*#$2.8$((:!$82./$2'9!$%*2,'0!92.#&(&9!*0!2,*&1,2!>'8$&9'!2,':!$0'!$99*8.$2'-!.%!9'#$%2.8!
#'#*0:L! c%(.3'! 'S'8&2./'! 70*8'99'9?! $99*8.$2./'! 70*8'99.%1! .9! &%8*%20*(('-! $%-!
97*%2$%'*&9L!+,'!$99*8.$2./'!$770*$8,!*;!80'$2./.2:?!>$9'-! *%! 2,'! X*((.%! $%-! @*;2&9! 4GUWH6!
#*-'(?!'#7,$9.P'9! 2,'!;0''!$82./$2.*%!*;!.-'$9!*0!N*0-9!>:!970'$-.%1!;0*#!*%'!2*! $%*2,'0?!
;0*#! 2,'! 920*%1(:! $99*8.$2'-! *%'9! 2*! N'$3'0! $99*8.$2'9L! +,&9?! .2! .9! 2,'! 70''S.92.%1!
$99*8.$2.*%! >'2N''%! N*0-9! *0! 8*%8'729! .%! 9'#$%2.8! #'#*0:! 2,$2! -'2'0#.%'9! 2,'.0! 8*=
$82./$2.*%?! N.2,! (*%1'0! 2.#'9! >'.%1! %'8'99$0:! ;*0! ;$02,'0! 9'#$%2.8! -.92$%8'9L! A'-%.83n9!
2,'*0:! ,$9! >''%! 2,'! #*92! .%;(&'%2.$(! .%! 70*#*2.%1! $99*8.$2./'! $>.(.2.'9! .%! 80'$2./'! 2,.%3.%1!
4A'-%.83?! GUVEI! A'-%.83?! A'-%.83?! C! e&%1?! GUVZI! A'-%.83?! A'-%.83?! C! A'-%.83?! GUVZ6L!
K88*0-.%1! 2*! 2,.9! 2,'*0:?! 80'$2./'! .%-./.-&$(9! ,$/'! $! #*0'! ;('S.>('! *01$%.P$2.*%! *;!
$99*8.$2.*%9! >'2N''%! N*0-9! *0! 8*%8'729! .%! 2,'.0! 9'#$%2.8! #'#*0:?! 8,$0$82'0.P'-! >:! ;($2!
$99*8.$2./'! ,.'0$08,.'9L! +,'9'! $99*8.$2./'! 70*7'02.'9! $((*N! 2,'#! 2*! $82./$2'! 0'#*2'! .-'$9!
$%-! ;*0#! $99*8.$2./'! '('#'%29! .%2*! %*/'(! 8*#>.%$2.*%9L! A*0'! ;('S.>('! $99*8.$2.*%9! #$:!
'S7($.%! N,:! 80'$2./'! 7'*7('! $77'$0! 2*! ,$/'! #*0'! ;('S.>('! >$00.'09! >'2N''%! 9'#$%2.8!
8$2'1*0.'9! $%-! 2*! .%8(&-'! #*0'! 92.#&(.! $9! >'(*%1.%1! 2*! $! 1./'%! 8$2'1*0:! 4.L'L?!
*/'0.%8(&9./'%'99I! ":9'%83?! GUUf6L! b*0! 2,'! 9$#'! 0'$9*%?! 80'$2./'! 7'*7('! #$:! >'! #*0'!
8$7$>('!*;!9''.%1!9.#.($0.2.'9!*0! $%$(*1.'9!>'2N''%!-.99.#.($0!8*%8'729!*0!9.2&$2.*%9!4T0''%?!
O0$'#'0?!b&1'(9$%1?!T0$:?!C!5&%>$0?!EFGFI!e*%'9!C!"92'9?!EFGH6L!
!
Y9:8,*(*1:!
\%(:!0'8'%2(:!,$9!2,'!0*('!*;!$99*8.$2./'!2,.%3.%1!.%!5+!$%-?!#*0'!>0*$-(:?!.%!80'$2./.2:!>''%!
'S7'0.#'%2$((:! 'S7(*0'-L! c9.%1! $! ;0''! N*0-! $99*8.$2.*%! 2$93?! A'02'%! $%-! b.98,'0!4GUUU6!
11
9,*N'-! 2,$2! #*0'! 80'$2./'! 7'*7('! 4.%/*(/'-! .%! 2,'! $0296! 70*/.-'! #*0'! &%8*##*%!
$99*8.$2./'! 0'97*%9'9! N,'%! &%8*##*%%'99! .9! $93'-! ;*0! >:! 2,'! 2$93L! J'8'%2! 92&-.'9! ,$/'!
9,*N%! 2,$2! ,.1,(:! 80'$2./'! 7'09*%9! 1./'! (*N'0! '92.#$2'9! *;! 2,'! 0'#*2'%'99! *;! &%0'($2'-!
N*0-!7$.09!8*#7$0'-!N.2,! ('99! 80'$2./'!7'09*%9!4J*99#$%%!C!b.%3?!EFGF6! $%-! $0'!;$92'0!.%!
B&-1.%1! 2,'! 0'($2'-%'99! *;! 8*%8'729! 4)$02$%.$%?! A$02.%-$('?! C! A$22,'N9?! EFFU6L! +,'9'!
92&-.'9! .%-.8$2'! 2,$2! 0'#*2'! '('#'%29! *;! 3%*N('-1'a9'#$%2.89! #$:! >'! ,.1,(:!
.%2'08*%%'82'-!.%!,.1,(:!80'$2./'!7'09*%9L!K%*2,'0!9'2!*;!0'8'%2!92&-.'9!&9'-!/$0.*&9!;(&'%8:!
2$939! $9! $! #'$9&0'! *;! $99*8.$2./'! $>.(.2.'9! $%-! -'#*%920$2'-! 2,'.0! 1**-! 70'-.82./'! /$(.-.2:!
N.2,!0'97'82!2*!5+!$%-!80'$2./'!$>.(.2.'9!4Q'$2:!C![.(/.$?!EFGZI!Q'%'-'3?!Oo%'%?!C!j'&>$&'0?!
EFGEI!@''!C!+,'00.$&(2?!EFGf6L!K99*8.$2.*%!;(&'%8:!2$939?!;*0!.%92$%8'?!8*%9.92!*;!#$3.%1!;0''!
8*%2.%&*&9!$99*8.$2.*%9!N.2,!$!8&'!N*0-?!(.92.%1!9:%*%:#9?!$%-!1'%'0$2.%1!(.929!*;!&%0'($2'-!
N*0-9L! Q'$2:! $%-! [.(/.$! 4EFGZ6! 9,*N'-! 2,$2! $99*8.$2.*%$(! ;(&'%8:! 70'-.82'-! 2,'! 80'$2./'!
<&$(.2:! 40$2,'0! 2,$%! 2,'! <&$%2.2:6! *;! 5+! 0'97*%9'9!.%! $%! Kc+! 2$93?! $%-! Q'%'-'3! $%-!
j'&>$&'0! 4EFGf6! ;*&%-! 2,$2! ,.1,'0! 5+! $>.(.2.'9! N'0'! $99*8.$2'-! N.2,! 10'$2'0! $99*8.$2./'!
&%8*##*%%'99! .%! $99*8.$2./'! ;(&'%8:L! +,'9'! ;.%-.%19! .%-.8$2'! 2,$2! $99*8.$2./'! $>.(.2.'9!
'S7(*0'-!>:!$99*8.$2./'!;(&'%8:! 2$939! 'S7($.%!$!($01'!7*02.*%!*;! 2,'! /$0.$%8'!*;!5+!$>.(.2.'9L!
d*N'/'0?! $99*8.$2./'! ;(&'%8:! 2$939! $0'! #&(2.8*#7*%'%2! 2$939! 2,$2! .%/*(/'! 8*%20*(('-!
70*8'99'9! .%! $--.2.*%! 2*! $99*8.$2./'! 70*8'99'9! 4Y'00'2?! GUWZI! [.(/.$! '2! $(L?! EFGfI! +0*:'0?!
A*98*/.28,?!R.%*8&0?!K('S$%-'0?!C! [2&99?!GUU_6?!$%-!#$:!$((*N!*%(:!$%!.#7&0'!'S7(*0$2.*%!
*;!2,'!0*('!*;!$&2*#$2.8!$99*8.$2./'!70*8'99.%1!.%!5+L!
K! #*0'! -.0'82! -'#*%920$2.*%! *;! 2,'! 0*('! *;! $&2*#$2.8! $99*8.$2./'! 70*8'99'9! .%!
80'$2./.2:! .9! 0'7*02'-! .%! 70.#.%1! 92&-.'9! 4b$&92! C! @$/.-*0?! EFFf6L! Y0.#.%1! #$:! >'! $! 7&0'0!
#'$9&0'! *;! $99*8.$2./'! 70*8'99.%1! >:! 0';('82.%1! 97*%2$%'*&9! $%-! .#7(.8.2! 970'$-.%1! *;!
$82./$2.*%L! T0&9P3$! $%-! j'p3$! 4EFFE6! 9,*N'-! 2,$2! 80'$2./'! 7'*7('! -.;;'0'-! ;0*#! ('99!
80'$2./'! 7'*7('! .%! 0'$-.%'99! 2*! $88'72! N*0-! $99*8.$2.*%9! $%-! 9&98'72.>.(.2:! 2*! 70.#.%1L!
K%*2,'0! 92&-:! 4J$-'(! '2! $(L?! EFGH6! 9,*N'-! 2,$2! -'80'$9.%1! .%,.>.2*0:! 8*%20*(! 0'9*&08'9!
.#70*/'-! 5+! $%-! .%80'$9'-! 2,'! 70.#.%1! ';;'82! ;*0! N'$3(:! 0'($2'-! 70.#'9?! .%-.8$2.%1! 2,$2!
$&2*#$2.8!$99*8.$2./'!70*8'99.%1!.9! #*0'!';;.8.'%2!N.2,*&2!8*%20*(!.%,.>.2.*%L! \/'0$((?! 2,'9'!
;.%-.%19! 9&11'92! 2,$2! $99*8.$2./'! 2,.%3.%1! 0'70'9'%29! $! /$(.-! '('#'%2$0:! 8*1%.2./'! 70*8'99!
&%-'0(:.%1!80'$2./.2:L!!
+,'!$99*8.$2./'!$770*$8,!$%-!#*0'! 97'8.;.8$((:!$&2*#$2.8!$99*8.$2./'! 970'$-.%1!#$:!
,$/'!.#7(.8$2.*%9!;*0!2,'!.%8&>$2.*%!';;'82!4[.*!C!\0#'0*-?!EFFUI!k$%./!C!A':'0?!GU_W6L!K%!
12
.%8&>$2.*%!7,$9'!0';'09!2*!$!7'0.*-!*;!2$93=&%0'($2'-!$82./.2:!$;2'0!,$/.%1!$22'#72'-!2*!9*(/'!
$! 70*>('#! $%-! >';*0'! 0'2&0%.%1! 2*! .2L! +,'! .%8&>$2.*%! ';;'82! 0';'09! 2*! .%80'$9'-! 80'$2./'!
7'0;*0#$%8'! $9! $! 0'9&(2! *;! 2,.9! .%8&>$2.*%! 7'0.*-L! [2&-.'9! *%! 5+! ,$/'! 9,*N'-! $! 7*9.2./'!
.%8&>$2.*%!';;'82!*%!*0.1.%$(.2:!$%-! *%!2,'!8*%920$.%29!*;!'S$#7('9?! $%-!9*#'!$&2,*09!,$/'!
70*7*9'-! 2,'! 0*('! *;! &%8*%98.*&9! 2,*&1,2! .%! 2,'! .%8&>$2.*%! ';;'82! 45.B392'0,&.9! C! A'&09?!
EFFVI! J.22'0! C! 5.B392'0,&.9?! EFGZI! J.22'0?! /$%! Q$$0'%?! C! 5.B392'0,&.9?! EFGEI! D,*%1?!
5.B392'0,&.9?! C! T$(.%93:?! EFF_6L! K(2*1'2,'0! 2,'9'! ;.%-.%19! .%-.8$2'! $! 0*('! ;*0! $&2*#$2.8!
$99*8.$2./'!2,.%3.%1!.%!*0.1.%$(!.-'$!1'%'0$2.*%L!
!
j'&0*.#$1.%1!!
K(2,*&1,!$!9'0.'9!*;!;&%82.*%$(!.#$1.%1!$%-!7$2.'%2!92&-.'9!,$/'!;*8&9'-!*%!2,'!.#7*02$%8'!
*;!2,'!YbX! $%-!7$0.'2*=2'#7*0$(!0'1.*%9!.%! 80'$2./'!5+?!0'8'%2! %'&0*.#$1.%1!92&-.'9!>$9'-!
*%!.%2'0=.%-./.-&$(!/$0.$>.(.2:?!&9.%1!>0$.%!#*07,*#'20:!$770*$8,'9!4b.%3?!O*98,&2%.1!'2! $(L?!
EFGfI! e$&3?! j'&>$&'0?! 5&%92?! b.%3?! C! Q'%'-'3?! EFGHI! e&%1! '2! $(L?! EFGfI! e&%1! '2! $(L?! EFGHI!
e&%1?! ['1$((?! '2! $(L?! EFGFI! e&%1?! T0$P.*7('%'?! X$70.,$%?! X,$/'P! C! d$.'0?! EFGFI! Oq,%! '2! $(L?!
EFGZI!+$3'&8,.!'2!$(L?!EFGF$I! D,&?! D,$%1?! C! i.&?!EFGf6!*0!'S7(*0.%1!;&%82.*%$(!8*%%'82./.2:!
4Q'$2:!'2!$(L?!EFGZI!X,'%!'2!$(L?!EFGHI!X*&9.B%?!D$%*(.'?!A&%92'09?!O('.>'&3'0?!C!X0*%'?!EFGZI!
+$3'&8,.!'2!$(L?! EFGG?! EFGEI! R'.! '2! $(L?! EFGZ6! 9''#! 2*! 8*%/'01'! *%! 2,'! 0*('! *;! 2,'! -';$&(2!
#*-'!%'2N*03!45Aj6!.%!5+L!!
+,'! 5Aj! .9! $! 9'2! *;! ;&%82.*%$((:! 8*%%'82'-! >0$.%! 0'1.*%9! .%! N,.8,! $82./.2:! .9! (*N'0!
-&0.%1! 2$939! 0'<&.0.%1! ;*8$(! $22'%2.*%?! ';;*02?! *0! 8*%20*(! $%-! ,.1,'0!-&0.%1! 0'92!4Q&83%'0?!
K%-0'N9=d$%%$?!C! [8,$82'0?! EFF_I! T0'.8.&9?! [&7'3$0?! A'%*%?! C! 5*&1,'02:?! EFFUI! J$.8,('?!
EFGHI!J$.8,('!'2!$(L?!EFFG6L!+,'!5Aj!.%8(&-'9!2,'!#'-.$(!0*920$(!YbX?!7*92'0.*0!8.%1&($2'!$%-!
0'20*97('%.$(! 8*02'S?! 2,'! 70'8&%'&9?! 2,'! #'-.$(! 2'#7*0$(! 0'1.*%! 4,.77*8$#7&9! $%-!
7$0$,.77*8$#7$(!1:0&96?!$%-! 2,'!2'#7*0*=7$0.'2$(!B&%82.*%L! +,'!5Aj!8$%!>'! -.92.%1&.9,'-!
;0*#! 2,'! 9'2! *;! 0'1.*%9! ;&%82.*%$((:! 8*%%'82'-! 2*! 2,'! ($2'0$(! YbX! 4T.(>'02?! T*%'%=k$$8*/.?!
Q'%*.2?!)*(('?!C!Q&01'99?!EFGF6!.%/*(/'-!.%!8*1%.2./'!8*%20*(L!!
"S.92.%1! ;.%-.%19! .%-.8$2'! 2,'! .%/*(/'#'%2! *;! 2,.9! %'2N*03! .%! 9'/'0$(! 8*1%.2./'!
;&%82.*%9]! #'%2$(.P.%1! 4b0.2,! C! b0.2,?! EFFV6?! 9'(;=0';'0'%8'! 4T&9%$0-?! K3>&-$3?! [,&(#$%?! C!
J$.8,('?! EFFGI! j*02,*;;?! EFGG6?! ;&2&0'! 2,.%3.%1! $%-! .#$1.%$2.*%! 45'#>(*%?! Q$,0.?! C!
5rK01'#>'$&?! EFGVI! [8,$82'0?! K--.9?! C! Q&83%'0?! EFFW6?! #'#*0:! 4O.#?! EFGV6! $%-! #.%-!
N$%-'0.%1! *0! -$:-0'$#.%1! 4K%-0'N9=d$%%$?! J'.-('0?! d&$%1?! C! Q&83%'0?! EFGFI! K%-0'N9=
13
d$%%$?![#$((N**-?!C![70'%1?!EFGZI!X,0.92*;;?!T*0-*%?![#$((N**-?![#.2,?!C![8,**('0?!EFFUI!
X,0.92*;;?!M0/.%1?!b*S?![70'%1?!C!K%-0'N9=d$%%$!?!EFGVI!b*S?![70'%1?!"(($#.(?!K%-0'N9=d$%%$?!
C!X,0.92*;;?!EFGHI!A$9*%!'2!$(L?!EFFW6L!K(9*!8$(('-!&%-.0'82'-a2$93=&%0'($2'-!2,*&1,29?!#.%-!
N$%-'0.%1! 0';'09! 2*! 2,'! 920'$#! *;! 97*%2$%'*&9! 2,*&1,29?! '#*2.*%9?! $%-! #'#*0.'9! 2,$2!
*88&0! .%! '/'0:-$:! (.;'! $%-! $82./.2.'9! 4K%-0'N9=d$%%$?! J'.-('0?! d&$%1?! C! Q&83%'0?! EFGFI!
K%-0'N9=d$%%$?! [#$((N**-?! C! [70'%1?! EFGZI! X,0.92*;;?! M0/.%1?! b*S?! [70'%1?! C! K%-0'N9=
d$%%$! ?! EFGVI! b*S?! [70'%1?! "(($#.(?! K%-0'N9=d$%%$?! C! X,0.92*;;?! EFGHI! [.%1'0?! GUUfI!
[#$((N**-!C![8,**('0?! EFGH6?! $%-!.9!2,*&1,2!2*! 7($:!$!0*('!.%!80'$2./'! .%8&>$2.*%!4Q$.0-!'2!
$(L?! EFGE6L! J'8'%2! '/.-'%8'! 9&11'929! 2,$2! 2,'! 5Aj! 7($:9! $! 0*('! .%! 9'#$%2.8! $%-! '7.9*-.8!
#'#*0:! 0'20.'/$(! 4Q.%-'0?! 5'9$.?! T0$/'9?! C! X*%$%2?! EFFUI! Q&83%'0! '2! $(L?! EFF_I! X$2$%.?!
5'((rK8<&$?!C!+,.'>$&2!-'![8,*22'%?!EFGfI!"&92$8,'?!).$0-?!C!5'910$%1'9?!EFGVI!O.#?!EFGF?!
EFGVI!A85*%$(-?!X0*99*%?!)$('%92'.%?!C!Q*N'09?!EFFGI![,$((.8'!'2!$(L?!GUUZI![,$7.0$=@.8,2'0?!
\0'%?! e$8*>?! T0&>'01'0?! C! d'%-('0?! EFGfI! R.02,! '2! $(L?! EFGG6L! [*#'! 5Aj! 0'1.*%9! #$:! >'!
9,$0'-! >'2N''%! #'#*0:! 2:7'9! 4'L1L?! 7*92'0.*0! 8.%1&($2'6?! N,'0'$9! *2,'09! $0'! 97'8.$(.P'-!
2*N$0-!9'#$%2.8!#'#*0:!4'L1L!0'20*97('%.$(!8*02'S!$%-!0*920$(!YbX6!*0!'7.9*-.8!#'#*0:!4'L1L!
70'8&%'&9! $%-! 7*92'0.*0! 7$0.'2$(! 8*02'S6! 4[,$7.0$=@.8,2'0! '2! $(L?! EFGf6L! M%! $--.2.*%?! *2,'0!
9'#$%2.8!#'#*0:!0'1.*%9!$(*%1!2,'!$%2'0.*0!$%-!7*92'0.*0!($2'0$(!*0!.%;'0.*0!2'#7*0$(!8*02'S!
,$/'!>''%!$99*8.$2'-!N.2,!80'$2./.2:!4K>0$,$#?!EFGZI!T*%'%=k$$8*/.!'2!$(L?!EFGf6L!!
+,'!/$92!#$B*0.2:!*;!2,'!70*8'99'9!$99*8.$2'-!N.2,!2,'!5Aj!-'7'%-!*%!2,'!$82./$2.*%!
*;! 'S7'0.'%8'=>$9'-! $99*8.$2.*%9! 4Q$0?! K#.%*;;?! A$9*%?! C! b'%93'?! EFFW6L! b*0! .%92$%8'?!
'7.9*-.8!$%-!9'#$%2.8!#'#*0:!0'8$((9!'('#'%29!2,$2!,$/'!>''%!70'/.*&9(:!$99*8.$2'-!N.2,!$!
8*%2'S2!*0!N.2,!$%*2,'0!'('#'%2?!9&11'92.%1!2,'!0*('!*;!$%!$99*8.$2./'!$82./$2.*%!*;!9'#$%2.8!
$%-!'7.9*-.8!#'#*0:!.%!5+L!A.%-!N$%-'0.%1!#$:!>'!-'980.>'-!$9!2,*&1,29!2,$2!$0'!0'8$(('-!
>:!$!8,$.%!*;!$99*8.$2.*%9!4K%-0'N9=d$%%$!'2!$(L?!EFGF?!EFGZI!b*S!'2!$(L?!EFGHI!A$9*%!'2!$(L?!
EFFW6L! M%! *2,'0! N*0-9?! 2,'! 5Aj! #$:! 9&77*02! 2,'! $99*8.$2./'! 70*8'99.%1! 2,$2! 1&.-'9! 2,'!
70*10'99.*%!*;!2,*&1,2!.%!$!97*%2$%'*&9!#*-'!*;!2,.%3.%1?!$%-!;$/*09!80'$2./'!2,.%3.%1L!+,'!
0*('! *;! 2,'! 5Aj! .9! (.3'(:! %*2! 0'920.82'-! 2*! /'0>$(! $99*8.$2.*%9! $9! .2! #$:! $(9*! 7($:! $! 0*('! .%!
97*%2$%'*&9!2,.%3.%1!.%!*2,'0!#*-$(.2.'9!2,$2!$(9*!$0'!.#7*02$%2!;*0!5+L!M%-''-?!Q$0!$%-!,.9!
2'$#! -'980.>'-! 2,'! g8*%2'S2&$(! $99*8.$2.*%! %'2N*03h! 2,$2! 9&77*029! 2,'! 8*%2'S2&$(!
$99*8.$2.*%9! ;$8.(.2$2.%1! 2,'! /.9&$(! 0'8*1%.2.*%! *;! 98'%'9! $%-! *>B'829! 4O/'0$1$! '2! $(L?! EFGG6L!
+,.9! %'2N*03! ($01'(:! */'0($79! N.2,! 2,'! 5Aj! .%! 2,'! #'-.$(! 70';0*%2$(?! 0'20*97('%.$(! $%-!
7$0$,.77*8$#7$(!0'1.*%9L!+,&9?!2,'!0*('!*;!2,'!5Aj!.%!80'$2./.2:!#$:!>'!0'($2'-!2*!$!#*-'!
14
*;!2,*&1,29!$82./$2.*%!0$2,'0!2,$%!2*!$!-*#$.%=-'7'%-'%2!8*1%.2./'!70*8'99L!
\/'0$((?!2,'!-*#.%$%2!,:7*2,'9.9!0'8'%2(:!920'%12,'%'-!>:!%'&0*.#$1.%1!;.%-.%19!.9!2,$2!
80'$2./.2:!.%/*(/'9!>*2,! 8*%20*(('-!$%-!$99*8.$2./'!70*8'99'9L! d*N'/'0?!2,'!%$2&0'!*;! 2,'9'!
70*8'99'9!0'#$.%9!.((!-';.%'-L!K(2,*&1,!2,'!8($99.8$(!98*0.%1!9:92'#!,$9!#$-'!$%-!92.((!#$3'9!
$!#$99./'!8*%20.>&2.*%!2*!2,'!$99'99#'%2!*;!80'$2./.2:?!2,'!8($99.8$(!5+!$97'829!*;!.-'$2.*%$(!
;(&'%8:?!*0.1.%$(.2:!$%-! ;('S.>.(.2:!#$:!%*2! >'!9&;;.8.'%2(:!70'8.9'!2*!-.92.%1&.9,!>'2N''%!2,'!
-.;;'0'%2! 8*1%.2./'! 70*8'99'9! .%/*(/'-! .%! 80'$2./.2:! 70*8'99'9L!+,'! #*0'! ;.%'=10$.%'-! $%-!
*>B'82./'! #'$9&0'9! *;! 80'$2./.2:! 2,$2! ,$/'! >''%! 0'8'%2(:! -'/'(*7'-! #$:! >'! &9';&(!.%!
8($0.;:.%1! 2,'9'! 70*8'99'9! $%-! 2,'.0!0*('9! .%! -.;;'0'%2! 5+! $97'829?! $9! 70'9'%2'-! .%! 2,'!
;*((*N.%1!9'82.*%L!
*
*
2.3. Recent#advances#in#DT#measures##
*
['#$%2.8!-.92$%8'!$9!$!#'$9&0'!*;!*0.1.%$(.2:!
K%!'99'%2.$(!$-/$%8'#'%2!.%!2,'!'/$(&$2.*%!*;!5+!.9!2,'!-'/'(*7#'%2!*;!*>B'82./'!#'$9&0'9!
>$9'-! *%! 9'#$%2.8! $99*8.$2./'! -.92$%8'! 4K8$0! C! J&%8*?! EFGZI! Q'3'2$:'/! C! J&%8*?! EFGV6L!
['#$%2.8! -.92$%8'! #'$9&0'9! 2,'! 70*>$>.(.2:! 4*0! 2,'! ;0'<&'%8:6! N.2,! N,.8,! *%'! 8*%8'72! *0!
N*0-! .9! $99*8.$2'-! N.2,! $%*2,'0! *%'?! $%-! 0';('829! ,*N! .-'$9! *0! 8*%8'729! $0'! &9&$((:!
$99*8.$2'-!2*1'2,'0!.%!.%-./.-&$(9L!+,'!#*0'!9'#$%2.8$((:!-.92$%2!$!1'%'0$2'-!.-'$!.9!;0*#!$!
1./'%!92$02.%1!7*.%2?!2,'!#*0'!*0.1.%$(! .2! .9L! K(2,*&1,! 2,'! 8*%8'72!*;!0$0.2:!*;!.-'$9!-';.%'9!
*0.1.%$(.2:!.%! 5+!2,'*0.'9?!9&070.9.%1(:?!2,'!-.92$%8'!>'2N''%!.-'$9! .9!%*2!2$3'%!.%2*!$88*&%2!
.%!2:7.8$(!5+!98*0.%1L!Q'8$&9'!$99*8.$2./'!-.92$%8'!'92.#$2'9!2,'!70'='92$>(.9,'-!$99*8.$2.*%!
>'2N''%! .-'$9?! *0.1.%$(.2:! #'$9&0'9! -'0./'-! ;0*#! 2,.9! -.92$%8'! $0'! #*0'! *>B'82./'! 2,$%!
8($99.8$(!#'$9&0'9?!$0'!%*2!-'7'%-'%2!*%!$!1./'%!9$#7('!*0!*%!2,'!9&>B'82./.2:!*;!2,'!0$2'09?!
$%-!$0'!#*0'!8*#7$0$>('!$80*99!9$#7('9!*0!92&-.'9L!!
['/'0$(!#'2,*-9!,$/'!>''%!&9'-!2*!#'$9&0'!2,'!$99*8.$2./'!-.92$%8'?!'.2,'0!>$9'-!
*%!N*0-!8*=*88&00'%8'!*0!N*0-!;0''!$99*8.$2.*%!45'!5':%'?!O'%'22?!K%$3.?!b$&92?!C!j$/$00*?!
EFGVI!5'!5':%'?!j$/$00*?!C! [2*0#9?!EFGf6L!+,'! #*92!;0'<&'%2(:!&9'-! #'$9&0'!*;!9'#$%2.8!
-.92$%8'! .%! 2,'! ;.'(-! *;! 80'$2./.2:! .9! (.3'(:! 2,'! *%'! >$9'-! *%! @$2'%2! ['#$%2.8! K%$(:9.9! 4@[K6!
4Q'$2:!C![.(/.$?! EFGZI!5&#$9!C! 5&%>$0?!EFGZI!T0''%?!O0$'#'0?!b&1'(9$%1?!T0$:?!C! 5&%>$0?!
EFGEI!e*%'9!C!"92'9?!EFGHI!@$%-$&'0?!GUUWI!Y0$>,$3$0$%?!T0''%?!C!T0$:?!EFGf6L!@[K!.9!>$9'-!
15
*%!$!($01'!9'2!*;! 2'S2!8*07&9'9!$%-! '92.#$2'9!2,'!9.#.($0.2:! 4*0!-.92$%8'6!>'2N''%!N*0-9!>:!
'S$#.%.%1!N*0-!8*=*88&00'%8'9!.%! 2'S29L!M%!80'$2./.2:!92&-.'9?!2,.9!#'2,*-!,$9!>''%!&9'-!2*!
#$%.7&($2'!2,'!9'#$%2.8!-.92$%8'!.%!2,'! 2$93! #$2'0.$(! 4T0''%?! O0$'#'0?!'2!$(L?! EFGE6! *0! 2*!
#'$9&0'! 2,'! *0.1.%$(.2:! *;! .%-./.-&$(! 0'97*%9'9! 4Q'$2:! C! [.(/.$?! EFGZI! T0''%?! X*,'%?! J$$>?!
k'-.>$(.$%?! C! T0$:?! EFGHI! Y0$>,$3$0$%! '2! $(L?! EFGf6L! \2,'0! 9'#$%2.8! -$2$>$9'9! ,$/'! $(9*!
>''%!&9'-!2*!#'$9&0'!9'#$%2.8!-.92$%8'!.%!5+!2$939L!b*0!.%92$%8'?!K8$0!$%-!J&%8*!4EFGZ6!
-'0./'-! 2,'! 9'#$%2.8! -.92$%8'! >'2N''%! 8*%8'729! ;0*#! 9'/'0$(! N*0-! %'2N*039! .%8(&-.%1!
R*0-%'2?!M-'$b.9,'0!$%-! 2,'!R*0-!K99*8.$2.*%! j'2N*03!$%-!9,*N'-!2,'!8*00'82!/$(.-.2:!*;!
2,'9'!#'$9&0'9!;*0!5+!$99'99#'%2!49''!$(9*!Q'3'2$:'/!C!J&%8*?!EFGV6L!!
K%! $(2'0%$2./'! #'$9&0'! *;! 9'#$%2.8! -.92$%8'! 2,$2! #$:! >'! 8(*9'0! 2*! 80'$2./'! .-'$!
1'%'0$2.*%! .9! >$9'-! *%! 'S.92.%1! N*0-! $99*8.$2.*%! %*0#9! 2,$2! <&$%2.;:! 2,'! 9'#$%2.8!
$99*8.$2.*%9!>'2N''%!N*0-9! .%!$!1./'%! ($%1&$1'!4b'00$%-!C!K($0.*?! GUU_I!j'(9*%?!5:0-$(?! C!
T**-#*%?!EFFH6!4!,227]aa-.82$/'0;L%9&L0&a-.826L!+,'9'!$99*8.$2./'!%*0#9!$0'!8*#7&2'-!;0*#!
;0''!N*0-!$99*8.$2.*%!2$939!8*%9.92.%1!*;!70*-&8.%1!2,'!;.092!N*0-!2,$2!97*%2$%'*&9(:!8*#'9!
2*! #.%-! $;2'0! 0'$-.%1! $! 8&'! N*0-L! +,'! $99*8.$2./'! 920'%12,! 40';('82.%1! 9'#$%2.8! -.92$%8'6!
>'2N''%! N*0-9! s! $%-! k! .9! >$9'-! *%! 2,'! 70*7*02.*%! *;! 9&>B'829! N,*! 1./'! 2,'! N*0-! k! .%!
0'97*%9'!2*!2,'!N*0-!sL!K%!.#7*02$%2!$97'82!*;!2,.9!2$93!.9!2,$2!N*0-!1'%'0$2.*%!.9!;0''!$%-!
97*%2$%'*&9!N.2,!%*!*2,'0!8*%920$.%2!2,$%! 2,'!8&'!N*0-L! b*0!2,.9!0'$9*%?! ;0''!$99*8.$2.*%9!
2$939!$0'!2,*&1,2!2*!0';('82!2,'!*01$%.P$2.*%!*;!9'#$%2.8!$99*8.$2.*%9!$%-!$0'!2:7.8$((:!&9'-!
.%! 70.#.%1! 92&-.'9! 4b$&92! C! @$/.-*0?! EFFfI! T0&9P3$! C! j'83$?! EFFE6L! c%(.3'!@[K?! ;0''!
$99*8.$2./'!%*0#9!-*!%*2! -'7'%-!*%!2,'!8,*.8'!*;! $! 2'S2!8*07&9!*0!10$##$0! &9'?! $%-!2$3'!
.%2*! $88*&%2! %*%=(.%1&.92.8! 70*8'99'9! 2,$2! 8*%20.>&2'! 2*! N*0-! #'$%.%1! .%! 2,'! ('S.8*%! 45'!
5':%'!'2! $(L?!EFGVI!A$3.!C!Q&8,$%$%?!EFF_I![2':/'09?![,.;;0.%?!C! j'(9*%?!EFFZ6L!M%!$--.2.*%?!
;0''!$99*8.$2./'!%*0#9!$0'!>$9'-!*%! '#7.0.8$(!-$2$!0';('82.%1!$!70*8'99!*;!N*0-!1'%'0$2.*%?!
$%-!.%!2,.9!9'%9'!#$:!>'!#*0'!8*#7$0$>('!2*!80'$2./.2:!2$939!2,$%!@[K=>$9'-!#'$9&0'9!$0'L!!
K(2,*&1,!2,'*0'2.8$((:!2,'!;0''!$99*8.$2./'!%*0#9! $77'$0! 2*! >'! $!>'22'0!#'$9&0'!*;!
$99*8.$2./'!2,.%3.%1?!2,':!,$/'!>''%!0$0'(:!&9'-! 2*! #'$9&0'! 2,'! *0.1.%$(.2:! *;! 0'97*%9'9!.%!
5+! 2$939L! \%'! 0'8'%2! )QA! 92&-:! >:! *&0! 2'$#! 4Q'%-'2*N.8P?! c0>$%93.?! K.8,'(>&01?! @'/:?! C!
)*(('?!EFGV6!&9'-!!$99*8.$2./'!%*0#9!2*!#$%.7&($2'!9'#$%2.8!-.92$%8'!.%!80'$2./.2:!2$939L!R'!
$-$72'-! 2,'! JK+! >:! /$0:.%1! 2,'! 9'#$%2.8! -.92$%8'! >'2N''%! 2,'! 2,0''! 8&'! N*0-9! $%-! 2,'!
9*(&2.*%!N*0-L!M%!,'$(2,:!7$02.8.7$%29?! 2,'0'!N$9!$!9.1%.;.8$%2!8*00'($2.*%! >'2N''%!$88&0$8:!
$%-!2,'!#'$%!9'#$%2.8!-.92$%8'!>'2N''%!8&'!N*0-9!$%-!2,'!9*(&2.*%! N*0-L! +,'! $>.(.2:! 2*!
16
9*(/'!#*0'!0'#*2'!20.$(9!N$9!8*00'($2'-!N.2,!5+!$>.(.2.'9!$99'99'-!>:!2,'!9,*02!/'09.*%!*;!2,'!
+*00$%8'! 2'92?! $%-! N.2,! 80'$2./'! $8,.'/'#'%2L! K! )QA! $%$(:9.9! 7'0;*0#'-! .%! 2,.9! 9$#7('!
9,*N'-! 2,$2! 2,'! $>.(.2:! 2*! 8*#>.%'! #*0'! -.92$%2! N*0-9! N$9! $99*8.$2'-! N.2,! 920&82&0$(!
/$0.$2.*%!.%!2,'!(';2!0*920$(!YbXL!!
K(2*1'2,'0?!2,'9'!92&-.'9!.((&920$2'!2,$2!2,'!&9'!*;!9'#$%2.8!-.92$%8'! ,'(79! .#70*/'!
80'$2./.2:!$99'99#'%2!>:!8*%20*((.%1!2,'!0'#*2'%'99!*;!.-'$9!2*!>'!8*#>.%'-!.%!2$93!#$2'0.$(!
*0!>:!.#70*/.%1!*0.1.%$(.2:!#'$9&0'#'%29!*;!2,'!70*-&82.*%9L!['#$%2.8!-.92$%8'!#$:!$(9*!>'!
&9'-! 2*! 'S7(*0'! 2,'! $99*8.$2./'! ,:7*2,'9.9! *;! 80'$2./.2:! >:! $((*N.%1! 2,'! '92.#$2.*%! *;!
$99*8.$2.*%! 8*%920$.%29! .%! .%-./.-&$(9L! d*N'/'0?! 2*! ;&((:! 2'92! A'-%.83r9! ,:7*2,'9.9?! $%-!
'S7(*0'! N,'2,'0! #*0'! 80'$2./'! 9&>B'829! ,$/'! $! ('99! 8*%920$.%'-! *01$%.P$2.*%! *;! 9'#$%2.8!
$99*8.$2.*%9?!2,'!N,*('!9'#$%2.8!*01$%.P$2.*%!%''-9!2*!>'!'S$#.%'-L!J'8'%2!$&2*#$2'-!$%-!
8*#7&2'0.P'-! 9'#$%2.8! %'2N*03! $770*$8,'9!&9.%1! 8*#7&2$2.*%$(! #'2,*-9! #$:! >'22'0!
$--0'99! 2,.9! .99&'! 4O'%'22?! O'%'22?! Q'%=e$8*>?! C! b$&92?! EFGGI! A$3.! C! Q&8,$%$%?! EFF_I!
A$0&7$3$?!M:'0?!C! A.%$.?!EFGEI!A*0$.9?!\(99*%?! C! [8,**('0?!EFGfI![2':/'09!'2! $(L?!EFFZ6?!$9!
,.1,(.1,2'-!>:!$!;'N!7.*%''0.%1!92&-.'9L!!
!
['#$%2.8!%'2N*03!$770*$8,!
Q:! 8*%9.-'0.%1! %*2! *%(:! 7$.09! *;! N*0-9?! >&2! $! ($01'! 9'2! *;! .%2'00'($2'-! N*0-9! $9! N'((?! 2,'!
9'#$%2.8! %'2N*03! $770*$8,! $((*N9! ;*0! 2,'! 92&-:! *;! .%-./.-&$(! *0! 10*&7! 9'#$%2.8!
*01$%.P$2.*%L! +,'! ! 8*%%'82./'! 70*7'02.'9! 0';('82.%1! 2,'! *01$%.P$2.*%! *;! 9'#$%2.8! %'2N*039!
8$%! >'! 'S$#.%'-! &9.%1! 10$7,9! *0! *2,'0! 8*#7&2$2.*%$(! 2**(9?! $%-! (.%3'-! N.2,! 80'$2./'!
$>.(.2.'9L!!
M%!9'#$%2.8!%'2N*039?!8*%8'729!*0!N*0-9!$0'!%*-'9!2,$2!$0'!8*%%'82'-!2*!'$8,!*2,'0!
>:!'-1'9L!Q$9'-!*%!2,'!X*((.%9!$%-!@*;2&9!70*7*9$(?!N,'%!$!8*%8'72!.9!$82./$2'-!4;*0!.%92$%8'!
>:! 70'9'%2.%1! $! N*0-6?! .29! $82./$2.*%! 970'$-9! 2*! $99*8.$2'-! 8*%8'729! 2,0*&1,! 2,'9'! (.%39?!
;0*#! 2,'! 8(*9'92! $99*8.$2'9! 2*! 2,'! #*0'! -.92$%2! *%'9! 4X*((.%! C! @*;2&9! GUWH6L! K88*0-.%1! 2*!
9'/'0$(!$&2,*09!45'!5':%'!'2!$(L?!EFGVI!T*t.!'2!$(L?!EFGG6?!2,'!#*92!$770*70.$2'!$770*$8,!;*0!
'S7(*0.%1! 2,'! (.%3! >'2N''%! 2,'! *01$%.P$2.*%! $%-! $82./$2.*%! *;! 9'#$%2.8! 3%*N('-1'! $%-!
80'$2./.2:! .9! 2,'! &9'! *;! ;0''! N*0-! $99*8.$2.*%! 2$939! 2*! 8*%920&82! ($01'=98$('! 9'#$%2.8!
%'2N*039L! ['#$%2.8! %'2N*039! 8$%! >'! #*-'('-! $%-! $%$(:P'-! >:! &9.%1! 10$7,! 2,'*0'2.8!
$770*$8,'9?! N,.8,! $((*N! ;*0! 2,'! 'S20$82.*%! *;! /$0.*&9! #'20.89! $%-! .%-.8'9! <&$%2.;:.%1! 2,'!
2*7*(*1:! *;! 2,'! 8*%%'82.*%9! >'2N''%! %*-'9! 4Q$0*%8,'((.?! b'00'0=.=X$%8,*?! Y$92*0=[$2*00$9?!
17
X,$2'0?! C! X,0.92.$%9'%?! EFGfI! Q*01'=d*(2,*';'0! C! K0'%$9?! EFGFI! 5'! ).8*! b$(($%.?! J.8,.$0-.?!
X,$/'P?!C!K8,$0-?!EFGZI!O'%'22!'2!$(L?!EFGG6L!!
b'N! 92&-.'9! ,$/'! &9'-! 2,'! 10$7,! $770*$8,! .%! 2,'! ;.'(-! *;! 80'$2./'! 2,.%3.%1! 45&09*?!
J'$?!C!5$:2*%?!GUUZI!O'%'22!C!K&92'0N'.(?!EFGVI!O'%'22?!Q'$2:?![.(/.$?!K%$3.?!C!b$&92?!EFGVI!
O'%'22?! K%$3.?! C! b$&92?! EFGZI! [8,.((.%1?! EFFH6L! K! 9'0.'9! *;! 'S7'0.#'%29! >:! O'%'22! $%-!
8*(('$1&'9!70*/.-'-!'#7.0.8$(!%'2N*03!9&77*02!;*0!A'-%.83r9! 2,'*0:! 4O'%'22! C! K&92'0N'.(?!
EFGVI!O'%'22!'2!$(L?!EFGZ6L!+,'9'!92&-.'9!9,*N'-!2,$2!2,'!9'#$%2.8!%'2N*03!*;!7'09*%9!N.2,!
(*N'0!80'$2./'!$>.(.2.'9!.9!#*0'!0.1.-!$%-!('99!8*%%'82'-!2,$%!2,$2!*;!,.1,(:!80'$2./'!7'09*%9?!
$%-! 2,$2! 2,'! 70*7'02.'9! *;! 9'#$%2.8! %'2N*039! 8$%! >'! -.;;'0'%2(:! $;;'82'-! >:! 7$2,*(*1.'9?!
N.2,! $! 8*%2.%&&#! >'2N''%! 8,$*9! 4-.9*01$%.P'-6! $%-! 0.1.-! 42**! *01$%.P'-6! 9'#$%2.8!
%'2N*039?!$%-!N.2,!.#7(.8$2.*%9! .%! 80'$2./'!$>.(.2.'9!4b$&92!C!O'%'22?!EFGZI! O'%'22?! T*(-?!C!
b$&92?!EFGH6L!
\2,'0!%'2N*03!$770*$8,'9!,$/'!>''%!&9'-!2*!$&2*#$2.8$((:!$%$(:P'!2,'!70*-&82.*%9!
*;! 7$02.8.7$%29! .%! ;(&'%8:! 2$939! 4T*t.! '2! $(L?! EFGFI! T*t.! '2! $(L?! EFGGI! O'%'22! C! K&92'0N'.(?!
EFGVI! O'%'22! '2! $(L?! EFGHI! @'0%'0?! \10*83.?! C! +,*#$9?! EFFU6! $%-! .%! 5+! 2$939! 4Q*99*#$.'0?!
d$00m?!O%.22'(?!C![%:-'0?!EFFUI!Q'3'2$:'/!C!J&%8*?!EFGV6L!Q*99*#$.'0!$%-!8*(('$1&'9!4EFFU6!
&9'-! R*0-%'2! 2*! 8$(8&($2'! 8*##*%$(.2.'9! >'2N''%! /'0>$(! 0'97*%9'9! .%! 5+! 2$939! $%-!
$&2*#$2.8$((:! 8*#7&2'! $! 80'$2./.2:! <&*2.'%2! 8*#>.%.%1! ;('S.>.(.2:! $%-! ;(&'%8:! 98*0'9L!
Y0'/.*&9!0'9'$08,!*%!/'0>$(! ;(&'%8:! 2$939! ,$9!9,*N%!2,$2!9&88'99./'(:!70*-&8'-!N*0-9! $0'!
9'#$%2.8$((:!0'($2'-!$%-!>'(*%1!2*!2,'!9$#'!9&>8$2'1*0:?!N.2,!*88$9.*%$(!B&#79!2*!$%*2,'0!
9'#$%2.8!9&>8$2'1*0:L!+,.9!7$22'0%!*;!70*-&82.*%!,$9!('-!2*!2,'!,:7*2,'9.9!2,$2!N*0-!9'$08,!
.%! ;(&'%8:! 2$939! .%/*(/'9! 2N*! 70*8'99'9]! 8(&92'0.%1! 42,'! 9'$08,! *;! N*0-9! N.2,.%! 2,'! 9$#'!
9'#$%2.8!;.'(-!*0!9&>8$2'1*0:6!$%-!9N.28,.%1!4;('S.>('!B&#7!2*!$%*2,'0!9&>8$2'1*0:6!4+0*:'0?!
EFFFI!+0*:'0!'2!$(L?!GUUW6L!+0*:'0!$%-!8*(('$1&'9!9,*N'-!2,$2!8(&92'0.%1!0'(.'9!*%!$&2*#$2.8!
9'#$%2.8!70*8'99.%1!9&77*02'-!>:! 2,'!2'#7*0$(!(*>'?!N,'0'$9!9N.28,.%1! 0'(.'9!*%!920$2'1.8!
$%-!8*%20*(('-!70*8'99'9!4;('S.>.(.2:?!9,.;2.%16!9&77*02'-!>:!2,'!70';0*%2$(!8*02'S!4d.09,*0%!C!
+,*#79*%=[8,.((?! EFFVI! +0*:'0! '2! $(L?! GUU_6L! K! %'2N*03! $770*$8,! 2,$2! $((*N9! ;*0!
$&2*#$2.8$((:!$%$(:P.%1!8(&92'0.%1!$%-!9N.28,.%1!#$:!>'!7$02.8&($0(:!7*N'0;&(!N,'%!$77(.'-!
2*! 5+! 2$939! .%! $((*N.%1! ;*0! $! >'22'0! &%-'092$%-.%1! *;! 2,'! 920$2'1.'9! $%-! 70*8'99'9!
4$99*8.$2./'!$%-!8*%20*(('-6!'#7(*:'-!>:!7$02.8.7$%29L!+,'!%'2N*03!$770*$8,!#$:!$(9*!,'(7!
'S7(*0'!2,'!$99*8.$2./'!/'09&9!8*%20*(('-!80'$2./.2:!70*8'99.%1!4O'%'22?! Q'$2:?! '2! $(L?! EFGV! I!
O'%'22!C!K&92'0N'.(?! EFGV6L! K!;'N!92&-.'9!>$9'-! *%!9'#$%2.8!97$8'9!*0!9'#$%2.8! %'2N*039!
18
,$/'! $(9*! $22'#72'-! 2*! 8($0.;:! 2,'! 7*99.>('! 9'#$%2.8! 9'$08,! #'8,$%.9#9! .%/*(/'-! .%! JK+!
7'0;*0#$%8'! 45$/'($$0?! EFGHI! T&72$! '2! $(L?! EFGEI! [#.2,?! d&>'0?! C! )&(?! EFGf6L! b.%$((:?! .2! .9!
.#7*02$%2!2*!%*2'!2,$2! 2,'! %'2N*03!$770*$8,!#$:!$(9*! >'! &9';&(!2*!>'22'0!&%-'092$%-!2,'!
g$,$uh!7,'%*#'%*%!'S7(*0'-!.%!2,'!.%9.1,2!70*>('#!9*(/.%1!$770*$8,!*;!80'$2./.2:!45&09*!'2!
$(L?!GUUZI![8,.((.%1?!EFFH6L!!
!
\/'0$((?! %'N! 80'$2./.2:! #'$9&0'9! >$9'-! *%! $99*8.$2./'! %*0#9! $%-! *%! 9'#$%2.8!
%'2N*039! 70*7'02.'9! 70*/.-'! $! &9';&(! $99'99#'%2! *;! 5+! $%-?! #*0'! >0*$-(:?! *;! 80'$2./'!
8$7$8.2:L!+,'!&9'!*;!9'#$%2.8!-.92$%8'!$%-a*0!%'2N*03!#'$9&0'9!.9!&9';&(!.%!8*%20*((.%1!2,'!
0'<&.0'#'%29! *;! 0'#*2'! 2,.%3.%1! .%! 80'$2./.2:! 2$939! 4Q'%-'2*N.8P! '2! $(L?! EFGVI! T0''%?!
O0$'#'0?! '2! $(L?! EFGEI! T0&9P3$! C! j'83$?! EFFEI! J$-'(! '2! $(L?! EFGH6?! .%! $&2*#$2.8$((:! $%-!
*>B'82./'(:!#'$9&0.%1!2,'!*0.1.%$(.2:!*;! .-'$9!4K8$0!C!J&%8*?!EFGZI! 5&#$9!C!5&%>$0?!EFGZI!
b*092'0!C!5&%>$0?!EFFUI!Y0$>,$3$0$%!'2!$(L?!EFGf6?!.%!70*/.-.%1!$&2*#$2.8!#'20.89!0';('82.%1!
8*1%.2./'!920$2'1.'9!4Q*99*#$.'0!'2!$(L?!EFFUI!T&72$!'2!$(L?!EFGEI!O'%'22!C!K&92'0N'.(?!EFGVI!
[#.2,! '2! $(L?! EFGf6?! $%-! >:! $((*N.%1! ;*0! $! -''7'0! 'S7(*0$2.*%! *;! 2,'! $99*8.$2./'a8*%20*(('-!
70*8'99'9! .%! 80'$2./.2:! 4O'%'22! '2! $(L?! EFGZ?! EFGH6L! [&8,! #'$9&0'9! *;! 80'$2./.2:! ,$/'! 2,'!
$-/$%2$1'! *;! $/*.-.%1! 2,'! 7.2;$((9! *;! 9&>B'82./'! 4'L1L?! .%;(&'%8'-! >:! 80'$2./.2:=&%0'($2'-!
;$82*09! $%-! 2,'! *7'%=#.%-'-%'99! *;! 2,'! B&-1'96! $9! N'((! $9! 79:8,*#'20.8! 4'L1L?! %*0#$2./'!
/$(&'96!$99'99#'%29L!+,'!8*#7&2$2.*%$(!$770*$8,!>$9'-!*%!9'#$%2.8!%'2N*039!8*%92.2&2'9!$!
0'$(! $-/$%8'! .%! &%-'092$%-.%1! .%2'0=.%-./.-&$(! $>.(.2.'9! .%! 80'$2./'! 7*2'%2.$(?! $%-! .9! $!
70*#.9.%1! 2**(! ;*0! .-'%2.;:.%1! 2,'! 70*8'99'9! .%/*(/'-! .%! 5+! 2$939?! '97'8.$((:! 0'1$0-.%1!
$99*8.$2./'!$%-!8*%20*(('-!70*8'99.%1L!!
!
*
3. Balance*between*associative*and*controlled*cognition*for*creativity*and*implications*
*
3.1. Scientific#implications:#towards#a#two-processing-mode#hypothesis##
#
Q$9'-! *%! 2,'! 'S.92.%1! (.2'0$2&0'! 0'/.'N'-! $>*/'?! .2! 8$%! >'! ,:7*2,'9.P'-! 2,$2! $%! *0.1.%$(!
4-.92$%26! .-'$! 8$%! 0'9&(2! ;0*#! 2N*! 7*99.>('! 70*8'99.%1! #*-'9L! K99*8.$2./'! 70*8'99.%1! 2,$2!
0'(.'9!*%!2,'!97*%2$%'*&9!970'$-.%1!*;!$82./$2.*%!;0*#!8(*9'!2*!-.92$%2!$99*8.$2'9!8$%!('$-!2*!
*0.1.%$(! .-'$9! >:! $82./$2.%1! &%&9&$(! $99*8.$2.*%9?! 7$02.8&($0(:! .%! 7'*7('! N.2,! #*0'! ;('S.>('!
19
9'#$%2.8! %'2N*039L! M%! 2&0%?! 8*%20*(('-! 70*8'99.%1! 2,$2! 0'(.'9! *%! 8*1%.2./'! 70*8'99'9! 2,$2!
/*(&%2$0.(:!8*%920$.%!2,'!920'$#!*;! 2,*&1,2!$88*0-.%1!2*! 2,'!1*$(!8$%! ('$-!2*!2,'!$82./$2.*%!
*;!*0.1.%$(!.-'$9!>:!/*(&%2$0:!920$2'1.'9!*0!0&('9?! *0.'%2$2.*%! *;! $22'%2.*%?! 0'20.'/$(?! #'%2$(!
#$%.7&($2.*%! .%! N*03.%1! #'#*0:?! $%-! 0'97*%9'! 9'('82.*%L! +,.9! $99&#72.*%! #$:! >'! #'2!
&%-'0!2,'!8*%8'72!*;!$!g-.92$%8'=-'7'%-'%2!0'70'9'%2$2.*%!$82./$2.*%!#*-'h!,:7*2,'9.9!45=
5JKA!,:7*2,'9.9I!b.1L!E6L!+,.9!,:7*2,'9.9!>&.(-9!*%!70'/.*&9!2,'*0.'9!$%-!0'9&(29!9&11'92.%1!
$! -.;;'0'%2.$2.*%! >'2N''%! 2N*! 70*8'99.%1! #*-'9! v97*%2$%'*&9! /9L! -'(.>'0$2'! v! ;*0!
80'$2./'! 8*1%.2.*%! 4Q'$2:?! Q'%'-'3?! [.(/.$?! C! [8,$82'0?! EFGVI! 5.'20.8,?! EFFZI! T$>*0$?! EFGFI!
e&%1?!EFGZI!O'%'22!'2!$(L?!EFGZI!O'%'22!$%-!K&92'0N'.(?!EFGVI!A*3?!EFGZI![*N-'%?!Y0.%1('?!C!
T$>*0$?!EFGHI!R.11.%9?!C!Q,$22$8,$0:$?!EFGGI!D$>'(.%$?!C!K%-0'N9=d$%%$?!EFGV6L!d*N'/'0?!
.%! 2,'! 5=5JKA! ,:7*2,'9.9?! 2,'! 8*%20*(('-! #*-'! .9! %*2! *%(:! .%/*(/'-! .%! 2,'! '/$(&$2.*%?!
'($>*0$2.*%! *0! 9'('82.*%! *;! 1'%'0$2'-! .-'$9! 2*! #''2! 2,'! 8*%920$.%29! *;! 2,'! 2$93! 4'L1L?!
$770*70.$2'%'996?!>&2!.2!.9!$(9*! .%/*(/'-!.%!1'%'0$2.%1! *0.1.%$(!.-'$9!&9.%1!97'8.;.8!70*8'99'9!
2*! 8*%920$.%! 2,.%3.%1?! ;*0! .%92$%8'?! 2,*9'! &%-'0(:.%1! #'#*0:! 9'$08,! 920$2'1.'9! .%8(&-.%1!
;*8&9!*%!97'8.;.8!;'$2&0'9!*0!8*%2'S29!.%!5+!2$939!*0!.%,.>.2.*%!*;!8*##*%!.-'$9L!+,'!0'($2./'!
.%/*(/'#'%2!*;!2,'9'!70*8'99.%1!#*-'9!(.3'(:!-'7'%-9!*%!2,'!0'<&.0'#'%2!*;!2,'!2$939!$%-!
*;!2,'!7,$9'!*;!2,'!80'$2./'!70*8'99!4K(('%!C!+,*#$9?!EFGGI!T.(,**(:!'2!$(L?!EFFWI![.(/.$!'2!$(L?!
EFGH6L!A*0'*/'0?!.%!$--.2.*%!2*!2,'!2N*!70*8'99.%1!#*-'9?!2,'!5=5JKA!,:7*2,'9.9!0'(.'9!*%!
2,'! %*2.*%! *;! 9'#$%2.8! -.92$%8'! 2,$2! 70*/.-'9! *>B'82./'! #'$9&0'9! *;! *0.1.%$(.2:! $%-! 7&29!
;*0N$0-! 2,'! 9'#$%2.8! %'2N*03! $770*$8,! $%-! %'N! %'&0*=8*#7&2$2.*%$(! 2**(9! 2,$2! #$:! >'!
7*N'0;&(!.%! -.92.%1&.9,.%1! $99*8.$2./'! $%-! 8*%20*(('-! #*-'9L! +,'! >$($%8'! $%-! .%2'0$82.*%!
>'2N''%!$99*8.$2./'!$%-!8*%20*(('-!70*8'99.%1!#$:!>'!'99'%2.$(?!>&2!0'#$.%9!2*!>'!8($0.;.'-!
$%-! #$:! -'7'%-! *%! .%-./.-&$(! /$0.$>.(.2:! .%! 9'#$%2.8! %'2N*03! 70*7'02.'9?! .%-./.-&$(!
70';'0'%8'9!*0!8*1%.2./'!92:('9?!7'09*%$(.2:?!*0!'#*2.*%$(!92$2'9L!!
+,'! 5=5JKA! ,:7*2,'9.9! .9! -.0'82(:!(.%3'-! N.2,! 8($99.8$(! -&$(=70*8'99! 2,'*0.'9! 2,$2!
1'%'0$((:! *77*9'! $%! .%2&.2./'=,'&0.92.8! 9:92'#! 42:7.8$((:! ';;*02('99?! $&2*#$2.8?! 0$7.-?! 1(*>$(!
*0! ,*(.92.86! 2*! $! -'(.>'0$2'! $%$(:2.8! 9:92'#! 49(*N?! 8*%20*(('-?! 9'0.$(?! ';;*02;&(6! 4K(('%! C!
+,*#$9?!EFGGI!X$99*22.!'2!$(L?! EFGVI! 5'! j':9?!EFFVI!"/$%9?!EFFf?!EFF_I! "/$%9! C! [2$%*/.8,?!
EFGfI!O$,%'#$%?!EFGEI![*N-'%?!Y0.%1('?! C! T$>*0$?! EFGZI!)$01$!C!d$#>&01'0?!EFGZ6L!+,'!
5=5JKA! /.'N! #$:! $(9*! >'! 0'($2'-! 2*! $22'%2.*%! 2,'*0.'9! *;! 80'$2./.2:?! >$9'-! *%! 2,'!
9&11'92.*%! 2,$2! $99*8.$2./'! 2,.%3.%1! 0'9&(29! ;0*#! $! -';*8&9'-! $22'%2.*%$(! 92$2'?! N,'0'$9!
8*%20*(('-!$%$(:2.8!2,.%3.%1!0'<&.0'9!;*8&9'-!$22'%2.*%!45*0;#$%?!A$02.%-$('?!T$99.#*/$?!C!
20
)$02$%.$%?! EFF_I! T$>*0$?! EFGFI! A$02.%-$('! C! A.%'9?! GUWHI! A'%-'(9*,%?! GUWVI! )$02$%.$%?!
EFFUI! )$02$%.$%?! A$02.%-$('?! C! ON.$23*N93.?! EFFW6L! +,'! .%2'0$82.*%! *;! 2,.9! /.'N! N.2,! 2,'!
Q(.%-! )$0.$2.*%! $%-! ['('82./'! J'2'%2.*%! 2,'*0:! 0'#$.%9! 2*! >'! 8($0.;.'-! 45.'20.8,?! EFGHI!
T$>*0$!C!O$&;;#$%?!EFGHI![.#*%2*%?!EFGHI!e&%1?!EFGZ6L!!
b.%$((:?! 2,'! 5=5JKA! ,:7*2,'9.9! $(9*! 0'(.'9! *%! 0'8'%2! %'&0*.#$1.%1! 92&-.'9!
-'#*%920$2.%1! 2,'! .%/*(/'#'%2! *;! 2,'! 5Aj?! 9'#$%2.8! %'2N*039?! 8*%20*(=0'($2'-! %'2N*039!
$%-! $22'%2.*%! %'2N*039! .%! 80'$2./.2:! 2$939! 4Q'$2:! '2! $(L?! EFGZ?! EFGVI! Q'$2:?! Q'%'-'3?!
O$&;#$%?! C! [.(/.$?! EFGHI! Q'%'-'3! '2! $(L?! EFGVI! b.%3! C! Q'%'-'3?! EFGfI! e&%1! '2! $(L?! EFGfI!
A$:9'('99?! C! [,$#$:=+9**0:?! EFGZI! +$3'&8,.! '2! $(L?! EFGEI! R'.! '2! $(L?! EFGEI! D$>'(.%$?! C!
K%-0'N9=d$%%$?! EFGV6?! $%-! 2,$2! 8*%20*(=0'($2'-! $%-! -';$&(2! %'2N*039! .%2'0$82! -&0.%1!
80'$2./'!7'0;*0#$%8'!4Q'$2:!'2!$(L?!EFGH?!EFGVI!+$3'&8,.!'2!$(L?!EFGE6L!+,'!8*&7(.%1!*;!2,'!
5Aj! $%-! ;0*%2*=7$0.'2$(! 8*%20*(! %'2N*039! ,$9! >''%! 9,*N%! 2*! >'! .#7*02$%2! ;*0! 9'#$%2.8!
0'20.'/$(!45$/':!'2!$(L?!EFGV6! $%-!;*0!*2,'0! '($>*0$2'!8*1%.2./'!;&%82.*%9! 4X,'%!'2!$(L?! EFGfI!
X,0.92*;;! '2! $(L?! EFFUI! [70'%1! '2! $(L?! EFGZI! [70'%1?! [2'/'%9?! X,$#>'0($.%?! T.(#*0'?! C!
[8,$82'0?!EFGFI!).%8'%2!'2!$(L?! EFF_6L! +,.9! 8*&7(.%1! #$:!>'!#'-.$2'-!.%!9*#'!8$9'9!>:! 2,'!
9$(.'%8'!%'2N*03!4Q'$2:!'2!$(L?!EFGVI!T*&(-'%!'2!$(L?!EFGZI![0.-,$0$%!'2!$(L?!EFF_I!e&%1!'2!$(L?!
EFGf6!*0!2,'!9'#$%2.8!8*%20*(! %'2N*03!45$/':!'2! $(L?!EFGV6L!+,'9'!-$2$?!8*#>.%'-!N.2,!2,'!
5=5JKA!,:7*2,'9.9?!9&11'92!2,$2!80'$2./'!2,.%3.%1!.%/*(/'9!2,'!.%2'0$82.*%!>'2N''%!-.92.%82!
9'29! *;! %'2N*039?! .%8(&-.%1! 8*%20*(=0'($2'-! %'2N*039! 4($2'0$(! ;0*%2*=7$0.'2$(a8.%1&($2'6?!
N,.8,! &%-'0(.'! 2,'! 8*%20*(! *;! 2,*&1,2?! $%-! 2,'! 5Aj?! N,.8,! &%-'0(.'9! 2,'! 97*%2$%'*&9!
920'$#! *;! 2,*&1,29L! J'8'%2! ;.%-.%19! ,$/'! $(9*! 9,*N%! 2,$2! 2,'! 0*920$(! YbX?! 2,'! 7*92'0.*0!
8.%1&($2'a70'8&%'&9?!$%-!2,'!7*92'0.*0!2'#7*0$(!0'1.*%!#$:!>'!.#7*02$%2!8*%%'82./'!%*-'9!
>'2N''%!2,'9'!9:92'#9!N.2,!0'1$0-!2*!80'$2./.2:!4X,'%!'2!$(L?!EFGZI!X,'%!'2!$(L?!EFGHI!5$/':!
'2!$(L?!EFGVI!b.%3!'2!$(L?!EFGfI!e$&3!'2!$(L?!EFGHI!e&%1!'2!$(L?!EFGfI!Oq,%!'2!$(L?!EFGZI!+$3'&8,.!
'2!$(L?!EFGF$6L!+,'9'!;.%-.%19!$0'!.%!(.%'!N.2,!0'8'%2!0'9&(29!*>2$.%'-!&9.%1!2,'!#*07,*#'20:!
$770*$8,! 8*#>.%'-! N.2,! N,.2'! #$22'0! 20$82*10$7,:! 4Q'%-'2*N.8P! '2! $(L?! EFGV6?! N,.8,!
.%-.8$2'-! 2,$2! 2,'! (';2! 0*920*($2'0$(! 70';0*%2$(! 0'1.*%! .9! $%! '99'%2.$(! 0'($:! 92$2.*%! .%! 2,'!
%'2N*039! 9&77*02.%1! 80'$2./'! 8*#>.%$2.*%! *;! .-'$9L! \/'0$((?! 2,'! 5=5JKA! ,:7*2,'9.9! *;!
8*#>.%'-! 8*%20*(('-! $%-! 97*%2$%'*&9! 8*1%.2.*%! ;*0! 80'$2./'! 2,.%3.%1! .%2'10$2'9! 'S.92.%1!
2,'*0'2.8$(?! 79:8,*(*1.8$(?! $%-! %'&0*.#$1.%1! ;.%-.%19! 2,$2! 9&11'92! 2,$2! 2,'! 8*%%'82./.2:!
N.2,.%! $%-! >'2N''%! 9'/'0$(! %'2N*039! '%$>('9! >*2,! *0.1.%$(! $%-! $770*70.$2'! .-'$9! 2*!
'#'01'L!
21
!
!
3.2. Impact#on#future#research#
#
+,'! 5=5JKA! ,:7*2,'9.9! 8*#>.%'-! N.2,! %'&0*=8*#7&2$2.*%$(! $770*$8,'9! 2*! 80'$2./.2:!
>$9'-! *%! 9'#$%2.8! %'2N*039! .9! $! 7*N'0;&(! $/'%&'! ;*0! 1$.%.%1! $! >'22'0! &%-'092$%-.%1! *;!
80'$2./'! %'&0*8*1%.2./'! #'8,$%.9#9L! K(2,*&1,! 2,.9! $770*$8,! #$:! %*2! $88*&%2! ;*0! $((! 2,'!
-.#'%9.*%9!*;! 80'$2./.2:?!.2!,$9!2,'!7*2'%2.$(! 2*!#$3'!9'/'0$(!.#7*02$%2!8*%20.>&2.*%9L!b.092?!
92&-.'9! &9.%1! 9'#$%2.8! %'2N*039! .%-.8$2'! 2,$2! 2,.9! $770*$8,! 8$%! >'! &9';&(! .%! 'S7(*0.%1!
80'$2./.2:!.%!-.;;'0'%2!;0$#'N*039?! .%8(&-.%1! 5+?! .%9.1,2?!$%-!$02.92.8!7'0;*0#$%8'?!$%-!#$:!
>'! $>('! 2*! '92.#$2'! >*2,! $99*8.$2./'! $%-! 8*%20*(('-! #'8,$%.9#9! 2,$%39! 2*! 9'/'0$(!
#'2,*-*(*1.8$(!10$7,!2**(9L!+,.9!98,'#'!8$%!8*%92.2&2'!$!2,'*0'2.8$(!$%-!'S7'0.#'%2$(!>$9.9!
;*0! 'S7(*0.%1! 2,'! .#7$82! *;! *2,'0! .%;(&'%2.$(! ;$82*09! *;! 80'$2./.2:?! 9&8,! $9! 2,'! .#7$82! *;!
'#*2.*%9?! $22'%2.*%$(! ;*8&9?! 2$93! .%920&82.*%9?! #*2./$2.*%?! 8*%2'S2! *;! 8**7'0$2.*%! *0!
8*#7'2.2.*%?!7'09*%$(.2:!$%-!8*1%.2./'!92:('9L!b*0!.%92$%8'?!7*9.2./'! $%-! %'1$2./'! '#*2.*%9!
#$:! ,$/'! -.;;'0'%2! *0! '/'%! *77*9.2'! ';;'829! *%! 2,'! $99*8.$2./'! $%-! 8*%20*(('-! #*-'9! *;!
80'$2./'!2,.%3.%1?! N,.8,! 8*&(-! 'S7($.%! 2,'! -.980'7$%8.'9! >'2N''%! 2,'! 0'9&(29! 0'7*02.%1! 2,'!
.#7$82! *;! '#*2.*%$(! 92$2'9! *%! -.;;'0'%2! 80'$2./.2:! 2$939! 4X,'0#$,.%.! C! d*##'(?! EFGEI!
@&>$02?! A*&8,.0*&-?! +*0-B#$%?! C! D'%$9%.?! EFGH6L! c%-'092$%-.%1! N,'2,'0! 2,'! 2$93!
.%920&82.*%!';;'82!0'7*02'-!.%!9'/'0$(!0'8'%2!92&-.'9!4b*02,#$%%!'2!$(L?!EFGVI!T0''%?!X*,'%?!
O.#?! C! T0$:?! EFGEI! d*N$0-=e*%'9! '2! $(L?! EFFHI! D$>'(.%$! C! J*>.%9*%?! EFGF6! *7'0$2'9! *%!
$99*8.$2./'!*0!'S'8&2./'!2,.%3.%1!#$:!$(9*!,$/'!.#7*02$%2!.#7(.8$2.*%9!N,'%!9'$08,.%1!;*0!
>$9'9!;*0!80'$2./.2:!20$.%.%1!70*10$#9L!M#7*02$%2(:?!'S$#.%.%1!,*N!.%-./.-&$(!$>.(.2.'9!/$0:!.%!
2,'! 0'($2./'! &9'! *;! $99*8.$2./'! $%-! 8*%20*(('-! #*-'9! #$:! $(9*! .%;*0#! &9! *%! 2,'! >$9'9! *;!
80'$2./'! 7*2'%2.$(! $%-! *%! 2,'! 7*99.>('! N$:9! 2*! .#70*/'! .2L! )$0.$>.(.2:! .%! .%-./.-&$(! 80'$2./'!
8$7$8.2.'9!8$%!>'!'S7(*0'-!.%!2'0#9!*;!/$0.$>('!.%-./.-&$(!70*7'02.'9!*;!$99*8.$2./'a8*%20*(('-!
70*8'99.%1?!*;!.%-./.-&$(! 70';'0'%8'9! ;*0!$!2,.%3.%1!#*-'?! *0! *;!9N.28,.%1!$>.(.2.'9!>'2N''%!
#*-'9L! K(2*1'2,'0?! 2,'9'! 92&-.'9! N*&(-! ,$/'! >*2,! .#7*02$%2! 98.'%2.;.8! $%-! 9*8.'2$(!
.#7(.8$2.*%9L!!
b.%$((:?! 2,'! 5=50$#! ,:7*2,'9.9! #$:! 70*/.-'! $%! .%2'0'92.%1! ;0$#'N*03! ;*0!
.%/'92.1$2.%1!,*N!9*#'!%'&0*(*1.8$(!$%-!79:8,.$20.8!7$2,*(*1.'9!.#7$82!80'$2./'!$>.(.2.'9!45'!
[*&P$! '2! $(L?! EFGZI! e&%1?! EFGZ6L! j'N! ;.%-.%19! 9&11'92.%1!2,'! .%2'0$82.*%! >'2N''%! 9'7$0$2'!
22
>0$.%! 9:92'#9! ;*0! $99*8.$2./'! $%-! 8*%20*(('-! #*-'9! *;! 80'$2./'! 2,.%3.%1! 70*/.-'! .#7*02$%2!
,:7*2,'9'9!2*!>'!2'92'-!.%!;&2&0'!7$2.'%2!92&-.'9!*0!.%!;&2&0'!-.0'82!>0$.%!92.#&($2.*%!92&-.'9!
4X,'%! '2! $(L?! EFGf6L! M2! 8$%! >'! 7*92&($2'-! 2,$2! 2,'! 5+! 70*8'99! 8$%! >'! .#7$.0'-! >:! 2N*!
7*2'%2.$(! .%2'0;'0.%1! #'8,$%.9#9]! -$#$1'! 2*! 2,'! 5Aj! #$:! $(2'0! 2,'! $99*8.$2./'! #*-'! *;!
2,.%3.%1?!N,'0'$9! -$#$1'!2*!8*%20*(=0'($2'-!%'2N*039!N*&(-! $;;'82!2,'!8*%20*(('-!#*-'!*;!
2,.%3.%1L! Y$2.'%29! N.2,! -.;;'0'%2! >0$.%! ('9.*%9! 4;*0! .%92$%8'?! 7$2.'%29! N.2,! $! 0*920*($2'0$(!
/'09&9! $! /'%20*#'-.$(! ('9.*%! .%! 2,'! ;0*%2$(! 8*02'S6! N*&(-! >'! 'S7'82'-! 2*! 9,*N! -.92.%82!
70*;.('9!*;!7'0;*0#$%8'L!d*N!'$8,!$(2'0$2.*%!N*&(-!$;;'82!2,'!N,*('!5+!7'0;*0#$%8'!$%-!
,*N! *%'! 9:92'#! 8$%! 8*#7'%9$2'! ;*0! 2,'! *2,'0! .%! 2,'! $>.(.2:! 2*! 70*-&8'! 80'$2./'! .-'$9!
0'#$.%!*7'%!<&'92.*%9L!+,'!0'9&(29!*>2$.%'-!.%!'S7(*0.%1!2,'9'!<&'92.*%9!#$:!,'(7!>'22'0!
'S7($.%!2,'!7$0$-*S.8$(!*>9'0/$2.*%!*;!.%80'$9'-!$02.92.8! 80'$2./.2:! .%! 7$2.'%29! 45'! [*&P$! '2!
$(L?!EFGZI![8,*22?!EFGE6L!!
!
*
Conclusions*
!
M%! $%! .%2'10$2./'! $22'#72?! 'S.92.%1! 2,'*0.'9?! 0'8'%2! %'&0*8*1%.2./'! ;.%-.%19?! $%-! %'N!
#'$9&0'9! *;! 5+! 8$%! >'! 9:%2,'9.P'-! $9! 2,'! 5=5JKA! ,:7*2,'9.9! $9! ;*((*N9]! +*! >'! 80'$2./'?!
*%'! %''-9! 2*! >0'$3! ;0*#! 8*##*%! .-'$9! $%-! #$3'! *0.1.%$(! 4$%-! $770*70.$2'6! $99*8.$2.*%9!
>'2N''%! 8*%8'729L! +,'0'! $0'! 2N*! 70*8'99.%1! #*-'9! 2,$2! .%2'0$82! 2*! 1'%'0$2'! $%! *0.1.%$(!
40'#*2'6! .-'$L! b.092?! 2,'0'! .9! $%! $99*8.$2./'! #*-'! 2,$2! $82./$2'9! 0'#*2'! .-'$9! >:! 2,'!
97*%2$%'*&9!970'$-.%1!*;!9'#$%2.8!$82./$2.*%!;0*#!8(*9'!2*!-.92$%2!$99*8.$2'9?!9&77*02'-!>:!
2,'!5AjL!['#$%2.8!%'2N*039!>&.(2!*%!97'8.;.8!#'$9&0'9!*;!9'#$%2.8!-.92$%8'!8$%!>'!&9'-!$9!
$!9.#7(.;.'-!#*-'(!*;!2,'!*01$%.P$2.*%!*;! $99*8.$2.*%9!>'2N''%!8*%8'729L!['8*%-?!2,'0'!.9!$!
8*%20*(('-! #*-'! 2,$2! 0'(.'9! *%! 9'/'0$(! 8*1%.2./'! 70*8'99'9! 2,$2! $((*N! ;*0! 2,'! /*(&%2$0:!
$82./$2.*%?! '($>*0$2.*%! $%-! 9'('82.*%! *;! 0'#*2'! .-'$9L! +,.9! #*-'! .9! 9&77*02'-! >:! 8*%20*(=
0'($2'-! %'2N*039L! +,'9'! #*-'9! .%2'0$82! -&0.%1! 80'$2./'! 2,.%3.%1L! ['/'0$(! 0'1.*%9! *0!
%'2N*039!,$/'!>''%!70*7*9'-!2*!#'-.$2'!2,.9!.%2'0$82.*%L!
X*#>.%'-! N.2,! 2,.9! $770*$8,?! 0'8'%2! %'&0*=8*#7&2$2.*%$(! #'2,*-9! >$9'-! *%!
9'#$%2.8! %'2N*039! $%-! -0$N.%1! *%! 97'8.;.8! #'$9&0'9! *;! 9'#$%2.8! -.92$%8'! 0'70'9'%2! $%!
.#7*02$%2!$-/$%8'! .%! 80'$2./.2:! 0'9'$08,! .%! 9'/'0$(! N$:9L! b.092?! 9'#$%2.8! -.92$%8'! 70*/.-'9!
$%! *>B'82./'! #'$9&0'! *;! &9&$(! $%-! &%&9&$(! $99*8.$2.*%9?! .L'L?! *;! 2,'! *0.1.%$(.2:! *;! 2,'!
23
70*-&82.*%9! .%! 5+! 2$939L! ['8*%-?! 9'#$%2.8! %'2N*039! >$9'-! *%! 97*%2$%'*&9! $99*8.$2./'!
70*-&82.*%9! 8$%! .%;*0#! &9! *%! 2,'! *01$%.P$2.*%! *;! 9'#$%2.8! 8*%8'729! 2,$2! 8*%20.>&2'! 2*!
>'22'0!80'$2./.2:L!+,.0-?!9'#$%2.8!%'2N*039!>$9'-!*%!70*-&82.*%9!.%!5+!2$939!8$%!>'!&9';&(!.%!
.-'%2.;:.%1!2,'!$99*8.$2./'!/'09&9!8*%20*(('-!#*-'!*;!$82./$2.*%!&9'-!-&0.%1!2,'9'!2$939L!+,'!
#'2,*-*(*1.8$(!8,$(('%1'!.9!2*!-'2'0#.%'!2,'!2:7'9!*;!#'$9&0'9!*;!9'#$%2.8!-.92$%8'!2,$2!
$0'! #*92! 0'('/$%2! 2*! '$8,! *;! 2,'9'! $.#9! N.2,! 0'1$0-! 2*! 80'$2./.2:L! +,'! 98.'%2.;.8! 8,$(('%1'!
;$8'-! >:! 2,.9! ;.'(-! N.((! >'! 2*! >'22'0! &%-'092$%-! 2,'! %$2&0'! $%-! 2,'! -:%$#.89! *;! 2,'!
.%2'0$82.*%!4*0!2,'! 9,.;2.%16!>'2N''%!$99*8.$2./'!$%-!8*%20*(('-! #*-'9!*;!80'$2./'!2,.%3.%1?!
$%-!*;!2,'.0!&%-'0(:.%1!>0$.%!%'2N*039L!K(2*1'2,'0?!.%!2,'!;.'(-!*;!8*1%.2./'!%'&0*98.'%8'9!*;!
80'$2./.2:?! 2,'9'! 2,'*0'2.8$(! $%-! #'2,*-*(*1.8$(! $97'829! 70*/.-'! .%2'0'92.%1! -.0'82.*%9! ;*0!
;&2&0'!0'9'$08,!$%-!$77(.8$2.*%9L!
! !
24
Acknowledgments*
+,'!$&2,*0!2,$%39!50!Q'$20.8'!T$08.%!;*0!,'0!/$(&$>('!;''->$83!*%!2,'!#$%&980.72!$%-!@:-.$!
Q'99$w!;*0!,'0!$99.92$%8'!N.2,!;.1&0'!EL!
!
* *
25
References*
!
Abraham, A. (2014). Creative thinking as orchestrated by semantic processing vs. cognitive
control brain networks. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 95.
http://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00095
Abraham, A., Beudt, S., Ott, D. V. M., & Yves von Cramon, D. (2012). Creative cognition
and the brain: Dissociations between frontal, parietal–temporal and basal ganglia groups.
Brain Research, 1482, 5570. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2012.09.007
Abraham, A., Pieritz, K., Thybusch, K., Rutter, B., Kröger, S., Schweckendiek, J., Stark, R.,
Windmann, S., & Hermann, C. (2012). Creativity and the brain: Uncovering the neural
signature of conceptual expansion. Neuropsychologia, 50, 1906–1917 .
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.015
Acar, S., & Runco, M. A. (2014). Assessing Associative Distance Among Ideas Elicited by
Tests of Divergent Thinking. Creativity Research Journal, 26, 229238.
http://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2014.901095
Allen, A. P., & Thomas, K. E. (2011). A Dual Process Account of Creative Thinking.
Creativity Research Journal, 23, 109118. http://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2011.571183
Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Reidler, J. S., Huang, C., & Buckner, R. L. (2010). Evidence for the
Default Network’s Role in Spontaneous Cognition. Journal of Neurophysiology, 104,
322335. http://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00830.2009
Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Smallwood, J., & Spreng, R. N. (2014). The default network and self-
generated thought: component processes, dynamic control, and clinical relevance: The brain’s
default network. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1316, 29-52.
http://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12360
Arden, R., Chavez, R. S., Grazioplene, R., & Jung, R. E. (2010). Neuroimaging creativity: A
psychometric view. Behavioural Brain Research, 214, 143156.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2010.05.015
Badre, D. (2008). Cognitive control, hierarchy, and the rostro-caudal organization of the
frontal lobes. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 193200.
Badre, D., Poldrack, R. A., Paré-Blagoev, E. J., Insler, R. Z. & Wagner, A. D. (2005).
Dissociable controlled retrieval and generalized selection mechanisms in ventrolateral
prefrontal cortex. Neuron, 47, 907–918.
Baird, B., Smallwood, J., Mrazek, M. D., Kam, J. W. Y., Franklin, M. S., & Schooler, J. W.
26
(2012). Inspired by distraction: Mind wandering facilitates creative incubation. Psychological
Science, 23, 1117-22. http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612446024
Bar, M., Aminoff, E., Mason, M., & Fenske, M. (2007). The units of thought. Hippocampus,
17, 4208.
Baronchelli, A., Ferrer-i-Cancho, R., Pastor-Satorras, R., Chater, N., & Christiansen, M. H.
(2013). Networks in cognitive science. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17, 348360.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.04.010
Beaty, R. E., Benedek, M., Kaufman, B.S., & Silvia, P. J. (2015). Default and executive
network coupling supports creative idea production. Scientific Reports, 5, 10964.
http://doi.org/10.1038/srep10964
Beaty, R. E., Benedek, M., Silvia, P. J., & Schacter, D. L. (2016). Creative cognition and
brain network dynamics. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20, 8795.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.10.004
Beaty, R. E., Benedek, M., Wilkins, R. W., Jauk, E., Fink, A., Silvia, P. J., Hodges, D.A.,
Koschutnig , K., & Neubauer, A. C. (2014). Creativity and the default network: A functional
connectivity analysis of the creative brain at rest. Neuropsychologia, 64, 9298.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.09.019
Beaty, R. E., & Silvia, P. J. (2014). The role of associative and executive processes in creative
Cognition. Memory and Cognition,42, 1186-97.
Beaty, R. E. & Silvia, P. J. (2012). Why do ideas get more creative across time? An executive
interpretation of the serial order effect in divergent thinking tasks. Psychology of Aesthetics,
Creativity, and the Arts 6, 309–319.
Bechtereva, N. P., Korotkov, A. D., Pakhomov, S. V., Roudas, M. S., Starchenko, M. G., &
Medvedev, S. V. (2004). PET study of brain maintenance of verbal creative activity.
International Journal of Psychophysiology, 53, 1120.
Beketayev, K. & Runco, M. A. (2016). Scoring divergent thinking tests by computer with a
semantics-based algorithm. European Journal of Psychology, 12, 210–220.
Bendetowicz, D., Urbanski, M., Aichelburg, C., Levy, R., & Volle, E. (2016). Brain
morphometry predicts individual creative potential and the ability to combine remote ideas.
Cortex Nov 15. pii: S0010-9452(16)30316-1. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2016.10.021. [Epub ahead
of print].
Benedek, M., Franz, F., Heene, M., & Neubauer, A. C. (2012). Differential effects of
cognitive inhibition and intelligence on creativity. Personality and Individual Differences,
53334, 480485. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.04.014
27
Benedek, M., Jauk, E., Beaty, R. E., Fink, A., Koschutnig, K., & Neubauer, A. C. (2016).
Brain mechanisms associated with internally directed attention and self-generated thought.
Scientific Reports, 6, 22959. http://doi.org/10.1038/srep22959
Benedek, M., Jauk, E., Fink, A., Koschutnig, K., Reishofer, G., Ebner, F., & Neubauer, A. C.
(2013). To create or to recall? Neural mechanisms underlying the generation of creative new
ideas. NeuroImage, 88, 125-33. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.11.021
Benedek, M., Könen, T., & Neubauer, A. C. (2012). Associative abilities underlying
creativity. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 6, 273281.
http://doi.org/10.1037/a0027059
Benedek, M., Muhlmann, C., Jauk, E., & Neubauer, A. C. (2013). Assessment of divergent
thinking by means of the subjective top-scoring method: Effects of the number of top-ideas
and time-on-task on reliability and validity. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts,
7, 341349. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0033644
Benedek, M., & Neubauer, A. C. (2013). Revisiting Mednick’s model on creativity-related
differences in associative hierarchies. Evidence for a common path to uncommon thought.
The Journal of Creative Behavior, 47, 273-289. http://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.35
Binder, J. R., Desai, R. H., Graves, W. W., & Conant, L. L. (2009). Where ss the semantic
system? A critical review and meta-analysis of 120 functional neuroimaging studies. Cerebral
Cortex, 19, 2767-96. http://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhp055
Boccia, M., Piccardi, L., Palermo, L., Nori, R., & Palmiero, M. (2015). Where do bright ideas
occur in our brain? Meta-analytic evidence from neuroimaging studies of domain-specific
creativity. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1195. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01195
Borge-Holthoefer, J., & Arenas, A. (2010). Semantic networks: Structure and dynamics.
Entropy, 12, 12641302. http://doi.org/10.3390/e12051264
Bossomaier, T., Harré, M., Knittel, A., & Snyder, A. (2009). A semantic network approach to
the creativity quotien (CQ). Creativity Research Journal, 21, 64–71.
Buckner, R. L., Andrews-Hanna, J. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2008). The brain’s default network:
anatomy, function, and relevance to disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,
1124, 138.
Burgess, P. W., Gonen-Yaacovi, G., & Volle, E. (2011). Functional neuroimaging studies of
prospective memory: What have we learnt so far? Neuropsychologia, 49, 224657.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.02.014
Carson, S. H., Peterson, J. B., & Higgins, D. M. (2003). Decreased latent inhibition is
associated with increased creative achievement in high-functioning individuals. Journal of
28
Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 499506. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.499
Cassotti, M., Agogué, M., Camarda, A., Houdé, O., & Borst, G. (2016). Inhibitory control as
a core process of creative problem solving and idea generation from childhood to adulthood:
Inhibitory control as a core process of creative problem solving. New Directions for Child and
Adolescent Development, 151, 6172. http://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20153
Catani, M., Dell’Acqua, F., & Thiebaut de Schotten, M. (2013). A revised limbic system
model for memory, emotion and behaviour. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 37,
17241737. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.07.001
Catani, M., & Thiebaut de Schotten, M. (2012). Atlas of human brain connections. OUP
Oxford.
Cerruti, C., & Schlaug, G. (2009). Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of the
prefrontal cortex enhances complex verbal associative thought. Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience, 21(, 19801987. http://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2008.21143
Changeux, J.-P., Damasio, A. R., Singer, W., & Christen, Y. (2005). Creation, art and the
brain. In Neurobiology of Human Values (p. 111). Springer-Verlag Berlin/Heidelberg.
Chavez-Eakle, R. A., Graff-Guerrero, A., García-Reyna, J.-C., Vaugier, V., & Cruz-Fuentes,
C. (2007). Cerebral blood flow associated with creative performance: a comparative study.
NeuroImage, 38, 51928. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.07.059
Chen, A. C., Oathes, D. J., Chang, C., Bradley, T., Zhou, Z.-W., Williams, L. M., Glover,
G.H., Deisseroth , K., & Etkin, A. (2013). Causal interactions between fronto-parietal central
executive and default-mode networks in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 110, 1994419949. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1311772110
Chen, Q., Wei, D., Li, W., Yang, W., Li, H., Lei, Q., Zhang , Q., & Qiu, J. (2014).
Association of creative achievement with cognitive flexibility by a combined voxel-based
morphometry and resting-state functional connectivity study. NeuroImage, 102, 474483.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.08.008
Chen, Q.-L., Xu, T., Yang, W.-J., Li, Y.-D., Sun, J.-Z., Wang, K.-C., Beaty, R.E., Zhang , Q.-
L., Zuo , X.-N., & Qiu, J. (2015). Individual differences in verbal creative thinking are
reflected in the precuneus. Neuropsychologia, 75, 441449.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.07.001
Chermahini, S. A., & Hommel, B. (2012). More creative through positive mood? Not
everyone! Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 319.
http://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00319
29
Christoff, K., Gordon, A. M., Smallwood, J., Smith, R., & Schooler, J. W. (2009). Experience
sampling during fMRI reveals default network and executive system contributions to mind
wandering, 106(, 87198724. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0900234106
Christoff, K., Irving, Z. C., Fox, K. C. R., Spreng, R. N. & Andrews-Hanna, J. R. (2016).
Mind-wandering as spontaneous thought: a dynamic framework. Nat Rev Neurosci.
17(11):718-731
Chrysikou, E. G., Hamilton, R. H., Coslett, H. B., Datta, A., Bikson, M., & Thomspon-Schill,
S. L. (2013). Noninvasive Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Over the Left Prefrontal
Cortex Facilitates Cognitive Flexibility in Tool Use. Cognitive Neuroscience, 4, 8189.
http://doi.org/10.1080/17588928.2013.768221
Cole, M. W., Reynolds, J. R., Power, J. D., Repovs, G., Anticevic, A., & Braver, T. S. (2013).
Multi-task connectivity reveals flexible hubs for adaptive task control. Nature Neuroscience,
16, 13481355. http://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3470
Collins, A. M. & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing.
Psychological Review, 82, 407–428.
Colombo, B., Bartesaghi, N., Simonelli, L., & Antonietti, A. (2015). The combined effects of
neurostimulation and priming on creative thinking. A preliminary tDCS study on dorsolateral
prefrontal cortex. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, 403.
http://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00403
Cousijn, J., Zanolie, K., Munsters, R. J. M., Kleibeuker, S. W., & Crone, E. A. (2014). The
relation between resting state connectivity and creativity in adolescents before and after
training. PLoS ONE, 9, e105780. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105780
Davelaar, E. J. (2015). Semantic search in the Remote Associates Test. Topics in Cognitive
Science, 7, 494-512. http://doi.org/10.1111/tops.12146
Davey, J., Thompson, H. E., Hallam, G., Karapanagiotidis, T., Murphy, C., De Caso, I.,
Krieger-Redwood , K., Bernhardt , B.C., Smallwood , J. & Jefferies, E. (2016). Exploring the
role of the posterior middle temporal gyrus in semantic cognition: Integration of anterior
temporal lobe with goal-oriented cognition. NeuroImage, 137, 165-77.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.05.051
De Deyne, S., Kenett, Y. N., Anaki, D., Faust, M., & Navarro, D. (2016). Large-scale
network representations of semantics in the mental lexicon. In Big data in cognitive science:
From methods to insights. M. N. Jones (Ed.). Psychology Press: Taylor & Francis..
De Deyne, S., Navarro, D. J., & Storms, G. (2013). Better explanations of lexical and
semantic cognition using networks derived from continued rather than single-word
30
associations. Behavior Research Methods, 45, 480498. http://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-012-
0260-7
De Dreu, C. K. W., Nijstad, B. A., Baas, M., Wolsink, I., & Roskes, M. (2012). Working
memory benefits creative insight, musical improvisation, and original ideation through
maintained task-focused attention. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 656669.
http://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211435795
De Neys, W. (2006). Automatic–heuristic and executive–analytic processing during
reasoning: Chronometric and dual-task considerations. The Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 59, 10701100. http://doi.org/10.1080/02724980543000123
De Souza, L. C., Guimarães, H. C., Teixeira, A. L., Caramelli, P., Levy, R., Dubois, B., &
Volle, E. (2014). Frontal lobe neurology and the creative mind. Frontiers in Psychology, 5,
761. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00761
de Souza, L. C., Volle, E., Bertoux, M., Czernecki, V., Funkiewiez, A., Allali, G., Leroy, B.,
Sarazin, M., Habert, M.-O., Dubois, B., Kas, A., & Levy, R. (2010). Poor creativity in
frontotemporal dementia: A window into the neural bases of the creative mind.
Neuropsychologia, 48, 37333742. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.09.010
De Vico Fallani, F., Richiardi, J., Chavez, M., & Achard, S. (2014). Graph analysis of
functional brain networks: practical issues in translational neuroscience. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369, 20130521.
http://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0521
Demblon, J., Bahri, M. A., & D’Argembeau, A. (2016). Neural correlates of event clusters in
past and future thoughts: How the brain integrates specific episodes with autobiographical
knowledge. NeuroImage, 127, 257266. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.11.062
Dietrich. (2015). How creativity happens in the brain (1st ed. 2015). Palgrave Macmillan.
Dietrich, A. (2004). The cognitive neuroscience of creativity. Psychonomic Bulletin &
Review, 11, 10111026.
Dietrich, A., & Kanso, R. (2010). A review of EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies of
creativity and insight. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 822848. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0019749
Dijksterhuis, A., & Meurs, T. (2006). Where creativity resides: The generative power of
unconscious thought. Consciousness and Cognition, 15, 135146.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2005.04.007
Dorfman, L., Martindale, C., Gassimova, V., & Vartanian, O. (2008). Creativity and speed of
information processing: A double dissociation involving elementary versus inhibitory
31
cognitive tasks. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 13821390.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.12.006
Dumas, D., & Dunbar, K. N. (2014). Understanding fluency and originality: A latent variable
perspective. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 14, 5667.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2014.09.003
Duncan, J. (2010). The multiple-demand (MD) system of the primate brain: mental programs
for intelligent behaviour. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14, 172179.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.01.004
Durso, F. T., Rea, C. B., & Dayton, T. (1994). Graph-theoretic confirmation of restructuring
during insight. Psychological Science, 5, 94-97.
Edl, S., Benedek, M., Papousek, I., Weiss, E. M., & Fink, A. (2014). Creativity and the
Stroop interference effect. Personality and Individual Differences, 69, 3842.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.05.009
Ellamil, M., Dobson, C., Beeman, M., & Christoff, K. (2011). Evaluative and generative
modes of thought during the creative process. NeuroImage, 59, 1783-94.
http://doi.org/16/j.neuroimage.2011.08.008
Eustache, F., Viard, A., & Desgranges, B. (2016). The MNESIS model: Memory systems and
processes, identity and future thinking. Neuropsychologia, 87, 96109.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.05.006
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2003). In two minds: dual-process accounts of reasoning. Trends in
Cognitive Sciences, 7, 454459. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2003.08.012
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social
cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 255278.
http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093629
Evans, J. S. B. T., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories of higher cognition:
Advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8, 223241.
http://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612460685
Eysenck, H. J. (1993). Creativity and personality: Suggestions for a theory. Psychological
Inquiry, 4, 147178. http://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0403_1
Faust, M., & Kenett, Y. N. (2014). Rigidity, chaos and integration: hemispheric interaction
and individual differences in metaphor comprehension. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8,
511. http://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00511
Faust, M., & Lavidor, M. (2003). Semantically convergent and semantically divergent
32
priming in the cerebral hemispheres: lexical decision and semantic judgment. Cognitive Brain
Research, 17, 585597. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-6410(03)00172-1
Fedorenko, E., Duncan, J., & Kanwisher, N. (2013). Broad domain generality in focal regions
of frontal and parietal cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, 110, 1661616621. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1315235110
Ferrand, L., & Alario, F. X. (1998). Normes d’associations verbales pour 366 noms d’objets
concrets. L’Année Psychologique, 98, 65970.
Fink, A., & Benedek, M. (2013). EEG alpha power and creative ideation. Neuroscience &
Biobehavioral Reviews, 44, 111-23. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.12.002
Fink, A., Koschutnig, K., Hutterer, L., Steiner, E., Benedek, M., Weber, B., Reishofer, G.,
Papousek , I., & Weiss, E. M. (2013). Gray matter density in relation to different facets of
verbal creativity. Brain Structure and Function, 19, 12639. http://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-
013-0564-0
Forster, E. A., & Dunbar, K. N. (2009). Creativity Evaluation through Latent Semantic
Analysis. In Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (p. 602–
607).
Forthmann, B., Gerwig, A., Holling, H., Çelik, P., Storme, M., & Lubart, T. (2016). The be-
creative effect in divergent thinking: The interplay of instruction and object frequency.
Intelligence, 57, 2532. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2016.03.005
Fox, K. C. R., Spreng, R. N., Ellamil, M., Andrews-Hanna, J. R., & Christoff, K. (2015). The
wandering brain: Meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of mind-wandering and
related spontaneous thought processes. NeuroImage, 111, 611621.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.02.039
Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2016). Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual
differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex. 2016 May 10. pii: S0010-
9452(16)30107-1. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023. [Epub ahead of print]
Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (2006). The neural basis of mentalizing. Neuron, 50, 5314.
Gabora, L. (2010). Revenge of the « neurds »: Characterizing creative thought in terms of the
structure and dynamics of memory. Creativity Research Journal, 22, 1-13.
http://doi.org/10.1080/10400410903579494
Gabora, L., & Kauffman, S. (2015). Toward an evolutionary-predictive foundation for
creativity: Commentary on « Human creativity, evolutionary algorithms, and predictive
representations: The mechanics of thought trials » by Arne Dietrich and Hilde Haider, 2014
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23, 632-9. http://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0925-1
33
Gilbert, S. J., Gonen-Yaacovi, G., Benoit, R. G., Volle, E., & Burgess, P. W. (2010). Distinct
functional connectivity associated with lateral versus medial rostral prefrontal cortex: A meta-
analysis. NeuroImage, 53, 359-67.http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.07.032
Gilhooly, K. J., Fioratou, E., Anthony, S. H., & Wynn, V. (2007). Divergent thinking:
strategies and executive involvement in generating novel uses for familiar objects. British
Journal of Psychology, 98, 611625. http://doi.org/10.1348/096317907X173421
Gonen-Yaacovi, G., Souza, L. C. de, Levy, R., Urbanski, M., Josse, G., & Volle, E. (2013).
Rostral and caudal prefrontal contribution to creativity: a meta-analysis of functional imaging
data. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 465. http://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00465
Goñi, J., Arrondo, G., Sepulcre, J., Martincorena, I., Mendizábal, N. V. de, Corominas-
Murtra, B., Bejarano , B., Ardanza-Trevijano , S., Peraita , H., Wall , D.P., & Villoslada, P.
(2011). The semantic organization of the animal category: evidence from semantic verbal
fluency and network theory. Cognitive Processing, 12, 183196.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-010-0372-x
Goñi, J., Martincorena, I., Corominas-Murtra, B., Arrondo, G., Ardanza-Trevijano, S., &
Villoslada, P. (2010). Switcher-random-walks: a cognitive-inspired mechanism for network
exploration. International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos, 20, 913922.
http://doi.org/10.1142/S0218127410026204
Goulden, N., Khusnulina, A., Davis, N. J., Bracewell, R. M., Bokde, A. L., McNulty, J. P., &
Mullins, P. G. (2014). The salience network is responsible for switching between the default
mode network and the central executive network: replication from DCM. NeuroImage, 99,
180190. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.05.052
Green, A. E., Cohen, M. S., Raab, H. A., Yedibalian, C. G., & Gray, J. R. (2015). Frontopolar
activity and connectivity support dynamic conscious augmentation of creative state:
Neuroimaging Augmented State Creativity. Human Brain Mapping, 36, 923-34.
http://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.22676
Green, A. E., Kraemer, D. J. M., Fugelsang, J. A., Gray, J. R., & Dunbar, K. N. (2010).
Connecting long distance: semantic distance in analogical reasoning modulates frontopolar
cortex activity. Cerebral Cortex, 20, 7076. http://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhp081
Green, A. E., Kraemer, D. J. M., Fugelsang, J. A., Gray, J. R., & Dunbar, K. N. (2012).
Neural correlates of creativity in analogical reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology.
Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38, 26472. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0025764
Greicius, M. D., Supekar, K., Menon, V., & Dougherty, R. F. (2009). Resting-state functional
connectivity reflects structural connectivity in the default mode network. Cerebral Cortex, 19,
34
7278. http://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhn059
Gruszka, A., & Necka, E. (2002). Priming and acceptance of close and remote associations by
creative and less creative people. Creativity Research Journal, 14, 193–205.
Guilford, J. P. (1950). Creativity. American Psychologist, 5, 444454.
http://doi.org/10.1037/h0063487
Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. McGraw-Hill.
Gupta, N., Jang, Y., Mednick, S. C., & Huber, D. E. (2012). The road not taken: creative
solutions require avoidance of high-frequency responses. Psychological Science, 23, 288-94.
http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611429710
Gusnard, D. A., Akbudak, E., Shulman, G. L., & Raichle, M. E. (2001). Medial prefrontal
cortex and self-referential mental activity: relation to a default mode of brain function.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A, 98, 425964.
Hirshorn, E. A., & Thompson-Schill, S. L. (2006). Role of the left inferior frontal gyrus in
covert word retrieval: Neural correlates of switching during verbal fluency.
Neuropsychologia, 44, 25472557. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.03.035
Hobeika, L., Diard-Detoeuf, C., Garcin, B., Levy, R., & Volle, E. (2016). General and
specialized brain correlates for analogical reasoning: a meta-analysis of functional imaging
studies. Human Brain Mapping, 37, 1953-69.
Howard-Jones, P. A., Blakemore, S. J., Samuel, E. A., Summers, I. R., & Claxton, G. (2005).
Semantic divergence and creative story generation: an fMRI investigation. Brain Research
Cognitive Brain Research, 25, 24050.
Jauk, E., Neubauer, A. C., Dunst, B., Fink, A., & Benedek, M. (2015). Gray matter correlates
of creative potential: A latent variable voxel-based morphometry study. NeuroImage, 111,
312320. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.02.002
Jones, L. L., & Estes, Z. (2015). Convergent and divergent thinking in verbal analogy.
Thinking & Reasoning, 21, 473500. http://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2015.1036120
Jung, R.E. (2014). Evolution, creativity, intelligence, and madness: “Here Be Dragons”.
Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 784. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00784.
Jung, R. E., Mead, B.S., Carrasco , J., & Flores , R.A. (2013). The structure of creative
cognition in the human brain. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 330.
http://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00330
Jung, R. E., Grazioplene, R., Caprihan, A., Chavez, R. S., & Haier, R. J. (2010). White Matter
Integrity, Creativity, and Psychopathology: Disentangling constructs with diffusion tensor
imaging. PLoS ONE, 5, e9818. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0009818
35
Jung, R. E., & Haier, R. J. (2007). The Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory (P-FIT) of
intelligence: converging neuroimaging evidence. Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 30, 135-
54-87.
Jung, R. E., & Haier, R. J. (2013). Creativity and intelligence: Brain networks that link and
differentiate the expression of genius. In The Neuroscience of Creativity (p. 233254).
Vartanian, Bristol & Kaufman Eds. MIT Press.
Jung, R. E., Segall, J. M., Bockholt, H. J., Flores, R. A., Smith, S. M., Chavez, R. S., & Haier,
R. J. (2010). Neuroanatomy of creativity. Human Brain Mapping, 31, 398409.
http://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20874
Jung, R. E., Wertz, C. J., Meadows, C. A., Ryman, S. G., Vakhtin, A. A., & Flores, R. A.
(2015). Quantity yields quality when it comes to creativity: a brain and behavioral test of the
equal-odds rule. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 864. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00864
Kahneman, D. (2012). Thinking, fast and slow. Penguin. London.
Kaufman, J. C., & Baer, J. (2012). Beyond new and appropriate: Who decides what is
creative? Creativity Research Journal, 24, 8391.
http://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2012.649237
Kenett, Y., & Austerweil, J. (2016). Examining search processes in low and high creative
individuals with random walks. Proceedings of the 38th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive
Science Society. A. Papafragou, D. Grodner, D. Mirman and J. C. Trueswell. Austin, TX,
Cognitive Science Society: 313-318.
Kenett, Y. N., Anaki, D., & Faust, M. (2014). Investigating the structure of semantic
networks in low and high creative persons. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 407.
http://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00407
Kenett, Y. N., Beaty, R. E., Silvia, P. J., Anaki, D., & Faust, M. (2016). Structure and
flexibility: Investigating the relation between the structure of the mental lexicon, fluid
intelligence, and creative achievement. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts.
Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/aca0000056
Kenett, Y. N., Gold, R., & Faust, M. (2015). The hyper-modular associative mind: A
computational analysis of associative responses of persons with Asperger Syndrome.
Language and Speech, 1-21. http://doi.org/10.1177/0023830915589397
Kenett, Y. N., Kenett, D. Y., Ben-Jacob, E., & Faust, M. (2011). Global and local features of
semantic networks: Evidence from the Hebrew mental lexicon. PLoS ONE, 6, e23912.
http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0023912
Kim, H. (2010). Dissociating the roles of the default-mode, dorsal, and ventral networks in
36
episodic memory retrieval. NeuroImage, 50, 16481657.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.01.051
Kim, H. (2016). Default network activation during episodic and semantic memory retrieval: A
selective meta-analytic comparison. Neuropsychologia, 80, 3546.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.11.006
Kim, K. (2008). Meta-analyses of the relationship of creative achievement to both IQ and
divergent thinking test scores. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 42, 106130.
Kim, K. H. (2006). Can we trust creativity Ttsts? A review of the Torrance Tests of Creative
Thinking (TTCT). Creativity Research Journal, 18, 314.
http://doi.org/10.1207/s15326934crj1801_2
Koechlin, E., Ody, C., & Kouneiher, F. (2003). The architecture of cognitive control in the
human prefrontal cortex. Science, 302, 11815.
Konishi, S., Hirose, S., Jimura, K., Chikazoe, J., Watanabe, T., Kimura, H. M., & Miyashita,
Y. (2010). Medial prefrontal activity during shifting under novel situations. Neuroscience
Letters, 484, 182186. http://doi.org/16/j.neulet.2010.08.047
Kozbelt, A., Beghetto, R. A. & Runco, M. A. (2010). Theories of creativity. In The
Cambridge Handbook of Creativity (pp20–47).Kaufman, J. C. & Sternberg, R. J. Eds.
Cambridge University Press.
Kühn, S., Ritter, S. M., Müller, B. C., Baaren, R. B., Brass, M., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2014).
The importance of the default mode network in creativity—a structural MRI study. The
Journal of Creative Behavior, 48, 152–163.
Kveraga, K., Ghuman, A. S., Kassam, K. S., Aminoff, E. A., Hamalainen, M. S., Chaumon,
M., & Bar, M. (2011). Early onset of neural synchronization in the contextual associations
network. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 33893394.
http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1013760108
Landauer, T. (1997). A solution to Plato’s problem: The latent semantic analysis theory of
acquisition, induction, and representation of knowledge. Psychological Review, 104, 211-240.
Lee, C. S., & Therriault, D. J. (2013). The cognitive underpinnings of creative thought: A
latent variable analysis exploring the roles of intelligence and working memory in three
creative thinking processes. Intelligence, 41, 306320.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2013.04.008
Lerner, A. J., Ogrocki, P. K., & Thomas, P. J. (2009). Network graph analysis of category
fluency testing. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 22, 45–52.
37
Lubart, T., Mouchiroud, C., Tordjman, S., & Zenasni, F. (2015). Psychologie de la créativité
- 2nd edition. Armand Colin. Paris.Maki, W. S., & Buchanan, E. (2008). Latent structure in
measures of associative, semantic, and thematic knowledge. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,
15, 598603.
Martindale, C., & Mines, D. (1975). Creativity and cortical activation during creative,
intellectual and eeg feedback tasks. Biological Psychology, 3( 91100.
http://doi.org/10.1016/0301-0511(75)90011-3
Marupaka, N., Iyer, L. R., & Minai, A. A. (2012). Connectivity and thought: The influence of
semantic network structure in a neurodynamical model of thinking. Neural Networks, 32, 147.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2012.02.004
Mason, M. F., Norton, M. I., Van Horn, J. D., Wegner, D. M., Grafton, S. T., & Macrae, C.
N. (2007). Wandering minds: the default network and stimulus-independent thought. Science,
315, 3935.
Mayseless, N., & Shamay-Tsoory, S. G. (2015). Enhancing verbal creativity: Modulating
creativity by altering the balance between right and left inferior frontal gyrus with tDCS.
Neuroscience, 291, 167176. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.01.061
Mayseless, N., Eran, A. & Shamay-Tsoory, S. G. (2014). Generating original ideas: The
neural underpinning of originality. NeuroImage 64, 157–168.
McDonald, C. R., Crosson, B., Valenstein, E., & Bowers, D. (2001). Verbal encoding deficits
in a patient with a left retrosplenial lesion. Neurocase, 7, 407417.
http://doi.org/10.1076/neur.7.5.407.16250
Mednick, M. T., Mednick, S. A., & Jung, C. C. (1964). Continual association as a function of
level of creativity and type of verbal stimulus. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 69, 511515.
Mednick, M. T., Mednick, S. A., & Mednick, E. V. (1964). Incubation of creative
performance and specific associative priming. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 69, 8488.
Mednick, S. A. (1962). The associative basis of the creative process. Psychological Review,
69, 220232.
Mendelsohn, G. A. (1976). Associative and attentional processes in creative performance1.
Journal of Personality, 44(2), 341369. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1976.tb00127.
Mendez, M. F. (2004). Dementia as a window to the neurology of art. Medical Hypotheses,
63, 17.
Merten, T., & Fischer, I. (1999). Creativity, personality and word association responses:
associative behaviour in forty supposedly creative persons. Personality and Individual
38
Differences, 27, 933942. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00042-2
Miller, L. A., & Tippett, L. J. (1996). Effects of focal brain lesions on visual problem-solving.
Neuropsychologia, 34, 387398. http://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(95)00116-6
Mok, L. W. (2014). The interplay between spontaneous and controlled processing in creative
cognition. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 663.
http://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00663
Morais, A. S., Olsson, H., & Schooler, L. J. (2013). Mapping the structure of semantic
memory. Cognitive Science, 37, 125145. http://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12013
Nelson, D. L., Dyrdal, G. M., & Goodmon, L. B. (2005). What is preexisting strength?
Predicting free association probabilities, similarity ratings, and cued recall probabilities.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12, 711-719.
Nijstad, B. A., De Dreu, C. K. W., Rietzschel, E. F. & Baas, M. (2010). The dual pathway to
creativity model: Creative ideation as a function of flexibility and persistence. European
Review of Social Psychology, 21, 34–77.
Noonan, K. A., Jefferies, E., Visser, M. & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2013). Going beyond
inferior prefrontal involvement in semantic control: Evidence for the additional contribution
of dorsal angular gyrus and posterior middle temporal cortex. Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience, 25, 1824–1850.
Northoff, G. (2011). Self and brain: what is self-related processing? Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 15, 186187. http://doi.org/16/j.tics.2011.03.001
Nusbaum, E. C., & Silvia, P. J. (2011). Are intelligence and creativity really so different?:
Fluid intelligence, executive processes, and strategy use in divergent thinking. Intelligence,
39, 36–45.
Perret, E. (1974). The left frontal lobe of man and the suppression of habitual responses in
verbal categorical behaviour. Neuropsychologia, 12, 323330.
Plucker, J. A., & Makel, M. C. (2010). Assessment of creativity. In The Cambridge
Handbook of Creativity (p. 4873). J. C. Kaufman & R. J. Sternberg Eds. Cambridge
University Press.
Plucker, J. A., Qian, M., & Schmalensee, S. L. (2014). Is what you see what you really get?
Comparison of scoring techniques in the assessment of real-world divergent thinking.
Creativity Research Journal, 26, 135143. http://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2014.901023
Power, J. D. & Petersen, S. E. (2013). Control-related systems in the human brain. Current
Opinion in Neurobiology, 23, 223–228.
Prabhakaran, R., Green, A. E., & Gray, J. R. (2013). Thin slices of creativity: Using single-
39
word utterances to assess creative cognition. Behavior Research Methods, 46, 641-59.
http://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0401-7
Radel, R., Davranche, K., Fournier, M., & Dietrich, A. (2015). The role of (dis)inhibition in
creativity: Decreased inhibition improves idea generation. Cognition, 134, 110120.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.09.001
Raichle, M. E. (2015). The restless brain: how intrinsic activity organizes brain function.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 370,
20140172. http://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0172
Raichle, M. E., MacLeod, A. M., Snyder, A. Z., Powers, W. J., Gusnard, D. A., & Shulman,
G. L. (2001). A default mode of brain function. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences USA, 98, 67682.
Rankin, K. P., Liu, A. A., Howard, S., Slama, H., Hou, C. E., Shuster, K., & Miller, B. L.
(2007). A case-controlled study of altered visual art production in Alzheimer’s and FTLD.
Cognitive and behavioral neurology: official journal of the Society for Behavioral and
Cognitive Neurology, 20, 4861. http://doi.org/10.1097/WNN.0b013e31803141dd
Ritter, S. M., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2014). Creativity—the unconscious foundations of the
incubation period. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 215.
http://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00215
Ritter, S. M., van Baaren, R. B., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2012). Creativity: The role of
unconscious processes in idea generation and idea selection. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 7,
2127. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2011.12.002
Rossmann, E., & Fink, A. (2010). Do creative people use shorter associative pathways?
Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 891895.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.025
Runco, M. A. (2010). Divergent thinking, creativity, and ideation. In The Cambridge
Handbook of Creativity. J. C. Kaufman & R. J. Sternberg Eds. Cambridge University Press.
Runco, M. A., & Acar, S. (2012). Divergent thinking as an indicator of creative potential.
Creativity Research Journal, 24, 6675. http://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2012.652929
Schacter, D. L., Addis, D. R., & Buckner, R. L. (2007). Remembering the past to imagine the
future: the prospective brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8, 657661.
http://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2213
Schilling. (2005). A « small-world » network model of cognitive insight., Creativity Research
Journal, 17, 131154.
40
Schott, G. D. (2012). Pictures as a neurological tool: lessons from enhanced and emergent
artistry in brain disease. Brain, 135, 1947-63. http://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awr314
Seeley, W. W., Menon, V., Schatzberg, A. F., Keller, J., Glover, G. H., Kenna, H., Reiss,
A.L., & Greicius, M. D. (2007). Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience
processing and executive control. The Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 23492356.
http://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5587-06.2007
Shah, C., Erhard, K., Ortheil, H.-J., Kaza, E., Kessler, C., & Lotze, M. (2013). Neural
correlates of creative writing: An fMRI Study. Human Brain Mapping, 34, 1088-101.
http://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.21493
Shallice, T., Fletcher, P., Frith, C. D., Grasby, P., Frackowiak, R. S., & Dolan, R. J. (1994).
Brain regions associated with acquisition and retrieval of verbal episodic memory. Nature,
368, 633635. http://doi.org/10.1038/368633a0
Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., Adler, N., Aharon-Peretz, J., Perry, D., & Mayseless, N. (2011). The
origins of originality: The neural bases of creative thinking and originality.
Neuropsychologia, 49, 178185. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.11.020
Shapira-Lichter, I., Oren, N., Jacob, Y., Gruberger, M., & Hendler, T. (2013). Portraying the
unique contribution of the default mode network to internally driven mnemonic processes.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 110, 49504955.
http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1209888110
Silvia, P. J. (2008a). Creativity and intelligence revisited: A latent variable analysis of
Wallach and Kogan (1965). Creativity Research Journal, 20, 3439.
http://doi.org/10.1080/10400410701841807
Silvia, P. J. (2008b). Discernment and creativity: How well can people identify their most
creative ideas? Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 2, 139146.
http://doi.org/10.1037/1931-3896.2.3.139
Silvia, P. J., Beaty, R. E., & Nusbaum, E. C. (2013). Verbal fluency and creativity: General
and specific contributions of broad retrieval ability (Gr) factors to divergent thinking.
Intelligence, 41, 328340. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2013.05.004
Silvia, P. J., Nusbaum, E. C., & Beaty, R. E. (2015). Old or new? Evaluating the old/new
scoring method for divergent thinking tasks. The Journal of Creative Behavior, n/a-n/a.
http://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.101
Simonton, D. K. (2015). On praising convergent thinking: Creativity as blind variation and
Sslective retention. Creativity Research Journal, 27, 262270.
41
http://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2015.1063877
Singer, J. L. (1993). Experimental studies of ongoing conscious experience. Ciba Foundation
Symposium, 174, 100-116-122.
Sio, U. N., & Ormerod, T. C. (2009). Does incubation enhance problem solving? A meta-
analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 94120. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0014212
Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2015). The Science of Mind Wandering: Empirically
Navigating the Stream of Consciousness. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 487518.
http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015331
Smith, K. A., Huber, D. E., & Vul, E. (2013). Multiply-constrained semantic search in the
Remote Associates Test. Cognition, 128, 6475.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2013.03.001
Smith, S. M., Fox, P. T., Miller, K. L., Glahn, D. C., Fox, P. M., Mackay, C. E., Filippini , N.,
Watkins , K.E., Toro , R., Laird, A.R., & Beckmann, C. F. (2009). Correspondence of the
brain’s functional architecture during activation and rest. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences USA, 106, 1304013045. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0905267106
Snyder, A., Mitchel, D., Bossomaier, T., & Pallier, G. (2004). The Creativity Quotient, an
objective scoring of ideational fluency. Creativity Research Journal, 16, 415420.
Sowden, P., Pringle, A., & Gabora, L. (2015). The shifting sands of creative thinking:
Connections to dual process theory and implications for creativity training. Thinking and
Reasoning, 21, 4060.
Spreng, R. N., DuPre, E., Selarka, D., Garcia, J., Gojkovic, S., Mildner, J., Luh, W.M., &
Turner, G. R. (2014). Goal-congruent default network activity facilitates cognitive control.
The Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 1410814114. http://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2815-
14.2014
Spreng, R. N., Stevens, W. D., Chamberlain, J. P., Gilmore, A. W., & Schacter, D. L. (2010).
Default network activity, coupled with the frontoparietal control network, supports goal-
directed cognition. NeuroImage, 53, 303317. http://doi.org/16/j.neuroimage.2010.06.016
Sridharan, D., Levitin, D. J., & Menon, V. (2008). A critical role for the right fronto-insular
cortex in switching between central-executive and default-mode networks. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences USA, 105, 1256912574.
http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0800005105
Steyvers, M., Shiffrin, R. M., & Nelson, D. L. (2004). Word association spaces for predicting
semantic similarity effects in episodic memory. In Experimental cognitive psychology and its
42
applications. (p. 237249). A. F. Healy Eds. , American Psychological Association.
Washington, DC.
Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Hashizume, H., Sassa, Y., Nagase, T., Nouchi, R., & Kawashima, R.
(2011). Failing to deactivate: The association between brain activity during a working
memory task and creativity. NeuroImage, 55, 6817.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.11.052
Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Hashizume, H., Sassa, Y., Nagase, T., Nouchi, R., & Kawashima, R.
(2012). The association between resting functional connectivity and creativity. Cerebral
Cortex, 22, 29219. http://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhr371
Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Sassa, Y., Hashizume, H., Sekiguchi, A., Fukushima, A., &
Kawashima, R. (2010a). Regional gray matter volume of dopaminergic system associate with
creativity: Evidence from voxel-based morphometry. NeuroImage, 51, 57885.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.02.078
Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Sassa, Y., Hashizume, H., Sekiguchi, A., Fukushima, A., &
Kawashima, R. (2010b). White matter structures associated with creativity: Evidence from
diffusion tensor imaging. NeuroImage, 51, 1118.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.02.035
Thompson-Schill, S. L. & Botvinick, M. M. (2006). Resolving conflict: a response to Martin
and Cheng (2006). Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 13, 402-408-411.
Torrance, E. P. (2004). Un résumé historique du développement des tests de pensée créative
de Torrance. Revue Européenne de Psychologie Appliquée/European Review of Applied
Psychology, 54, 5763. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.erap.2004.01.003
Troyer, A. K. (2000). Normative data for clustering and switching on verbal fluency tasks.
Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 22, 370378.
http://doi.org/10.1076/1380-3395(200006)22:3;1-V;FT370
Troyer, A. K., Moscovitch, M., & Winocur, G. (1997). Clustering and switching as two
components of verbal fluency: evidence from younger and older healthy adults.
Neuropsychology, 11, 138146.
Troyer, A. K., Moscovitch, M., Winocur, G., Alexander, M. P., & Stuss, D. (1998).
Clustering and switching on verbal fluency: the effects of focal frontal- and temporal-lobe
lesions. Neuropsychologia, 36, 499504. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(97)00152-8
Unsworth, N., Spillers, G. J., & Brewer, G. A. (2011). Variation in verbal fluency: A latent
variable analysis of clustering, switching, and overall performance. The Quarterly Journal of
43
Experimental Psychology, 64, 447466. http://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2010.505292
Urbanski, M., Bréchemier, M., Garcin, B., Bendetowicz, D., Foulon, C., Thiebaut de
Schotten, M., Rosso, C., Clarençon, F., Dupont, S., Pradat-Diehl, P., Labeyrie, M.-A., Levy,
R., & Volle, E. (2016). Reasoning by analogy requires the left frontal pole: lesion-deficit
mapping and clinical implications. Brain, 139, 1783-99.
Varga, A. L., & Hamburger, K. (2014). Beyond type 1 vs. type 2 processing: the tri-
dimensional way. Cognitive Science, 5, 993. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00993
Vartanian, O. (2009). Variable Attention Facilitates Creative Problem Solving. Psychology of
Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 3, 5759.
Vartanian, O., Martindale, C., & Kwiatkowski, J. (2007). Creative potential, attention, and
speed of information processing. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 14701480.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.04.027
Vartanian, O., Martindale, C., & Matthews, J. (2009). Divergent Thinking Ability Is Related
to Faster Relatedness Judgments. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 3,
99103. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0013106
Vincent, J. L., Kahn, I., Snyder, A. Z., Raichle, M. E., & Buckner, R. L. (2008). Evidence for
a frontoparietal control system revealed by intrinsic functional connectivity. Journal of
Neurophysiology, 100, 33283342. http://doi.org/10.1152/jn.90355.2008
Volle, E., Kinkingnéhun, S., Pochon, J.-B., Mondon, K., Thiebaut de Schotten, M., Seassau,
M., Duffau, H., Samson, Y., Dubois, B., & Levy, R. (2008). The functional architecture of the
left posterior and lateral prefrontal cortex in humans. Cerebral Cortex, 18, 24602469.
http://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhn010
Volle, E., Levy, R., & Burgess, P. W. (2013). A new era for lesion-behavior mapping of
prefrontal functions. In Principles of frontal lobe function (p. 500523). D. T. Stuss & R. T.
Knight Eds. Oxford University Press, USA.
Ward, T. B. & Kolomyts, Y. (2010). Cognition and creativity. In The Cambridge handbook of
creativity (pp 93–112). Kaufman, J. C. & Sternberg, R. J. Eds. Cambridge University Press.
Ward, T. B. (2007). Creative cognition as a window on creativity. Methods, 42, 2837.
Wei, D., Yang, J., Li, W., Wang, K., Zhang, Q., & Qiu, J. (2014). Increased resting functional
connectivity of the medial prefrontal cortex in creativity by means of cognitive stimulation.
Cortex, 51, 92102. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2013.09.004
Wei, T., Liang, X., He, Y., Zang, Y., Han, Z., Caramazza, A., & Bi, Y. (2012). Predicting
conceptual processing capacity from spontaneous neuronal activity of the left middle
44
temporal gyrus. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 481489.
http://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1953-11.2012
Wiggins, G. & Bhattacharya, J. Mind the gap: an attempt to bridge computational and
neuroscientific approaches to study creativity. (2014). Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8, 540.
Wirth, M., Jann, K., Dierks, T., Federspiel, A., Wiest, R., & Horn, H. (2011). Semantic
memory involvement in the default mode network: A functional neuroimaging study using
independent component analysis. NeuroImage, 54, 3057-66.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.10.039
Woolgar, A., Parr, A., Cusack, R., Thompson, R., Nimmo-Smith, I., Torralva, T., Roca, M.,
Antoun , N., Manes , F., & Duncan, J. (2010). Fluid intelligence loss linked to restricted
regions of damage within frontal and parietal cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences USA, 107, 1489914902. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1007928107
Wu, X., Yang, W., Tong, D., Sun, J., Chen, Q., Wei, D., Zhang, Q., Zhang , M., & Qiu, J.
(2015). A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies on divergent thinking using activation
likelihood estimation. Human Brain Mapping, 36, 2703-18. http://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.22801
Yaniv, I., & Meyer, D. E. (1987). Activation and metacognition of inaccessible stored
information: potential bases for incubation effects in problem solving. Journal of
Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 187205.
Zabelina, D. L., & Robinson, M. D. (2010). Child’s play: Facilitating the originality of
creative output by a priming manipulation. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts,
4, 5765. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0015644
Zabelina, D. L. & Andrews-Hanna, J. R. (2016). Dynamic network interactions supporting
internally-oriented cognition. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 40, 86–93.
Zeng, L., Proctor, R. W., & Salvendy, G. (2011). Can traditional divergent thinking tests be
trusted in measuring and predicting real-world creativity? Creativity Research Journal, 23,
24-37.
Zhong, C.-B., Dijksterhuis, A., & Galinsky, A. D. (2008). The merits of unconscious thought
in creativity. Psychological Science, 19, 912918. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
9280.2008.02176.x
Zhu, F., Zhang, Q., & Qiu, J. (2013). Relating inter-individual differences in verbal creative
thinking to cerebral structures: An optimal voxel-based morphometry study. PLoS ONE, 8,
e79272. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079272
Zmigrod, S., Zmigrod, L., & Hommel, B. (2015). Zooming into creativity: individual
differences in attentional global-local biases are linked to creative thinking. Frontiers in
45
Psychology, 6, 1647. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01647
!
!
! !
46
Figure*legends*
!
!
Figure*1L!!
!
!
X*#7$0$2./'! 0'9&(29! *;! ;&%82.*%$(! .#$1.%1! 92&-.'9! .%! ,'$(2,:! 9&>B'829! 4#'2$=$%$(:9.9! ;0*#!
T*%'%=k$$8*/.! '2! $(L?! EFGf6! $%-! $! 7$2.'%2! 92&-:! .%! ;0*%2*=2'#7*0$(! -'#'%2.$! 7$2.'%29! 4-'!
[*&P$!'2!$(L!EFGF6L!!
NotesL!+,'!9.1%.;.8$%2!%'2N*03!.%/*(/'-!.%!80'$2./.2:!$88*0-.%1!2*!2,'!;&%82.*%$(!AJM!92&-.'9!
4.%! :'((*N6! $%-! 2,'! #$7! 9,*N.%1! 2,'! 9'2! *;! >0$.%! 0'1.*%9! .%! N,.8,! 7'0;&9.*%! 8*00'($2'-!
9.1%.;.8$%2(:!N.2,!80'$2./.2:!.%!;0*%2*=2'#7*0$(!-'#'%2.$!7$2.'%29!4.%!0'-6!$0'!9&7'0.#7*9'-!
*%!$! 2'#7($2'! >0$.%L! J'9&(29! ;0*#! 2,'9'! 2N*! $770*$8,'9! 9,*N! */'0($77.%1! .%! 7$02.8&($0! .%!
2,'! (';2! MbT?! 2,'! (';2! 7*92'0.*0! .%;'0.*0! $%-! #.--('! 2'#7*0$(! 1:0.?! 2,'! (';2! .%;'0.*0! 7$0.'2$(!
(*>&('!4>*22*#!7$%'(6L!
*
* *
47
Figure* 2.* [8,'#$2.8! 0'70'9'%2$2.*%! *;! 97*%2$%'*&9! $%-! 8*%20*(('-! 70*8'99.%1! ;*0! .-'$!
1'%'0$2.*%L!!
!
!
!
NotesL! X.08('9! 98,'#$2.8$((:! 0'70'9'%2! .-'$9! $%-! $00*N9! 2,'! (.%3! >'2N''%! 2,'#! .%! $!
2,'*0'2.8$(!9'#$%2.8!%'2N*03L![20*%1(:!0'($2'-!.-'$9!$0'!0'70'9'%2'-!>:!$!($01'0!$00*NL!
KL![2$02.%1!;0*#! $!1./'%!92.#&(&9?!$! 97*%2$%'*&9! $82./$2.*%!*;!$99*8.$2'-!'('#'%29! 970'$-9!
>:!$99*8.$2.*%! ;0*#! 2,'! 8(*9'92! $99*8.$2'9! 2*! #*0'! -.92$%2! *%'9!4>(&'6L! +,'! $82./$2.*%! *;! $!
-.92$%2!4*0.1.%$(6!.-'$!8*#>.%'9!97*%2$%'*&9!$99*8.$2./'!$82./$2.*%!$%-!8*%20*(('-!70*8'99'9!
2,$2!'%$>('!2,'! .%,.>.2.*%!*;!92''7(:! $99*8.$2'-!.-'$9?!2,'!*0.'%2$2.*%! *;!9'#$%2.8!0'20.'/$(?!
$%-! 2,'! 9'('82.*%! *;! $%! '('#'%2L! M%-./.-&$(9! N.2,!,.1,'0!';;.8.'%8:!*;!2,'!8*%20*(('-! #*-'!
4,.1,'0! .%,.>.2.*%?! 9'('82.*%! $%-! 8*%20*(('-! 0'20.'/$(6! #$:! 1'%'0$2'! #*0'! -.92$%2! .-'$9! .%!
.-'$2.*%!2$939?!$((*N.%1!,.1,'0!80'$2./'!$>.(.2.'9L!
QL! M%-./.-&$(9! N.2,! #*0'! ;('S.>('! $%-! -'%9'(:! 8*%%'82'-! 9'#$%2.8! %'2N*039! 4*0! 7($8'-! .%!
9.2&$2.*%9! ;$/*0.%1! $99*8.$2./'! 70*8'99.%16! #$:! >'! $>('! 2*! 97*%2$%'*&9(:! $82./$2'! -.92$%2!
.-'$9L!
!
*
*
*
!
... Utilizing semantic distance to measure creative thinking is such a method. Specifically, the proximity of concepts is determined by the number of defining features they share, a relationship known as "semantic distance" (Volle, 2018). For instance, the words "prince" and "princess" have a relatively close semantic distance as they often co-occur in the text, whereas the semantic distance between "prince" and "artificial intelligence" is relatively far since they rarely appear together. ...
... Therefore, we can conclude that semantic distance, as a quantitative indicator of the relationship between concepts, could indicate the level of divergent thinking. This measure effectively reflects an individual's creative thinking grounded in the associative process (Volle, 2018). ...
... This approach was fully automated and could return individuals' assessments in no time. It is worth mentioning that the use of semantic distance has been used to improve traditional scoring methods for the Alternative Uses Task (AUT) (Acar & Runco, 2014;Beketayev & Runco, 2016;Volle, 2018). In sum, automated assessment of divergent thinking, grounded in natural language processing models, effectively mitigates rater subjectivity, and enhances standardization and objectivity in scoring. ...
Article
The Divergent Association Task (DAT), published in July 2021, is a psychological test designed to measure an individual’s divergent thinking. The test requires participants to name ten nouns that exhibit maximum dissimilarity from each other. The semantic distance between these nouns is then calculated to indicate the person’s level of divergent thinking. In this study, we explored the applicability of the DAT for elementary school students in Chinese contexts, given that it was not initially designed for this specific population and was available only in English. We recruited a total of 348 students who were asked to complete three creativity tasks: the DAT, the Alternative Uses Task (AUT), and the Bridge-the-Associative-Gap Task (BAG). We examined the associations between DAT and the scores of the AUT and BAG tests. Moreover, we tested the accuracy of the DAT using varying numbers of nouns and different natural language processing models to calculate the semantic distance between nouns. Our findings supported the suitability of using the DAT to measure divergent thinking in elementary school students within Chinese contexts. We also found that using only eight nouns, instead of ten, could achieve a relatively high accuracy in measuring divergent thinking based on the DAT method. The language model of Word2Vec performed better than the BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers) and GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) models when calculating semantic distances between nouns. This study has methodological and practical implications.
... This model further hypothesizes that creative abilities partly depend on the organization of the concepts in semantic memory (e.g., Abraham & Bubic, 2015;He et al., 2021). Previous research supports the role of associative thinking in creativity showing that more creative individuals are able to link distant concepts more easily, rate unrelated words as less semantically distant and are faster in judging the relatedness of concepts (Beaty, Silvia, Nusbaum, Jauk, & Benedek, 2014;Benedek & Neubauer, 2013;Rossman & Fink, 2010;Vartanian, Martindale, & Matthews, 2009), have more flexible semantic associations and connect more distant concepts or words (Bendetowicz et al., 2018;Bendetowicz, Urbanski, Aichelburg, Levy, & Volle, 2017;Benedek, Könen, & Neubauer, 2012;Kenett, Anaki, & Faust, 2014;Volle, 2018). These findings suggest that remote elements in memory may be more strongly interconnected in creative individuals. ...
... Existing MRI-based neuroimaging studies have identified a large set of brain regions involved in creative cognition Beaty, Seli, & Schacter, 2019;Boccia et al., 2015;Gonen-Yaacovi et al., 2013;Volle, 2018). A growing body of creativity neuroscience research has highlighted the importance of functional interactions within and between several brain networks, including the executive control network (ECN), salience network and the default mode network (DMN) (Zabelina & Andrews-Hanna, 2016). ...
... At later stages, the DMN is coupled with the ECN, potentially related to heightened topdown cognitive control processes related to evaluation of responses (Beaty, Benedek, Kaufman, & Silvia, 2015). Thus, our results showing the interaction between DMN, ECN, and salience network for the distant CAT trials and the negative predictive network of CAT_sensitivity potentially shared cognitive demands between combining semantically distant concepts and divergent thinking performance (Volle, 2018). Our findings correspond CPM findings linking the DMN, ECN, and salience network in relation to divergent thinking Frith et al., 2021). ...
Preprint
Associative thinking plays a major role in creativity, as it involves the ability to link distant concepts. Yet, the neural mechanisms allowing to combine distant associates in creative thinking tasks remains poorly understood. We investigated the whole-brain functional connectivity patterns related to combining remote associations for creative thinking. Using a connectome predictive modeling approach, we examined whole-brain functional connectivity patterns related to connecting close and distant remote associates in the Combination Association Task (CAT). Brain connectivity networks predicting CAT performance showed contributions from brain functional connectivity mostly related to the Default Mode Network, likely related to associative processes required in all trials of the task. Besides, the functional connectivity pattern of associative remoteness linked to CAT trials also largely involved the Executive Control Network, Dorsal Attention Network and Somatomotor networks, suggesting that more controlled processes played an important role in trials with higher associative remoteness. Critically, the functional connectivity patterns related to higher creative demands of the task share similarities with functional connectivity patterns previously found to predict divergent thinking. Thus, our work potentially offers insights into neural mechanisms that play a role in both convergent and divergent remote thinking.
... Generating creative ideas involves processes and strategies to search, reorganize, and combine ideas or concepts in memory in a novel and useful way Kenett, 2023). Two main categories of cognitive processes are involved when people come up with creative ideas: associative and controlled processes Benedek & Jauk, 2018;Volle, 2018). Associative processes have been explored since the 60s, inspired by Mednick's associative theory of creativity Mednick, 1962). ...
... Regarding slower responses, we expected that Slow-Switching responses re ect controlled processes and relate to executive abilities, as predicted by Troyer et al. (1997;1998), and Slow-Clustering re ect attentional control efforts to stay focused in a cluster and maximally exploit this cluster, which is consistent with Ovando-Tellez, Benedek Regarding creativity, based on the dual pathways for creativity (Nijstad et al., 2010), we hypothesized that Fast-Switching ( exibility pathway) and Slow-Clustering (persistence pathway) responses would relate to creative abilities. However, drawing from previous ndings (Mastria et al., 2021;) and on the established role of both associative and control processes in creativity (Beaty et al., 2014;Benedek & Jauk, 2018;Volle, 2018), one could also argue for the relevance of Slow-Switching as well as Fast-Clustering in creative performance, that should correspond respectively to the executive control and semantic memory representation involved in uency tasks (Troyer et al., 1997). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Creative ideas emerge from searching, reorganizing, and combining ideas or concepts within memory. This involves an interplay between associative and controlled processes. How these processes occur during memory search varies between individuals and how they relate to creative abilities remain unclear. Here, we explored the neurocognitive correlates of semantic memory search by integrating concepts and methods from two distinct approaches: the clustering-switching characterization of responses typically explored in fluency tasks, and the principles of optimal foraging as proposed by the marginal value theorem. We used an associative fluency task involving polysemous words that enabled us to identify clusters and switches among responses with respect to the different meaning of the cue words. We additionally captured the reaction times of the retrieved words during the task, and explored individual patterns of memory search at the cognitive and brain level. Our results indicate that search in semantic memory follows a pattern consistent with optimal foraging. Furthermore, when measuring the time intervals between consecutive responses, we observed that switches during memory search occurred on average as predicted by the marginal value theorem. However, individual patterns of fast or slow clustering and switching related to creativity. Participants with more frequent slow-clustering during retrieval exhibited higher divergent thinking ability, whereas participants with more frequent fast-switching were better able to combine remote associates. Finally, patterns of slow clustering and fast switching were predicted by brain functional connectivity and mediated the brain connectivity-creativity relationship. Overall, we developed new measures of semantic search, identified neurocognitive correlates of semantic search patterns, and related them to creative abilities. Our findings uniquely highlight the significance of the type of search (clustering vs. switching), as well as its temporal modulation (slow vs. fast), in relation to individual differences in creativity.
... How does information-seeking behavior impact SemNet structure which in turn impacts creativity? How do executive processes interact with semantic memory to facilitate creative ideation (Kenett, Gooz, & Ackerman, 2023;Volle, 2018)? Regarding these questions, and many other great questions I have gotten over the years, my typical answer is: "this specific question has not been empirically investigated yet, but we now have the tools to do so." ...
Article
Full-text available
In this invited paper, I briefly review my past, current, and future lines of research. The associative theory of creativity argues that higher creative individuals have a richer semantic memory structure that facilitates broader associative search processes, that leads to the combination of remote concepts into novel and appropriate ideas. Based on this theory, in my research I investigate the role of knowledge-or semantic memory-in high-level cognition, focusing on creativity, associative thinking, and memory search, in typical and clinical populations. To do so, I apply computational tools from network science, natural language processing, and machine learning, coupled with empirical cognitive and neural research. Such computational tools are enabling the representation and operationalization of the structure of semantic memory and the processes that operate over it. This is critical as it allows us to start quantifying issues that for a very long time were studied very subjectively in creativity research-remoteness of ideas, associative thinking, flexible/ richer semantic memory structure, etc. Such work is offering unique, quantitative, ways to directly study classic theories of creativity, propelling forward our understanding of its complexity. ARTICLE HISTORY
... The given methodology and the wide range of proposed tasks serve for some unification of research with different artists and can be used both for research and for the development of artistic creative abilities. As the carried out investigation and built methodology of artistic creativity use rather close principles of both-terms of a theory-based and test control approaches and the theory-free approach in ecological condition [76]. That gives an opportunity to get-data comparable with lab conditions (most of sketching tasks and not only) and of real visual creativity processes in the ecological conditions of art studio. ...
Article
This paper provides a methodology and procedure for studying the neurophysiological characteristics of artistic creativity in the natural conditions of artists’ studio. Paper provided description of equipment, investigation processes and creation of conditions for research. Recommended psychological diagnostic methods and indicators for self-report in the study are listed. A set of tasks is given that was used during the development of the methodology in addition to the study of artistic creativity processes and stages of artists’ work. The listed tasks can be used both for research and for the development of artistic creativity in different groups of participants (experienced and novice). The paper also provides review on neurophysiological investigations of visual creativity in artists, mainly in laboratory conditions
... The ADT may also find its application in the domain of creative cognition. Various divergentthinking tasks assume both spontaneous processes, mediating swift foraging through semantic network, and controlled processes, preventing fixations on prototypical meaning of a concept (but see [107] for a comprehensive review). For instance, Benedek and colleagues [36] found that associative abilities, especially associative combination and dissociation, explain approximately half of the variance of divergent thinking ability, suggesting their substantial contribution to creative ideation (also see [9,20,38]). ...
Article
Full-text available
Recent theoretical advances highlighted the need for novel means of assessing semantic cognition. Here, we introduce the associative-dissociative retrieval task (ADT), positing a novel way to test inhibitory control over semantic memory retrieval by contrasting the efficacy of associative (automatic) and dissociative (controlled) retrieval on a standard set of verbal stimuli. All ADT measures achieved excellent reliability, homogeneity, and short-term temporal stability. Moreover, in-depth stimulus level analyses showed that the associative retrieval is easier for words evoking few but strong associates, yet such propensity hampers the inhibition. Finally, we provided critical support for the construct validity of the ADT measures, demonstrating reliable correlations with domain-specific measures of semantic memory functioning (semantic fluency and associative combination) but negligible correlations with domain-general capacities (processing speed and working memory). Together, we show that ADT provides simple yet potent and psychometrically sound measures of semantic memory retrieval and offers noteworthy advantages over the currently available assessment methods.
... Keywords: creativity, question asking, Bloom taxonomy, divergent thinking Creativity entails both idea originality and appropriateness (Runco & Jaeger, 2012). Thus, creative ideas or solutions require skilled problem solvers to search their memory and "move away" from common ideas toward ideas that are more novel or conceptually distant (Abraham & Bubic, 2015;Benedek et al., 2023;Kenett, 2018;Kenett & Faust, 2019;Volle, 2018). However, creative thinking is also critically motivated by information-seeking behaviors that are driven by curiosity and the personality trait openness to experience . ...
Article
Full-text available
Question asking has been a critical tool for teaching and learning since the time of Socrates and is important in the creative problem-solving process. Yet, its role in creativity has insofar not been thoroughly explored. The current study assessed the role of question asking in the creative process. A correlational preregistered design was used to administer the alternative questions task (AQT) to explore its relation to cognitive and creative divergent thinking tasks. In the AQT—which is based on Torrance’s unusual questions task—participants are asked to generate creative and unusual questions for common objects. Responses are rated for their question level using the Bloom’s taxonomy, a widely accepted guideline in designing examination questions of differing levels of complexity, as well as their subjective and objective creativity. A significant positive relation between AQT question level and objective and subjective creativity scores was found: Higher, more complex questions were more creative, with the inverse effect for lower-level questions. We interpret these findings as supporting the hypothesis that higher question complexity is related and predictive of creative ability. A second study replicated and generalized our findings. Thus, our findings uniquely highlight the role of question asking, and especially question complexity, in creativity.
Article
Full-text available
Divergent and convergent creativity may rely on associative and executive control processes. We examined whether age-related differences in both types of creativity are mediated by executive functions and associative processes. A total of 427 primary, secondary school, and university students completed a battery of tasks measuring executive functioning (updating, inhibition, and shifting), verbal fluency (VF), and divergent (fluency, flexibility, and originality) and convergent creativity (remote-associative problems). The results confirmed that executive and associative processes accounted for age-related differences in divergent and convergent creativity, albeit to different degrees. Specifically, VF contributed to explaining age differences in both types of creativity, whereas updating and inhibition mediated age-related differences only in convergent creativity. These findings provide evidence for the differential contribution of executive and associative processes to age differences in both types of creativity and provide additional support for a dual-process view of creativity.
Chapter
Full-text available
The mental lexicon contains the knowledge about words acquired over a lifetime. A central question is how this knowledge is structured and changes over time. Here we propose to represent this lexicon as a network consisting of nodes that correspond to words and links reflecting associative relations between two nodes, based on free association data. A network view of the mental lexicon is inherent to many cognitive theories, but the predictions of a working model strongly depend on a realistic scale, covering most words used in daily communication. Combining a large network with recent methods from network science allows us to answer questions about its organization at different scales simultaneously, such as: How efficient and robust is lexical knowledge represented considering the global network architecture? What are the organization principles of words in the mental lexicon (i.e. thematic versus taxonomic)? How does the local connectivity with neighboring words explain why certain words are processed more efficiently than others? Networks built from word associations are specifically suited to address prominent psychological phenomena such as developmental shifts, individual differences in creativity, or clinical states like schizophrenia. While these phenomena can be studied using these networks, various future challenges and ways in which this proposal complements other perspectives are also discussed.
Conference Paper
Full-text available
The creative process involves several cognitive processes, such as working memory, controlled attention and task switching. One other process is cognitive search over semantic memory. These search processes can be controlled (e.g., problem solving guided by a heuristic), or uncontrolled (e.g., mind wandering). However, the nature of this search in relation to creativity has rarely been examined from a formal perspective. To do this, we use a random walk model to simulate uncontrolled cognitive search over semantic networks of low and high creative individuals with an equal number of nodes and edges. We show that a random walk over the semantic network of high creative individuals " finds " more unique words and moves further through the network for a given number of steps. Our findings are consistent with the associative theory of creativity, which posits that the structure of semantic memory facilitates search processes to find creative solutions.
Article
Full-text available
Divergent thinking (DT) tests are useful for the assessment of creative potentials. This article reports the semantics-based algorithmic (SBA) method for assessing DT. This algorithm is fully automated: Examinees receive DT questions on a computer or mobile device and their ideas are immediately compared with norms and semantic networks. This investigation compared the scores generated by the SBA method with the traditional methods of scoring DT (i.e., fluency, originality, and flexibility). Data were collected from 250 examinees using the “Many Uses Test” of DT. The most important finding involved the flexibility scores from both scoring methods. This was critical because semantic networks are based on conceptual structures, and thus a high SBA score should be highly correlated with the traditional flexibility score from DT tests. Results confirmed this correlation (r = .74). This supports the use of algorithmic scoring of DT. The nearly-immediate computation time required by SBA method may make it the method of choice, especially when it comes to moderate- and large-scale DT assessment investigations. Correlations between SBA scores and GPA were insignificant, providing evidence of the discriminant and construct validity of SBA scores. Limitations of the present study and directions for future research are offered.
Article
Full-text available
Making sense of the world around us depends upon selectively retrieving information relevant to our current goal or context. However, it is unclear whether selective semantic retrieval relies exclusively on general control mechanisms recruited in demanding non-semantic tasks, or instead on systems specialised for the control of meaning. One hypothesis is that the left posterior middle temporal gyrus (pMTG) is important in the controlled retrieval of semantic (not non-semantic) information; however this view remains controversial since a parallel literature links this site to event and relational semantics. In a functional neuroimaging study, we demonstrated that an area of pMTG implicated in semantic control by a recent meta-analysis was activated in a conjunction of (i) semantic association over size judgements and (ii) action over colour feature matching. Under these circumstances the same region showed functional coupling with the inferior frontal gyrus – another crucial site for semantic control. Structural and functional connectivity analysis demonstrated that this site is at the nexus of networks recruited in automatic semantic processing (the default mode network) and executively demanding tasks (the multiple-demand network). Moreover, in both task and task-free contexts, pMTG exhibited functional properties that were more similar to ventral parts of inferior frontal cortex, implicated in controlled semantic retrieval, than more dorsal inferior frontal sulcus, implicated in domain-general control. Finally, the pMTG region was functionally correlated at rest with other regions implicated in control-demanding semantic tasks, including inferior frontal gyrus and intraparietal sulcus. We suggest that pMTG may play a crucial role within a large-scale network that allows the integration of automatic retrieval in the default mode network with executively-demanding goal-oriented cognition, and that this could support our ability to understand actions and non-dominant semantic associations, allowing semantic retrieval to be ‘shaped’ to suit a task or context.
Article
The subject of creativity has been neglected by psychologists. The immediate problem has two aspects. (1) How can we discover creative promise in our children and our youth, (2) How can we promote the development of creative personalities. Creative talent cannot be accounted for adequately in terms of I.Q. A new way of thinking about creativity and creative productivity is seen in the factorial conceptions of personality. By application of factor analysis a fruitful exploratory approach can be made. Carefully constructed hypotheses concerning primary abilities will lead to the use of novel types of tests. New factors will be discovered that will provide us with means to select individuals with creative personalities. The properties of primary abilities should be studied to improve educational methods and further their utilization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
For complex mental functions such as creative thinking, inter-individual variability is useful to better understand the underlying cognitive components and brain anatomy. Associative theories propose that creative individuals have flexible semantic associations, which allows remote elements to be formed into new combinations. However, the structural brain variability associated with the ability to combine remote associates has not been explored. To address this question, we performed a voxel-based morphometry study and explored the anatomical connectivity of significant regions. We developed a Remote Combination Association Task adapted from Mednick’s test, in which subjects had to find a solution word related to three cue words presented to them. In our adaptation of the task, we used free association norms to quantify the associative distance between the cue words and solution words, and we varied this distance. The tendency to solve the task with insight and the ability to evaluate the appropriateness of a proposed solution were also analysed. Fifty-four healthy volunteers performed this task and underwent a structural MRI. Structure-function relationships were analysed using regression models between grey matter volume and task performance. Significant clusters were mapped onto an atlas of white matter tracts. The ability to solve the task, which depended on the associative distance of the solution word, was associated with structural variation in the left rostrolateral prefrontal and posterior parietal regions; the left rostral prefrontal region was connected to distant regions through long-range pathways. By using a creative combination task in which the semantic distance between words varied, we revealed a brain network centred on the left frontal pole that appears to support the ability to combine information in new ways by bridging the semantic distance between pieces of information.
Book
How Creativity Happens In The Brain is about the brain mechanisms of creativity, how a grapefruit-sized heap of meat crackling with electricity manages to be so outrageously creative. It has a sharp focus: to stick exclusively to sound, mechanistic explanations and convey what we can, and cannot, say about how brains give rise to creative ideas.