Synthesis and Stability of Magnetic Nanoparticles

Abstract

Magnetic nanoparticles are a class of nanoparticle that can be manipulated using magnetic fields. Such particles commonly consist of two components, a magnetic material, often iron, nickel and cobalt, and a chemical component that has functionality. While nanoparticles are smaller than 1 micrometer in diameter (typically 1–100 nanometers), the larger microbeads are 0.5–500 micrometer in diameter. Magnetic nanoparticle clusters that are composed of a number of individual magnetic nanoparticles are known as magnetic Nano beads with a diameter of 50–200 nanometers. Magnetic nanoparticle clusters are a basis for their further magnetic assembly into magnetic Nano chains. The magnetic nanoparticles have been the focus of much research recently because they possess attractive properties which could see potential use in catalysis including nanomaterial-based catalysts, biomedicine and tissue specific targeting, magnetically tunable colloidal photonic crystals, microfluidics, magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic particle imaging, data storage, environmental remediation, Nano fluids, optical filters, defect sensor, magnetic cooling and cation sensors.

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BioNanoScience
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12668-022-00947-5
Synthesis andStability ofMagnetic Nanoparticles
MohammadJavedAnsari1· MustafaM.Kadhim2,3,4· BaydaaAbedHussein5· HolyaA.Lafta6· EhsanKianfar7,8
Accepted: 31 January 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2022
Abstract
Magnetic nanoparticles are a class of nanoparticle that can be manipulated using magnetic fields. Such particles commonly
consist of two components, a magnetic material, often iron, nickel, and cobalt, and a chemical component that has function-
ality. While nanoparticles are smaller than 1µm in diameter (typically 1–100nm), the larger microbeads are 0.5–500µm
in diameter. Magnetic nanoparticle clusters that are composed of a number of individual magnetic nanoparticles are known
as magnetic nanobeads with a diameter of 50–200nm. Magnetic nanoparticle clusters are a basis for their further magnetic
assembly into magnetic nanochains. The magnetic nanoparticles have been the focus of much research recently because they
possess attractive properties which could see potential use in catalysis including nanomaterial-based catalysts, biomedicine
and tissue-specific targeting, magnetically tunable colloidal photonic crystals, microfluidics, magnetic resonance imaging,
magnetic particle imaging, data storage, environmental remediation, nanofluids, optical filters, defect sensor, magnetic
cooling, and cation sensors.
Keywords Nanoparticles· Magnetic nanoparticles· Co-precipitation· Magnetic resonance imaging· Environmental
remediation
1 Introduction
In recent years, many efforts have been made to prepare
and synthesize magnetic nanoparticles for their application
in various fields such as biotechnology, drug delivery, and
computer. In general, the performance and application of
these nanoparticles is influenced by their proper design and
synthesis [1–5]. So far, various magnetic nanoparticles have
been synthesized, including pure metal nanoparticles (Fe,
Co, Ni), metal oxides (Fe3O4, γ-Fe2O3), ferrites (MFe2O4,
M = Cu, Ni, Mn, Mg, etc.), and metal alloys (FePt, CoPt)
[6–11]. During the synthesis of these nanoparticles, some
key conditions such as intrinsic magnetic properties, size
and shape of nanoparticles, surface coating and surface
charge of nanoparticles [12–22], and stability in aqueous
environment as well as their non-toxicity must be consid-
ered [23–28]. By choosing a suitable synthesis method, the
size, shape, surface coating, and colloidal stability of mag-
netic nanoparticles can be optimally controlled [29–31]. In
the choice of magnetic material, iron oxides usually play a
key role [32–34]. On the one hand, these oxides have good
magnetic properties compared to other magnetic nanoparti-
cles, and on the other hand, they show high stability against
degradation [12–14, 35, 36]. These nanoparticles also have
lower toxicity [15, 16]. To date, various methods for the syn-
thesis of magnetic NPS have been proposed and improved
[17]. In the purpose of this study, magnetic nanoparticles
(MNPs) have widespread attention because of their unique
features [37–44]. For a few decades, growing development
in chemical synthesis of nanomaterials and material surface
* Ehsan Kianfar
e-kianfar94@iau-arak.ac.ir; ehsan_kianfar2010@yahoo.com
1 Department ofPharmaceutics, College ofPharmacy, Prince
Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, SaudiArabia
2 Department ofDentistry, Kut University College, Kut,
Wasit52001, Iraq
3 College ofTechnical Engineering, The Islamic University,
Najaf, Iraq
4 Department ofPharmacy, Osol Aldeen University College,
Baghdad, Iraq
5 Al-Manara College forMedical Sciences, Amarah, Misan,
Iraq
6 Al-Nisour University College, Baghdad, Iraq
7 Department ofChemical Engineering, Islamic Azad
University, Arak Branch, ,Arak, Iran
8 Young Researchers andElite Club, Gachsaran Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Gachsaran, Iran

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modification have been seen and performed in numerous
applications including biomedicine, biotechnology, cataly-
sis, and magnetic chemistry thermoelectric materials. Vari-
ous methods for fabrication of MNPs which have a con-
trollable size, distribution, and surface modification have
been reported [45–49]. In these methods, several techniques
containing irradiation, microwave, ultra-sonication, vapor
deposition, electrochemical, and microwave are applied to
produce MNPs either in bottom-up or top-down processes.
Generally, magnetic synthesis of nanoparticles is carried out
by using these two processes. Nanomaterials with magnetic
properties have wide applications in many fields such as
biology, medicine, and engineering [50, 51]. In this paper,
the recent developments in the structures, occurrences, most
commonly used samples, and common areas of use of the
MNPs are given.
2 Synthesis ofmagnetic nanoparticles
2.1 Synthesis inliquid phase
Methods of synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles in the liquid
phase include precipitation, microemulsion, synthesis using
ultrasound, and so on [12, 18–20]. Homogeneous prepara-
tion and deposition of high uniformity particles (monodis-
perses) can be justified by LaMer principles and diagrams
(Fig.1) [1–5]. Particle growth occurs through the penetra-
tion of particles on the surface of pre-formed nuclei and the
irreversible accumulation of nuclei.
2.1.1 Co‑precipitation
The co-precipitation method is the simple and the maximum
effect chemic method for the synthesis of MNPS [24]. The
main advantage of co-precipitation is its ability to synthesize
large numbers of NPS. However, particle size repartition
control is limited in this method, and kinetic factors control
particle growth [25]. Figure2 shows the schematic of syn-
thesis of Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles using co-precipita-
tion method; first, a solution of iron ions in hydrochloric acid
is prepared and then this solution is poured on a solution of
diisopropylamine (DIPA) which results in the formation of
a precipitate of iron oxide nanoparticles [21, 22].
2.1.2 Arc Discharge
This method is commonly used to synthesize magnetic
nanoparticles enclosed in a carbon layer (carbon-encap-
sulated) or magnetic nanoparticles made of metal carbide.
In this method, the metal precursor is placed in a cavity
on a graphite electrode and evaporated by arc discharge
Fig. 1 LaMer diagram [1]
Fig. 2 Schematic of synthesis of
Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles
using co-precipitation method;
first, a solution of iron ions in
hydrochloric acid is prepared
and then this solution is poured
on a solution of diisopro-
pylamine (DIPA) which results
in the formation of a precipitate
of iron oxide nanoparticles [2]

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[26]. This method can also be used to coat the surface
of metal nanoparticles with boron nitride. Unfortunately,
due to limitations such as low efficiency and difficulty in
controlling the size and thickness of synthesized nanopar-
ticles, this method cannot be used on an industrial scale
[2]. In addition to these methods, laser light can also be
used to synthesize nanoparticles with a size distribution
of less than 10nm (Fig.3) [4, 27, 52–54].
3 Protection Methods
Although several methods have been proposed to improve
the methods of synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles, the
stability of these nanoparticles for a long time against
their accumulation and deposition is an important issue.
Because the stability of these nanoparticles is important
in their application [28], magnetic nanoparticles are very
sensitive to oxidation and accumulation as well as chemi-
cally reactive due to their large surface area. At normal
temperature and pressure, the surface of the nanoparticles
oxidizes rapidly, resulting in the formation of a thin layer
of oxide on it, which drastically changes their proper-
ties [29]. Natural aggregation of nanoparticles is another
problem that limits the dispread use of magnetic nanopar-
ticles (Fig.4) [4, 30]. The following methods can be used
to stabilize magnetic nanoparticles [31, 55, 56]:
i) Equilibrium between repulsive forces and gravity
between nanoparticles
ii) Placing inorganic coatings on the surface of magnetic
nanoparticles
3.1 Organic Coating
Organic coatings are corrosion barriers between the under-
lying metal and the corrosive environment. They maintain
durability of structures and provide resistance to weather,
humidity, abrasion, chemical resistance, toughness, and
aesthetic appearance. Organic coating efficiency depends
on the mechanical properties of the coating system, type
and concentration of suspended inhibitors [1, 2], pretreat-
ment of the metal surface [3], adhesion of the coating to
the underlying metal base [4], and other additives that
inhibit substrate corrosion. Coating formulation usually
contains solvent, resin (binder), pigment, filler, and addi-
tives. When applied to the underlying metal, they provide
a continuous, homogeneous coating that prevents cracking
and structure breakdown during stress, water permeabil-
ity, and physical aging. Protective coatings should possess
low permeability, good corrosion stability, and appear-
ance over a long period of time to justify the cost [57–59].
Organic coatings are classified according to the resin’s
chemical composition. The resin is dissolved or suspended
in the solvent. The content and density of the resin are
critical for corrosion barrier properties and oxygen and
water permeability. The common resins used to manufac-
ture single-component organic coatings are vinyls, acryl-
ics, chlorinated rubber, alkyd (oil base), modified alkyd-
silicon, amino-modified alkyd, phenolic alkyd, and epoxy
ester [60–64]. Two component organic coating systems are
manufactured using phenolic and polyurethanes. Coating
properties such as color and opacity, mechanical, and bar-
rier properties and water transport depend on the chemical
composition of the dispersed pigment, pigment volume
concentration, and critical volume concentration. Besides
color and opacity, the pigments protect the cured resin
against UV radiation. Resins control coating properties
Fig. 3 Arc discharge method
synthesis of magnetic nanopar-
ticles [4]

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including toughness, flexibility, time of curing, service
performance, exterior weathering, and adhesion [5].
Organic solvents perform several functions. They dissolve
the resin, control coating viscosity and evaporation for film
formation, and affect film adhesion and coating durabil-
ity. Other additives and fillers provide coating uniformity
and improve coating flow, surface drying, or decrease the
permeability of water and oxygen [65–67]. Metal surface
preprinting treatments such as phosphate and chromium
conversion coatings are applied to increase adhesion of the
organic coating. Before applying the top coat, it may be
necessary to apply a primer coat that possesses inhibitive
properties and good surface adhesion [68–70]. More than
one coat provides good mechanical properties, pleasant
color and opacity, and good barrier properties (resistance
to water and oxygen diffusion to the interface between the
underlying meal and the coating). Metal corrosion rate
should not exceed more than 1.2–5.0mm/year with applied
liquid coatings [6]. To date, most studies have focused on
the development of coatings with surfactants, but today
more attention has been focused on coating with poly-
mers due to the repulsion. Numerous methods have been
proposed for the stability of magnetic nanoparticles using
surfactants and polymers both during and after the synthe-
sis of nanoparticles [32, 33, 71–74]. As shown in Fig.5, by
creating one or two layers on it, they cause the magnetic
nanoparticles to remain dispersed. To prevent oxidation
of magnetic nanoparticles, the coating should be dense,
because one or two thin layers in an acidic environment
are easily separated from the surface of the nanoparticles
and cause loss of magnetic property [1].
3.2 Inorganic Coatings
Inorganic coatings can be produced by chemical action, with
or without electrical assistance. The treatments change the
immediate surface layer of metal into a film of metallic oxide
or compound which has better corrosion resistance than the
natural oxide film and provides an effective base or key for
supplementary protection such as paints. In some instances,
these treatments can also be a preparatory step prior to
painting [13]. The surface of magnetic nanoparticles can be
coated with mineral coatings (Fig.6) such as metal oxides,
silica, precious metals, and carbon [34]. A very simple way
to protect magnetic nanoparticles is to use metal oxides dif-
ferent from the core as their coating [1, 75–77]. Precious
metals such as gold, due to their low reactivity and ability
to bridge with other functional groups, can also be used to
protect magnetic cores [3]. In this field, the use of coatings
made of silica and carbon due to issues such as low cost,
low toxicity, good biocompatibility has attracted a lot of
attention [2, 78–81].
3.3 Green Synthesis ofNPs
Recently, with the development of modern technologies of
the nanomaterial synthesis, there was interest in studying
the properties of metals at ultra-disperse range as a powder,
Fig. 4 Protection methods synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles [4]

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solution, and suspension. As a rule, the nanoparticles (NPs)
may easily form complexes with different substances due to
their high chemical activity [14–16]. These complexes have
new properties such as good solubility and high biological
activity. In this regard, the water dispersion of metal NPs
that was obtained by biochemical synthesis using plants
shows the ability to absorb, accumulate, and restore inor-
ganic metal ions from the environment. The various organic
components, particularly, secondary metabolites that are
present in plant tissues, are able to act as stabilizing and
reducing agents in the process of NPs synthesis [82–84].
Reduction and formation of NPs occur in the water core
of micelles formed by surfactant molecules using natural
biologically active substances such as plant pigments from
the flavonoid group which ensures long-term stability of NPs
and makes this process as safe as possible for the environ-
ment [17]. The highest activity and final morphology of NPs
is ultimately reached in the last step of green NPs synthesis,
when they are coated with plant metabolites (polyphenols,
tannins, terpenoids, etc.). Many biological systems of plants
can convert inorganic metal ions into metal NPs through the
reductive abilities of secondary metabolites present in these
organisms. The ability of plants to accumulate and detoxify
heavy metals is well proved. Bioactive compounds of plants
such as polyphenols, flavonoids, vitamin C, alkaloids, and
terpenoids reduce silver (Ag) salts from positive oxidation
state (Ag +) to zero oxidation state (Ag0); the mechanism
for reduction of Ag + to Ag0 is shown (Fig.7). Secondary
Fig. 5 Some organic coatings used to ensure the stability of magnetic nanoparticles [5]
Fig. 6 TEM image of silica-coated magnetic nanoparticles [2]

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metabolites present in the plant extract affect the size and
shape of metallic NPs [12, 18]. These biologically active
compounds possess antioxidant activity and are of great
interest in the biomedical field as alternative antibacterial
agents.
3.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a deposition method
used to produce high-quality, high-performance, solid mate-
rials, typically under vacuum. CVD is the process involving
chemical reactions taking place between an organometallic
or halide compounds to be deposited and the other gases to
produce nonvolatile solid thin films on substrates [85–87].
The key distinguishing attribute of CVD is that the depo-
sition of material onto the substrate is a multidirectional
type of deposition, whereas PVD is a line-of-site impinge-
ment type of deposition. Microfabrication processes widely
use CVD to deposit materials in various forms, including
monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous, and epitaxial.
In contrast with PVD, in CVD, there is an actual chemical
interaction between a mixture of gases and the bulk surface
of the material, which causes chemical decomposition of
some of the specific gas constituents, forming a solid coat-
ing on the surface of the base material. CVD is employed
in a wide range of industry applications, such as the deposi-
tion of refractory materials (nonmetallic materials that can
withstand extremely high temperatures) on turbine blades
to greatly increase the wear resistance and thermal shock
resistances of the blades [88–90]. Some CVD techniques are
atmospheric-pressure CVD, low-pressure CVD, ultrahigh
vacuum CVD, plasma-enhanced CVD, microwave plasma-
assisted hot filament CVD, metal–organic CVD, photo-ini-
tiated CVD, atomic layer deposition, spray pyrolysis, liquid-
phase epitaxy, etc. [19]. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
is a widely used material processing technology. The major-
ity of its applications involve applying solid thin-film coat-
ings to surfaces, but it is also used to produce high-purity
bulk materials and powders, as well as fabricating compos-
ite materials via infiltration techniques. It has been used to
deposit a very wide range of materials. In the late 1970s, it
was first found [20] that CVD could deposit diamond films
at a pressure lower than 1atm. Since then, the research on
the formation of thin films on different biomaterials by the
CVD method has been deepened.
CVD has a number of advantages as a method for deposit-
ing thin films. One of the primary advantages is that CVD
films are generally quite conformal, i.e., that the film thick-
ness on the sidewalls of features is comparable to the thick-
ness on the top. This means that films can be applied to
elaborately shaped pieces, including the insides and under-
sides of features, and that high-aspect ratio holes and other
features can be completely filled. In contrast, physical vapor
deposition (PVD) techniques, such as sputtering or evapora-
tion, generally, require a line-of-sight between the surface
to be coated and the source[91–94]. Another advantage of
CVD is that, in addition to the wide variety of materials
that can be deposited, they can be deposited with very high
purity. This results from the relative ease with which impuri-
ties are removed from gaseous precursors using distillation
techniques. Other advantages include relatively high depo-
sition rates and the fact that CVD often does not require as
high a vacuum as PVD processes. CVD also has a number of
disadvantages. One of the primary disadvantages lies in the
properties of the precursors. Ideally, the precursors need to
be volatile at near-room temperatures. This is non-trivial for
a number of elements in the periodic table, although the use
of metal–organic precursors has eased this situation. CVD
precursors can also be highly toxic (Ni(CO)4), explosive (B2
H6), or corrosive (SiCl4). The byproducts of CVD reactions
Fig. 7 Pattern of green synthe-
sis. The chemical reaction of
NPs synthesis includes several
steps. Polyphenols convert
positive Ag+into the zero
Ag0valent metal, and in the
last step of green synthesis, the
polyphenols coat metal NPs and
affect the morphology and size
of NPs [18]

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can also be hazardous (CO, H2, or HF). Some of these pre-
cursors, especially the metal–organic precursors, can also
be quite costly [95–98]. The other major disadvantage is
the fact that the films are usually deposited at elevated tem-
peratures [99]. This puts some restrictions on the kind of
substrates that can be coated. More importantly, it leads to
stresses in films deposited on materials with different ther-
mal expansion coefficients, which can cause mechanical
instabilities in the deposited films.
3.5 Methods ofProtection
Three basic methods of protection from chemical hazards
exist: engineering controls, personal protective equipment,
and administrative controls. Engineering controls are sys-
tems and equipment designed to prevent or decrease contact
with a chemical. Examples include chemical fume hoods,
ventilation fans, and secondary containers. Personal protec-
tive equipment (PPE) is protective clothing that is resist-
ant to specific chemicals and acts as a barrier between the
wearer and the chemical he or she is handling. Adminis-
trative controls are limitations imposed by supervisors to
ensure exposures are minimized or eliminated. The supervi-
sor is responsible for ensuring that appropriate controls are
in place and used [37–41].
3.5.1 Engineering Controls
Engineering controls are considered the most effective form
of exposure control. Before beginning a process or proce-
dure, consider engineering controls that will decrease chemi-
cal exposure or risk of harm. Examples include grounding
and bonding when transferring flammable liquids; using
exhaust ventilation to decrease vapor concentration when
using a volatile chemical; and storing hazardous chemicals
in cabinets according to hazard class [42].
3.5.2 Personal Protective Equipment
PPE should be worn for protection from hazardous chemi-
cals whenever contact is possible. PPE includes gloves,
safety glasses, face shields, Tyvek suits, lab coats, etc. The
use of powdered latex gloves is prohibited. A respirator
should only be used while engineering controls are being
installed or upgraded or when engineering controls are
not a feasible option. If respirators are deemed necessary,
EH&S must be contacted to determine the correct respira-
tor and provide fit testing, training, and medical screening
for users. PPE must be selected according to the chemical
hazard involved [100–104].
3.5.3 Administrative Controls
Administrative controls should be used to limit exposure
durations. The most common example of administrative con-
trol is rotation of workers to minimize the length of time a
worker is exposed to a certain chemical. This form of control
should only be used under well-documented conditions and
after engineering controls have first been considered or used
[47–49].
4 Functionalization ofMagnetic
Nanoparticles
Interactions between NPS and their environment are strongly
influenced by the surface groups of NPS [67, 68]. The devel-
opment of surface modification methods for magnetic NPS
to chemically functionalize them and control their solubility
is important and strongly influenced by the type of applica-
tion. For biological applications, for example, the surface of
magnetic nanoparticles is often referred to as biomolecules
such as proteins [34, 105–109]. Most applications of mag-
netic NPS require chemical stability, uniformity in size, and
proper dispersion in a liquid medium [35, 110–114]. There-
fore, the surface of NPS must be modified with appropriate
groups. Electrostatic chemical absorption (or addition of a
ligand, in ligand chemistry is an ion or molecule that is able
to attach to a particular metal or several metals to form a
complex) and covalent bonding (ligand exchange) are some
of the methods, which are used to change and modify the
surface of NPS (Fig.8) [5, 12, 36–39, 115–120].
5 Conclusion
Biomedical applications like magnetic resonance imaging,
magnetic cell separation, or magnetorelaxometry control
the magnetic properties of the nanoparticles in magnetic
fluids. Furthermore, these applications also depend on the
hydrodynamic size. Therefore, in many cases, only a small
portion of particles contributes to the desired effect. The
relative amount of the particles with the desired properties
can be increased by the fractionation of magnetic fluids.
Common methods currently used for the fractionation of
magnetic fluids are centrifugation and size-exclusion chro-
matography. All these methods separate the particles via
nonmagnetic properties like density or size. The positive
charge of the maghemite surface allows its dispersion in
aqueous acidic solutions and the production of dispersions
stabilized through electrostatic repulsions. By increasing
the acid concentration (in the range 0.1 to 0.5mol l−1),
interparticle repulsions are screened, and phase transitions
are induced. Using this principle, these authors describe a

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two-step size sorting process in order to obtain significant
amounts of nanometric monosized particles with diam-
eters between typically 6 and 13nm. As the surface of the
latter is not modified by the size sorting process, usual
procedures are used to disperse them in several aqueous
or oil-based media. Preference should be given, however,
to partitions based on the properties of interest, in this
case, the magnetic properties. So far, magnetic methods
have been used only for the separation of magnetic fluids,
for example, to remove aggregates by magnetic filtration.
Recently, the fractionation of magnetic nanoparticles by
flow field-flow fractionation was reported that field-flow
fractionation is a family of analytical separation tech-
niques, in which the separation is carried out in a flow
with a parabolic profile running through a thin channel. An
external field is applied at a right angle to force the par-
ticles toward the so-called accumulation wall. Advances
within the synthesis of magnetic NPS, especially within
the last 20years, have led to the event of a good range of
those NPS, in numerous sizes and controllable. However,
one amongst the unavoidable problems these related to
NPS is their inherent instability over long periods of your
time. On the opposite hand, issues like very high reactiv-
ity and toxicity to some magnetic NPS limit their use.
Research during this field has shown well that to beat these
problems, coating these NPS using organic and inorganic
molecules is one amongst the foremost effective solutions.
In recent years, the functionalization and modification of
the surface of magnetic NPS has significantly increased
the potential of using these NPS in several fields.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the Department of
Chemical Engineering, Arak Branch, Islamic Azad University, Arak,
Iran, and the Young Researchers and Elite Club, Gachsaran Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Gachsaran, Iran. The authors acknowledge
the support of the Deanship of Scientific Research at Prince Sattam
bin Abdulaziz University.
Author Contribution “I wrote to you in regard to your question about
naming some people in my article, I must point out that in some cases,
help was sought from people and it was necessary to mention the names
of these people in order to maintain professional ethics in research
issues.”
Therefore, on this basis:Mohammad Javed Ansari, Mustafa M.
Kadhim, and Baydaa Abed Hussein: investigation, concept and design,
experimental studies, writing—original draft, reviewing, and editing,
Holya A. Lafta, Ehsan kianfar: investigation, concept and design, data
curation, conceptualization, writing—original draft, reviewing, and
editing.
Funding None.
Fig. 8 A Functionalization of
magnetic nanoparticles with
3-aminopropyl triethoxysi-
lane in toluene and ethanol, B
glutaraldehyde reticulation of
magnetic NPS after 3-amino-
propyl triethoxysilane treat-
ment, and C Candida antarctica
lipase B immobilization on
3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane
functionalized magnetic NPS
after glutaraldehyde reticula-
tion [5]

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1 3
Declarations
Conflict of Interest None.
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