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International Journal of Construction Management
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjcm20
Impacts of accidents and hazards on the Ghanaian
construction industry
Dickson Osei-Asibey, Joshua Ayarkwa, Alex Acheampong, Emmanuel
Adinyira & Peter Amoah
To cite this article: Dickson Osei-Asibey, Joshua Ayarkwa, Alex Acheampong, Emmanuel Adinyira
& Peter Amoah (2021): Impacts of accidents and hazards on the Ghanaian construction industry,
International Journal of Construction Management, DOI: 10.1080/15623599.2021.1920161
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15623599.2021.1920161
Published online: 17 May 2021.
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Impacts of accidents and hazards on the Ghanaian construction industry
Dickson Osei-Asibey, Joshua Ayarkwa, Alex Acheampong, Emmanuel Adinyira and Peter Amoah
Construction Technology and Management, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology College of Architecture and
Planning, Ghana
ABSTRACT
This paper explored the impacts of accidents and hazards on the Ghanaian construction industry (GCI).
The qualitative research strategy was adopted, using in-depth face to face interviews. Participants were
seven each of Contractors and Consultants using data saturation to limit the number, through purposive
sampling technique. Data were analyzed using content analysis technique. The most critical impacts of
accidents and hazards on the GCI were identified as slow-down of work, increase in cost of project and
poor performance of work. The findings of the study provide knowledge on impacts of accidents and haz-
ards to stakeholders of the GCI and the government in general. Serious steps should be taken by stake-
holders to enforce construction health and safety (CHS) practices on construction sites to reduce the high
frequency rate of accidents and injuries and the high incidence rate in the GCI. The courts should be
encouraged to impose fair and adequate compensation on employers and occasionally punitive or exem-
plary damages to deter and prevent occurrence of accidents and hazards at construction sites. CHS-
related issues have to be given the needed research and academic attention in order to reduce accidents
and hazards on sites.
KEYWORDS
Impacts; health; safety;
accidents; hazards;
construction; Ghana
Introduction
The construction industry is responsible for the procurement of
infrastructure for the functioning of other sectors of the econ-
omy. These infrastructure products are either for direct use (e.g.
residential buildings),aid the construction process (e.g. offices,
factory buildings and warehouses), supplement or improve exist-
ing infrastructure (e.g. roads, railways, harbours) or provide
social utilities (e.g. hospitals, theatres parks, etc.). Construction is
a high stakes endeavour that produces long-term, unique and
complex building projects and infrastructure (McRoy et al.
2012). The construction industry significantly contributes to eco-
nomic growth and social development of nations. The Ghanaian
construction industry (GCI), which is the second largest con-
tributor to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) after crops, contrib-
utes 13.7% to GDP (GSS, 2017). Anaman and Osei-Amponsah
(2007) stated that several studies have shown that there is a sig-
nificant relationship between the rate at which the construction
industry grows and the rate at which the macro economy of
developing countries grows. The GDP of GCI by economic activ-
ity grew from GHS10, 641 in 2013 to GHS21, 013 in 2019 (GSS
2020). The growth rate (%) at basic prices in relation to the
national economy has been fluctuating without a particular trend
from 2013 to 2019. According to a report published by the GSS
(2015), the construction industry employs over 437,000 workers
and that makes up about 3.7% of the total working population
in Ghana.
The construction industry is often seen as one of the most
hazardous industries worldwide when it comes to the safety of
workers (Berglund et al. 2019). Elsebaei et al. (2020) emphasized
that occupational health and safety issues have been of a very
great concern to the construction industry worldwide due to its
hazardous nature. It is seen as one of the most dangerous work-
ing environments worldwide. Studies done in several countries
such as Finland, Turkey, the USA, China and Korea revealed
that the construction industry has amounted to a high rate of
adverse consequence due to poor health and safety performance
(Manu et al. 2010). Accidents occur every day and, one way or
another, will impact virtually everyone (DeCamp and Herskovitz
2015). According to Oza (2017), the International Labour
Organization (ILO) forecasted that there will be more than 2.3
million workers death every year because of occupational haz-
ards, and 317 million accidents occur every year on the
job worldwide.
Accidents are unforeseen events, which cause damages or
injuries unintentionally and unexpectedly. An accident is an
undesired event that results in personal injury or property dam-
age (DeCamp and Herskovitz 2015). In the construction sector,
accidents cannot be avoided and it has higher risks involved as
compared to other occupations (Ling et al. 2009).
Given the serious health risks to construction professionals,
construction workers, users of the constructed facility and the
general public, and the effect on productivity and the economy
in general, construction health and safety (CHS) related issues
have to be given the needed research and academic attention in
order to improve CHS on site. This paper therefore seeks to
assess the impacts of accidents and hazards on the GCI.
Overview of the GCI
The GCI is largely made up of unskilled labour, making up
about 67.2%, followed by semi-skilled labour, making up about
24.8%, and the remaining 8% taken up by highly skilled labour
(Ghana Investment Promotion Council, GIPC 2006). Like other
CONTACT Alex Acheampong aacheampong.cap@knust.edu.gh
ß2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
https://doi.org/10.1080/15623599.2021.1920161
developing countries, the GCI highly depends on the labour
force (GSS 2020). Given the high cost of adopting equipment
intensive methods for construction, the labour-intensive
approach is often preferred by contractors as the labour force is
readily available at lower cost.
The stakeholders in the GCI include clients, professional con-
sultants, suppliers, statutory authorities, contractors and commu-
nity or traditional authorities. The client, also known as the
employer, may be the Government or its agency for public infra-
structure, or private institutions and entrepreneurs who often
procure the services of the Contractors and Consultants for the
execution of a project. Client has been defined as the organiza-
tion, or individual, who commissions the activities necessary to
implement and complete a project in order to satisfy its or his
needs and then enters into a contract with the commissioned par-
ties (Donkoh and Aboagye-Nimo 2016; Masterman 2002). The
client’s objective of the project is value for money that results in
the performance of the project. The client is usually attracted by
the aesthetic view of the project, quality of the workmanship and
cost of the project. Clients achieve their objective through the
consultant employed to take charge of the procurement of the
project. Thus, a client procures the work through the engage-
ment of Construction Professionals, also known as the
Consultant or Project Manager within the context of GCI. In
Ghana, four main clients are distinguishable: Government (being
the major client), Real Estate Developers, Corporate Institutions
and Home Builders (Figure 1). The government as a client oper-
ates through public institutions including the Ministries,
Departments and Agencies as well as the Metropolitan,
Municipal and District Assemblies. Real Estate developers are
mostly of the Real Estate Companies and Estate Agencies.
Corporate Institutions include private companies and institutions
that undertake infrastructural developments. The Home Builders
are the individual home developers who directly engage the serv-
ices of contractors, artisans and tradesmen to build their homes.
Professionals or consultants regularly engaged in construction
projects are Architects, Quantity Surveyors (QS) and Engineers.
Consultants are regulated by professional bodies’institution,
namely, Ghana Institute of Architects (GIA), Ghana Institution
of Surveyors (GhIS), Ghana Institute of Construction and Ghana
Institution of Engineering (GhIE). It is expected from all profes-
sional consultants to exhibit good professional ethics in the
delivery of service to clients.
Contractors in Ghana as shown in Table 1 are grouped into
eight categories (A, B, C, S, D, K, E and G) according to the
type of works they undertake (MRH 2018; MWH 2018). These
categories are; (i) Roads, Airports and Related Structures (A); (ii)
Bridges, Culverts and other Structures (B); (iii) Labour-based
road works (C); (iv) Steel bridges and structures: construction
rehabilitation and maintenance (S); (v) General building works
(D); (vi) General civil works (K); (vii) Electrical works (E) and
(viii) Plumbing works (G). Furthermore, contractors in each cat-
egory can be further grouped into 1, 2, 3 and 4 financial classes
(Vulink 2004). Contractors belonging to building and civil engin-
eering category with the financial class 4 can tender for contracts
up to $75,000; class 3 up to $200,000; class 2 up to $500,000
while financial class 1 takes contracts of all amounts (Ministry of
Works and Housing (MWH) 2018).
The GCI is dominated by large number of small- and
medium-sized firms (financial classes 3 and 4, especially in the
categories D, E and G). This is probably due to the fact that
such firms are able to register with little equipment and capital.
The two upper classes (D1 and D2) are more organized and
hence more stable, taking on both large and small works.
However, these firms (especially the D2 firms) do not always
employ the very qualified workers. The key statutory regulatory
bodies engaged in the GCI are the Department of Factory
Inspectorates, Public Procurement Authority (PPA), Labour
Department, Environmental Protection Authority, Ghana
Standard Authority, Ghana National Fire Service, Ghana Police
Service, Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies and
Sector Ministries of these agencies. These government institu-
tions are mandated by law to perform specific duties throughout
the construction process. For instance, the Department of
Factory Inspectorate is mandated by law to provide health and
safety advice and assist both client and the principal contractor
in ensuring safety on construction site. The Public Procurement
Authority is mandated by law to monitor and ensure economic,
Figure 1. Clients in Ghanaian construction industry.
Source: The Authors
2 D. OSEI-ASIBEY ET AL.
environmental and social sustainability in procurement process
(Public Procurement Act 663, 2003) as amended by Act 914
(2016). The standard conditions of contract of the PPA mandate
the contractor to ensure safety at the construction site.
Traditional and community leaders also monitor construction
activities within their areas.
Impact of accidents and hazards on the
construction industry
Higher fatality rates for construction works around the world
have been reported, highlighting the industrial crisis due to acci-
dents (H€
am€
al€
ainen et al. 2006). During the last 20 years in the
UK, 27% of fatal and 10% of major injuries were construction
related (HSE 2015). It is reported that the larger the projects, the
safer the employees, compared with smaller or limited scope
projects (Ankrah et al. 2009; Atkinson and Westall 2010; Cheng
et al. 2012). A study based on Australian construction industry
also revealed that small and medium projects have higher risk
(i.e. 79.5%) than larger projects (i.e. 20.5%) (Dumrak et al.
2013). It is also reported that the loss of control of events at the
construction site causes accidents (Rozenfeld et al. 2010).
Accidents therefore pose a major disadvantage in the construc-
tion industry.
The highest organizational level influence towards accident is
insufficient inspection, the second highest is training and the
third is a lack of training plan (Akyuz and Celik 2014).
From construction organization’s point of view, accidents are
unexpected events and result in unplanned costs. Some accidents
may change the organizational goals or it could even make the
company uncompetitive in the industry (Asanka and Ranasinghe
2015). Drafting of contract had usually not given much attention
to safety management. Occurrences of accidents and hazards
arising from such unexpected results tend to affect and slow
down the achievement of the objectives of the contract. It may
also reduce the potential of workers and public prematurely.
Damage to properties and life may result from careless approach
to work and unprotected site conditions.
There always exists the possibility of adverse effect due to the
interactions between the work environment, the workers, equip-
ments, tools, etc. involved in the activities that establish the
sequences of events towards accidents (Manu et al. 2010).
Occupational accidents occur during work and it results in
damages and injuries. This is mostly common in the construc-
tion industry. Accidents can have very tragic social and eco-
nomic impact on companies, individuals and their families as a
whole (Elsebaei et al. 2020). Although accident figures of the
construction industry in Ghana remain unacceptably high some
achievements in health and safety have been made. Nevertheless,
the role of enabling socioeconomic, cultural, political and institu-
tional environments in health and safety management has either
been overlooked or underemphasized (Kheni 2008).
Okorie and Aigbavboa (2016) emphasized that affected con-
struction companies go into liquidation mainly because of site
accidents. This could be attributed to the litigations which could
be filed against these companies or by the compensations paid to
the family of the affected worker. DeCamp and Herskovitz
(2015) reported that further highlighting the impact of accidents
is the costs absorbed by organizations. Cost considerations
include workers’compensation, case management, the use of
paid-time-off/sick time, short- and/or long-term disability,
worker replacement costs (i.e. training of an employee to replace
the injured worker), and time and money spent investigating the
accident with follow-up corrective actions which can include pol-
icy and/or equipment change or upgrades. Elsebaei et al. (2020)
also added that the co-workers of the victim will be depressed
and not motivated to finish their assigned tasks. In addition, if
the employer did not take the appropriate action on time, work-
ers would lose trust in the company and feel betrayed and frus-
trated resulting in the social impacts of accidents on the
construction industry. Accidents and hazards could also lead dir-
ectly and indirectly to the delay of works, which constitute the
economic impacts on the construction company. Accidents cause
construction delays, cost overrun and sometimes ruin the reputa-
tion of the organization, and loss of confidence among workforce
(Wang et al. 2006) or debar contractors, suppliers and consul-
tants from tendering by government authorities (Act 663 2003).
It can cause dissatisfaction among stakeholders, financial losses
due to property damages and penalties from authorities. Even,
further, expanding upon the impact of accidents is the great
number of accidents that do not result in injuries. Asanka and
Ranasinghe (2015) suggested further studies to be done to inves-
tigate this global tragedy.
In the modern world, countries are more concerned about
accident-free workplaces (Asanka and Ranasinghe 2015). In the
global context, workplace injury rate (injuries per 100,000 work-
ers), accident frequency rate (accidents per 1 million man-
Table 1. Contractors of the Ghanaian construction industry.
Ministry in charge Association
Area of
operation Works Category
Financial
class
Amount for
financial class
Ministry of Roads
and Highways
Association of Road
Contractors (ASROC)
AND
Progressive Road
Contractors
Association (PROCA)
Road sector Roads, airports, and
related structures
A 1 Any Amount
Bridges, culverts and
other structures
B
Labour based road works C 2 Up to $500,000
Steel bridges and
structures: construction
rehabilitation and
maintenance (S);
S 3 Up to $200,000
Ministry of Works
and Housing
Association of Building and
Civil Engineering
Contractors, Ghana
(ABCECG), Association of
Ghana Industries (AGI)
AND Electrical
Installation and
Contractors Association
Building and
engineering
sector
General building works D 4 Up to $75,000
Civil engineering works K
Plumbing installation works G
Electrical installation works E
Source: The Authors
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 3
hours), accident severity rate (loss of man-days per 1 million
man-hours) and occupational deceased incidence (occupational
deceased per 100,000 workers) can be taken as important factors
to determine the effectiveness of local safety standards (Asanka
and Ranasinghe 2015).
On the Ghanaian situation, the percentage of construction
industry to the national indicators of occupational injury is 4.7%.
The accident frequency rate of the construction industry is 65
compared with national indicator of 43, a percentage of 151%
higher (GSS 2016). Again, GSS (2016) provides statistics of con-
struction indicators of occupational injury in 2015. The deceased
incidence rate recorded in Ghana is 63 in the year 2015.
However, the construction recorded 86 the same year of 2015.
The GCI recorded an increase of 137% over the national figure
indicating a very high risk of the accident in the industry. The
severity rate of the occupational injury is 418 nation -wide which
is higher than 346 recorded in GCI in the 2015. The low severity
rate of GCI compared with the national indicator may have led
to low days lost of 9 in 2015 compared with 16 in the nation
(GSS 2016).
According to the 2015 occupational injury report of GCI, the
reported accidents are only a portion of the incidents that actu-
ally happen in construction sites (GSS 2015). Some accidents
may not be reported due to various reasons, such as geographical
location, communication difficulties, governmental interference,
cultural barriers, etc. (H€
am€
al€
ainen et al. 2006).
In Ghana, the Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations
employs 97 safety inspectors, which equals one inspector per
136,371 workers (GSS 2020), compared with ILO recommenda-
tion of one inspector per 40,000 workers in less developed coun-
tries (ILO 2006).
Labour inspectors are usually criticised for being insufficient
to enforce compliance, poorly trained and lacking resources to
respond to violations effectively (US, 2018). The US Department
of State Report (2018), stated that penalties were insufficient to
enforce compliance.
Research methodology
In examining the impacts of accidents and hazards on the GCI,
the qualitative research strategy was adopted, and the research
instrument used was in-depth face to face interviews. The inter-
view guide was structured into two sections. The first section
gathered some background information on the respondents while
the second section sought the views of the respondents on the
impacts of accidents and hazards on the GCI.
Participants for the interview were seven each of Contractors
and Consultants. The two stakeholder groups were selected due
to their exceptional relevance to the issue under study in the
Construction Industry. Data saturation principle was used in
limiting the number of each stakeholder group to 7. Data satur-
ation used in this sense refers to a point at which further inter-
views yielded no new or additional insights regarding the
research questions posed (Sandelowski and Barroso 2007;
Saunders et al. 2009; Eyiah et al. 2019). This means that the
number of interviews progressed up to a point where no add-
itional/new insights to the research objectives were obtained
from the study participants (Eyiah et al. 2019). Since the
Contractor group is considered as the fulcrum around which all
other stakeholders revolve, the saturation point for contractors of
seven was used to select the number of participants from the
Consultants.
The professionals working with Contractors in the class and
categories D1K1 and A1B1 with at least 5 years working experi-
ence were selected due to the fact that these are the large and
experienced construction firms which are likely to make the
effort to comply with health and safety requirements. Similarly,
the professionals working with the Consulting firms belonging to
professional bodies such as Ghana Institute of Architects (GIA),
Ghana Institution of Engineering (GhIE) and Ghana Institution
of Surveyors (GhIS) with at least 5 years working experience
were selected. In purposively selecting participants, the criteria
for the various research participants outlined in Table 2 were
used. The selected interviewees were therefore experienced in the
GCI and their views were reliable and credible.
The selection of interview participants was based on a pur-
posive sampling technique for all categories of participants. This
sampling approach was adopted in order to have in-depth infor-
mation on the phenomenon under study. Purposive sampling
was adopted also to ensure that persons familiar with the princi-
ples and management of CHS were interviewed. In all, fourteen
(14) participants were involved in the interview (Table 3). The
interviewees were selected from the Greater Accra and Ashanti
regions in Ghana. These are the two biggest regions for the loca-
tion of most of the biggest infrastructure development in Ghana,
therefore home to majority of the D1K1and A1B1 contractors as
well as the reputable consultants. The opinions gathered from
these regions can therefore be fairly generalized for the whole
country. The interviewees responded to questions in relation to
ways in which construction accidents and hazards could impact
the contractor, the construction worker, the project, the GCI and
the economy as a whole. The participants were taken through a
Table 2. Criteria for group participants in interview.
Group participants Number Criteria
Contractors (D1K1; A1B1) 7 The contractor must belong to the D1K1 (the General Building and Civil Engineering category in
Financial Class 1) or A1B1 (Road and Concrete Structures Construction category in Financial
Class 1) class of contractors in Ghana.
The contractor must have a well-established health and safety management system where there
are good accidents and hazards records procedures, safety kits, health and safety policy and
plan for projects.
The contractor must have at least 5years experience and engaged in construction projects in
two or more regions in Ghana.
Consultants 7 The consultants must have had adequate knowledge and been trained in the area of health
and safety management. The professionals must belong to a professional body such as
Ghana Institute of Architects (GIA), Ghana Institution of Engineering (GhIE), Ghana Institution
of Surveyors (GhIS) etc.
The consultant must have at least 5 years working experience and engaged in construction
projects in two or more regions in Ghana
Total 14
Source: The Authors
4 D. OSEI-ASIBEY ET AL.
well-focused interview using semi-structured open-ended ques-
tions. This provided participants the opportunity to elaborate
more on the subject matter being discussed. Prior to the fixing
of interview date, the open-ended questions were sent to all
interviewees. To allow for convenience of the interviewees, the
interview session took place in the offices of the interviewees,
except for certain interviewees without offices where the inter-
views took place in the comfort of their residence or other con-
venient places.
On the average, the interview section took between 45 and
60 min per participant. All but five interviewees were recorded by
means of an audio recorder. The five interviewees who were not
recorded, indicated that they would not be allowed to be recorded
by means of an audio recorder. Their responses were then directly
hand-written and later confirmed by them. The audio recordings
of majority of the interviews were done to ensure the accuracy of
notes taken from the field and more also to provide more rendi-
tion of an interview. The audio recordings were then transcribed
by creating a verbatim text of each interview. The qualitative data
were later analyzed using content analysis technique. Content ana-
lysis seeks to identify the main facets of a set of data by counting
the number of times an activity or theme occurs (Fellows and Liu
2015). The first step in content analysis is the identification of the
data or material to be analyzed. The second step is to identify the
content technique to employ.
The interview transcripts were analyzed by re-reading the
transcripts to identify the themes that emerged from the inter-
view participants’answers. The themes were summarized in
Tables and the number of times it was mentioned by
Participants was tallied. There was re-grouping on similar and
closed responses. Each of the seven respondents in each of the
identified organizations was given an identification code: an
alphabet for the organization and a number from one to seven
for the respondent. The first respondent of the Contractors for
example, was identified as CA1, the second respondent as CA2
and so on. The Pareto Chart was used to identify the most crit-
ical of the impacts of accidents and hazards on the GCI
for redress.
Results and discussion
The interviewees responded to questions in relation to impacts
of accidents and hazards on the GCI. From the content analysis,
five impacts emanated from the responses from all the interview-
ees in the two groups as shown in Table 4: (1) Slow-down of
Work; (2) Increase Cost of Project; (3) Create Fear in Workers;
(4) Increase impairment in Workers and (5) Poor Performance
of Work.
Contractors’perspective on impacts of construction
accidents and hazards on GCI
The seven interviewees were asked about the impacts of con-
struction accidents on their operation or projects. Four
responses out of the five were given by the seven interviewees
as shown in Table 4: (1) Slow-down of Work; (2) Increase Cost
of Project; (3) Create Fear in Workers; (4) Increase impairment
in Workers;
The ‘Slow-down of works’was given by six interviewees.
CR1 stated that,
Fatal and non-fatal accidents affect workers ability to work, it, in fact,
reduces their strength and ability. When a worker gets injured the time
consumed in replacing such an artisan or labourer delays the
construction process and the progress of works.
CR4 indicated that:
The slow-down of work through accidents and hazards usually disrupt
work schedule. A failure of a worker to attend to work affects the
program schedule works.Work schedule in construction is crucial and
if a worker is injured and therefore cannot perform his assigned duty it
affects the program schedule and slow down the work.
the disruption of work schedule becomes serious when the activity of
the injured worker is on the critical path of operations (CR2).
CR6 pointed out that:
slow-down of work generally increases the cost of construction to the
contractor.The slow-down effect may increase the project cost to the
client and the economy of the nation as a whole. It indirectly affects
everyone eventually (CR6).
Table 3. Details of interviewees.
Code Background Group Years of Experience Region
CR 1 Project Manager Contractor (A1B1) 12 years Greater Accra
CR 2 Site Engineer Contractor (A1B1) 15years Greater Accra
CR 3 Project Manager Contractor (A1B1) 13 years Greater Accra
CR 4 Architect Contractor (DIKI) 8years Ashanti Region
CR 5 Building Technologist Contractor (DIKI) 14years Ashanti Region
CR 6 Building Technologist Contractor (DIKI) 12years Ashanti Region
CR 7 Civil Engineer Contractor (A1B1) 17years Ashanti Region
CT 1 Architect Consultants (GIA) 9years Greater Accra
CT 2 Structural Engineer Consultants (GhIE) 13 years Greater Accra
CT 3 Architect Consultants (GIA) 12 years Greater Accra
CT 4 Architect Consultants (GIA, GIOC) 15 years Ashanti Region
CT 5 Quantity Surveyor Consultants (GhIS, GIOC) 13 years Ashanti Region
CT 6 Quantity Surveyor Consultants (GhIS) 12 years Greater Accra
CT 7 Civil Engineer Consultants (GhIE) 10 years Ashanti Region
Table 4. Impact assessment of construction health and safety.
Grade Factors Contractors (7No) (CR1-CR7) Consultants (7No) (CT1-CT7) Total (14)
A1 Slow-down of work 6 5 11
A2 Increase cost of project 3 7 10
A3 Create fear in workers 4 –4
A4 Increase impairment in workers 3 –3
A5 Poor performance of work –77
Total 35
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 5
Four of the interviewees mentioned creation of fear in workers
as another impact of construction accidents and hazards. This
response relates to the psychological effects of accidents on
workers, especially the victims. Some of the responses were
as follows:
there is no doubt that accidents create fear in workers and therefore
reduce the productivity level of the workers (CR5).
accident makes co-workers afraid to do similar work activity which
resulted in the accident of a fellow worker on site.Even when they are
persuaded to work, it ends in a poor quality of the work (CR3).
CR2 stated that:
if the victim recovers from an injury, it is likely the worker would be
emotionally paralyzed and traumatized, this could affect the
competency of such worker. Usually, when a worker is injured, he
becomes mentally handicapped especially when the worker returns to
the former operations which got him injured.
In his concluding remarks, CR7 was emphatic in express-
ing that:
we spend all our margin of profit in taking care of the victims,
especially when they paralyzed. We are not able to grow our businesses
when there is accident or hazards during construction. We wish it
never happens
The fear in workers, resulting from injury affect the physical
strength of construction workers, increased their impairment
and financial status. The impact includes the slow-down of the
productivity of the labour, slow-down of the construction
works, increase cost of construction project to the client, delays
construction progress of work and increase cost of construction
to the contractor. Other impact of accident and hazard at con-
struction site from the contractor’s perspective, are slow growth
of the business of Contractors, GCI and the economy as
awhole.
Perspective of consultants on impacts of construction
accidents and hazards on the GCI
The seven interviewees were asked about the impacts of con-
struction accidents on construction operations in the GCI. The
responses presented in Table 4 show that the Consultants agreed
with the contractors on the two main impacts of construction
accidents and hazards on the GCI; Slow-down of work and
increase cost of project. The Consultants however mentioned
poor performance of work as another impact of construction
accidents and hazards on GCI which was not mentioned by the
contractor interviewees.
In respect of the slow-down of work, all the interviewees
agreed on the opinion. Some responses were as follows:
in most cases, health and safety provisions forms part of the conditions
of contract, contractor adds the cost of preventing construction
accidents and hazards to the cost of the project. So, whether there is
accident or not cost has already been incurred as far as the execution
of the work is concerned (CT5).
The effects of accidents are either death or injury. These effects may
prevent victims from working. The absence from work by a worker
slows down the work (CT7).
The progress of the work is affected when there is no readily available
replacement of the lost worker. It may take time to replace and even
prevent certain works to be done until the suitable replacement has
been found (CT4).
Some responses by the consultants on the increased cost of
project as impact of construction accidents and hazards were
as follows:
through delays caused by accidents and hazards at the construction
site, the completion period of the project may be extended. This
extension of time which are normally allowed in the practice of the
construction industry for the contractor to be paid all associated cost
such as provision of security, welfare facilities etc. add up to the cost of
the employer (CT3).
In fact,the costs of investigating accidents on site as well as the
compensations given to victims are often included in the final contract
sum and eventually increases the total cost of project (CT1).
when a worker is injured and cannot resume work, he must be
replaced by a new worker. Sometimes getting a replacement of a more
experienced injured worker takes a very long time. In some cases, to
perform the same work, the new worker must be trained for a period.
All these bring in additional cost to the contractor (CT6).
The last major impact of accidents and hazards mentioned by
the consultant interviewees is poor performance of work. Some of
the responses were as follows:
there is always poor attitude of workers towards the performance of
work when there is accident and or hazards at the construction site.
The workers become reluctant to work, provide poor workmanship, and
even sometimes refuse to work. (CT2).
accidents affect the workers and changes their good attitude to work to
bad attitude. The bad attitude of workers reflects in shoddy work which
most often leads to double or repetition of work and therefore cost
either to the contractor or the client (CT1)
It can be concluded from the responses of the consultants
that absence of a worker from work slows down work, results in
poor performance of the contractor and eventually increase the
cost of work to the contractor and the employer.
It was surprising that Contractors did not recognized the
impact of accidents and hazards on poor performance of work
or poor quality of work. This might be due to Contractors usu-
ally focusing on making profit rather than the quality of work.
Discussion of results
In the opinion of the Contractors and the Consultants inter-
viewed, five factors have impacts on the GCI. The results in
Table 4 show the five impacts of construction accidents and haz-
ards on the GCI. A Pareto plot (Figure 2) was used to rank the
major impacts of accidents and hazards, and for selecting the
critical ones for remedying. The three major impacts of accidents
and hazards that are critical for remedying were identified in
Figure 3 as: Slow-down of work (A1); Increase Cost of works (A2)
and Poor performance of work (A5). These critical impacts
accounted for 31.43%, 28.57% and 20% respectively, of all the
factors identified by the interviewees.
Slow-down of work
The first major impact of construction accidents and hazards
according to the pareto chart is slow-down of work coded as A1
in Figure 2. Work schedule in construction projects is essential
as most construction projects are time bound. The effect of
slow-down of work is specified under Clause 49 and the
Standard Conditions of Contract (C. of C.) of the Public
Procurement Authority (PPA) [the contract document used in
public procurement of works in Ghana]. The clause 49 is cap-
tioned as Liquidated Damages and provides that;
The Contractor shall pay liquidated damages to the Employer at the
rate per day stated in the Contract Data for each day that the
Completion Date is later than the Intended Completion Date. The total
amount of liquidated damages shall not exceed the amount defined in
the Contract Data. The Employer may deduct liquidated damages from
6 D. OSEI-ASIBEY ET AL.
payments due to the Contractor. Payment of liquidated damages shall
not affect the Contractor’s liabilities.
The rate per day of liquidated damages stated in the Contract
Data are usually set between 0.05% and 0.10% per day, and the
total amount is between 5% and 10% of the delayed portion of
the works.
Since the Employer deducts the liquidated damages from the
payments due to the contractor, the profit margin of the contrac-
tor is usually reduced by the application of liquidated damages.
The application of liquidated damages arises when the com-
pletion date set in the contract is not achieved by the Contractor
due to reasons that are within the Contractor’s control. When
the expected output of the worker is reduced resulting from the
accidents and hazards, the intended completion date set by the
contractor will certainly not be achieved. This is in agreement
with Wang et al. (2006) where it was reported that accidents
cause construction delays, cost overrun and sometimes ruin the
reputation of the organization, and loss of confidence among
workforce. Clause 16 of the C. of C. of the PPA states that The
Contractor shall construct and install the Works in accordance
with the Specifications and Drawings. The Contractor, under the
contract with the Employer, is bound to perform his duties by
providing quality work and cannot afford to perform the duties
in delayed mood without suffering from it.
It is often said that liquidated damages clauses must be con-
strued contra proferentem, that is, strictly against the person
relying on the clause and indeed, this is the general position as
was made clear by Salmon LJ in Peak Construction (Liverpool)
Ltd v. McKinney Foundations Ltd (1970) and quoted in Vincent
Powell-Smith v. John Sims (1985).
In Peak Construction (Liverpool) Ltd v. McKinney
Foundations Ltd (1970), His Lordship stated that The liquidated
damages clause contemplates a failure to complete on time due to
the fault of the contractor. It is inserted by the employer for his
own protection; for it enables him to recover a fixed sum as com-
pensation for delay instead of facing the difficulty and expense of
proving the actual damage which the delay may have caused him.
Lord Fraser in Percy Bilton Ltd v. Greater London Council
(1982)has summarized the principle and stated that The general
rule is that the main contractor is bound to complete the work by
the date for completion stated in the contract. If he fails to do so,
he will be liable for liquidated damages to the employer.
Contractors are likely to lose sums of money when accidents
and hazards slow down the performance of the contractor to the
extent that the intended completion date is not achieved. This is
in agreement with Asanka and Ranasinghe (2015) who reported
that some accidents may change the organizational goals or it
could even make the company uncompetitive in the industry.
The delay in completion of works as scheduled also has other
related impacts including the delay or abandonment of other
projects from the same client. In some cases, the project may be
suspended or abandoned due to lack of funding for
its completion.
The Courts in Ghana has stated in Deshina Building Works
Ltd. v. Buah [1980] GLR 390 that, where the cause of delay is
also from the employer, then the contractor is relieved of his
obligation. The Court held that ‘In a building contract, even
where time for completion was agreed upon and there could
therefore be no doubt that time was of the essence to the con-
tract, the contractor was relieved of his obligation to complete
the works within the stipulated time if, as happened in the
instant case, completion was made impossible by delay caused by
the employer, i.e. the owner of the building. The delay caused
whittled away the notion of time being of the essence’.
Beyond the provisions made in the contract document for the
consequence of delay of works, no other legal provisions are
Figure 2. Impact assessment of construction health and safety.
Legend: A1: Slow-down of work; A2: Increase Cost of works; A5: Poor Performance of Work A3: Creation of Fear in Workers; A4: Increased impairment in Construction Workers
Figure 3. Impacts of accidents and hazards.
Source: The Authors
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 7
made in the laws of Ghana. Both the laws in force and case laws
do not make provision to deal with the effect of accident and
hazards, especially on slowing down the work and its
related issues.
Increase cost of project
The second major impact of construction accidents and hazards
is increase cost of project coded as A2 in Figure 2. Clause 44.1 of
the C. of C. of the PPA provides Compensation Events to
include the occurrences of events that are likely to cause add-
itional cost to the original cost of the project due to instructions,
delays from the consultants, public authorities, other contractors
or directly by the employer or effects on the contractor of any
employer’s risk under the contract. Under clause 11 of the C. of
C. of the PPA, the following are the employer’s risk:
11.1 From the Start Date until Defects Correction Certificate has been
issued, the following are Employer’s risk:
a. The risk of personal injury, death, or loss of or damage to
property (excluding the Works, Plant, Materials, and
Equipment), which are due to
i. use or occupation of the site by the Works or for the
purpose of the Works, which is the unavoidable result of
the Works or
ii. negligence, breach of statutory duty, or interference with
any legal right by the Employer or by any person
employed by or contracted to him except the Contractor.
b. The risk of damage to the Works, Plant, materials and
Equipment to the extent that it is due to a fault of the
Employer or in the Employer’s design, or due to war or radio-
active contamination directly affecting the country where the
Works are to be executed.
11.2 From the Completion Date until the Defects Correction Certificate
has been issued, the risk of loss of or damage to the Works, Plant and
Materials is an Employer’s risk except loss or damage due to
a. a Defect which existed on the Completion Date,
b. an event occurring before the Completion Date, which was
not itself an Employer’s risk, or
c. the activities of the Contractor on the Site after the
Completion Date.
Under the same C. of C. of the PPA, Clause 12 also defines
the Contractor’s risk as follows:
12.1 From the Starting Date until the Defects Correction
Certificate has been issued, the risks of personal injury, death and
loss of or damage to property (including, without limitation, the
Works, Plant, Materials and Equipment) which are not
Employer’s risks are Contractor’s risks. In spite of the
Contractor’s risks as stated above, the Contractor is required to
provide in the joint names of the Employer and the Contractor,
insurance to cover from the Start Date to the end of the Defects
Liability Period, for events which are due to the Contractor’s
risks: (a) loss of or damage to the Works, Plant and Materials;
(b) loss of or damage to Equipment; (c) loss of or damage to
property (except the Works, Plant, Materials and Equipment) in
connection with the Contract; (d) personal injury or death.
It has however been stated clearly under clause 19.1 of the C.
of C. of the PPA that:
The contractor shall be responsible for the safety of all activ-
ities on the site.
In clause 28.1 of C of C of PPA also provides that The Project
Manager shall extend the Intended Completion Date if a
Compensation Event occurs or a Variation is issued which makes
it impossible for Completion to be achieved by the Intended
Completion Date without the Contractor taking steps to accelerate
the remaining work, which would cause the Contractor to incur
additional cost.
The occurrence of accidents and hazards may be an accept-
able reason for grant of extension of time to the contractor.
When the intended completion date is extended, the resulting
effect on cost of the project are borne by the employer
According to Eggleston (1997, p.162) A contractor is under a
strict duty to complete on time except to the extent that he is pre-
vented from doing so by the employer or is given relief by the
express provisions of the contract. The effect of extending time is
to maintain the contractor’s obligation to complete within a
defined time and failure by the contractor to do so leaves him
liable to damages, either liquidated or general, according to the
terms of the contract. In the absence of extension provisions, time
is put at large by prevention and the contractor’s obligation is to
complete within a reasonable time. The contractor’s liability can
then only be for general damages but first it must be proved that
he has failed to complete within a reasonable time.
Extension of time clauses, therefore, have various purposes:
i. To retain a defined time for completion;
ii. To preserve the employer’s right to liquidated damages
against acts of prevention;
iii. To give the contractor relief from his strict duty to complete
on time in respect of delays caused by designated neu-
tral events.
It is, of course, a common belief in the construction industry
that extensions of time are solely for the benefit of the contractor.
At face value by giving the contractor more time to complete the
works and by reducing his liability for liquidated damages they do
appear to be one-sided. This view is reinforced by the drafting of
extension clauses which require the contractor’s traditional linkage
of extensions of time with claims for loss and expense or extra
cost. There seems to be little in all this for the employer.
In Fairweather v. Wandsworth (1987), Judge Fox-Andrews
stated that obtaining an extension of time is not a condition pre-
cedent to recovering loss and expense. The Judge was however
quick to observe as cited by Eggleston (1997, p. 173) that;
‘… …Neither this part of the judgment nor the terms of the contract
itself point to an extension of time under condition 23(f) being a
condition precedent to recovery of direct loss and expense under
condition 24(1)(a). However, the practical effect ordinarily will be that
if the architect has refused an extension under the former, the
contractor is unlikely to be successful with the architect on an
application under condition 24(1)(a)’
In summary, the effect of construction accidents and hazards
may increase the cost of the project through the direct cost to
the employer or losses and expenses that the contractor is likely
to incur. Okorie and Aigbavboa (2016) emphasised that affected
construction companies go into liquidation mainly because of
site accidents. This could be attributed to the litigations which
could be filed against these companies or by the compensations
paid to the family of the affected worker.
The delays arising from accidents and hazards, cost of com-
pensation to victims and cost of investigations may all be part of
the final cost of the project. Employers therefore may not be
able to provide more infrastructure if accidents and hazards
8 D. OSEI-ASIBEY ET AL.
continue to occur at the construction site, affecting the whole
Ghanaian economy.
The cost of the project will not affect the employer alone but
also the contractor. Where it is necessary to replace the victim
with an experienced person, the cost of training another person
to replace the deceased or injured worker is the contractor’s cost.
Again, the cost of taking care of the victim if not borne by the
Employer, is cost to the contractor. DeCamp and Herskovitz
(2015) reported that the impact of accidents is the costs absorbed
by organizations. Cost considerations include workers’compen-
sation case management, the use of paid-time-off/sick time,
short- and/or long-term disability, worker replacement costs (i.e.
training of an employee to replace the injured worker), and time
and money spent investigating the accident with follow-up cor-
rective actions which can include policy and/or equipment
change or upgrades.
In the event where the accidents and hazards are due to the
contractor’s negligence, breach of statutory duty or any other
tortious liability, the extension of time may not be granted. As
Judge Fox-Andrews said in Fairweather v. Wandsworth (1987),
the consultant may not approve for the employer to bear the
cost involved. Even when the extension of time is granted some
loss and expenses may be borne by the contractor. In effect,
when accidents and hazards occur, they result in increase in cost
to both the contractor and the client.
The increase in cost of the project therefore is likely to affect
the GDP of the construction industry and the country as
a whole.
Poor performance of work
The third major impact of accidents and hazards (Figure 2)is
poor performance of work coded as A5. Poor performance of
work was acknowledged by only Consultant interviewees as an
impact of accidents and hazards. This opinion of the interview-
ees was due to the direct effect of accidents and hazards on the
works. Accidents and hazards affect the construction workers
morally, physically, emotionally and socially. The silence of the
contractor interviewees on this impact might be due to the fact
that their focus is on profit making instead of the welfare and
progress of the work. Accidents and hazards may result in phys-
ical and psychological weakness of the worker to give off max-
imum output.
It is the responsibility of the contractor to produce quality
work in accordance with the specification and instruction of the
consultant, but accidents and hazards can prevent the contractor
from achieving this goal of the contract. It is the responsibility
of the consultant to ensure quality control of the works under
the conditions of contract of the PPA, by checking the contrac-
tor’s work and notifying him of any defects that are found for
remedying Accidents and hazards may result in a visual cycle of
quality assurance of work as follows: the accident and hazards
affect the worker, the worker’s performance is reduced, the con-
tractor’s work begins to show defects, the consultant notifies the
contractor of the defect and contractor remedies the defect, the
cost of work increases against the profit of the contractor;
another accident and hazard occur and the cycle continues. Until
stakeholders become interested in effective implementation of
CHS to reduce accidents and hazards, this visual cycle of acci-
dents and hazards will continue to affect the growth of contrac-
tor, the GCI and the economy of the country as a whole.
Accidents and hazards involving a worker or a colleague
worker puts fear in the worker and reduces his effectiveness.
Accidents can have very tragic social and economic impact on
companies, individuals and their families as a whole (Elsebaei
et al. 2020).
Conclusion and recommendations
This paper focused on exploring the impacts of accidents and
hazards on the GCI. It gave a brief overview of the GCI, its
stakeholders, and impacts of accidents and hazards on the con-
struction industry. Based on the data collected through qualita-
tive interviews, the three most critical impacts of accidents and
hazards in the GCI were identified as slow-down of work,
increase in cost of project and poor performance of work. Other
impacts identified as minor were, the creation of fear in the con-
struction workers, and increased impairment in the construction
workers. The three most critical impacts affect infrastructure
delivery of the nation and its GDP, profitability of the contrac-
tor, and the cost of the project to the client. The findings of the
study therefore provide knowledge on the impacts of accidents
and hazards to stakeholders of the GCI and the government in
general. Serious steps should therefore be taken by stakeholders
to enforce CHS practices on construction sites to reduce the
high frequency rate of accidents and injuries and the high inci-
dence rate in the GCI. Construction Workers must be trained
and educated on improvement of CHS practices and the impact
of accidents and hazards on the GCI. The courts must be
encouraged to impose fair and adequate compensation on
employers and occasionally punitive or exemplary damages to
deter and prevent the occurrence of accidents and hazards at
construction sites. Government is encouraged to strategically
provide support to the GCI with respect to provision of training
and education on CHS to save the GCI and the national econ-
omy. Given the serious health risks to construction professionals,
construction workers, users of the constructed facility and the
general public, and the effect on productivity and the economy
in general, CHS-related issues have to be given the needed
research and academic attention in order to reduce accidents
and hazards on sites. Although the study was limited to the GCI,
knowledge gained could be extended to other developing coun-
tries, with similar construction industry like Ghana.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
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