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Pharmacognosy Journal, Vol 11, Issue 6(Suppl), Nov-Dec, 2019
1
Original Article
Pharmacogn J. 2019; 11(6)Suppl:
A Multifaceted Journal in the eld of Natural Products and Pharmacognosy
www.phcogj.com
Cite this article: Mans DRA, Djotaroeno M, Friperson P, Pawirodihardjo J. Phytochemical
and Pharmacological Support for the Traditional Uses of Zingiberacea Species in Suriname - A
Review of the Literature. Pharmacog J. 2019;11(6)Suppl:
Phcogj.com
Phytochemical and Pharmacological Support for the Traditional
Uses of Zingiberacea Species in Suriname - A Review of the
Literature
Dennis RA Mans*, Meryll Djotaroeno, Priscilla Friperson, Jennifer Pawirodihardjo
INTRODUCTION
e plant family Zingiberaceae or ginger family
includes about 50 genera and roughly 1,600 known
species of owering perennial plants that are
distributed throughout tropical Africa, Asia, and the
Americas.1 e highest diversity is encountered in
south-eastern Asia, and the greatest concentration
in the north-eastern region of India with 19 genera
and 88 species.1 e majority of the Zingiberacea
members grows in humid and shady places.1 Most
are small to large herbaceous plants with distichous
leaves having basal sheaths that overlap to form a
pseudostem.1 ey are characterized by aromatic
and creeping horizontal or tuberous rhizomes,
hermaphroditic owers consisting of a single
functional stamen (the pollen-producing part of
the ower) that runs through the pistil (the ovule-
producing part of the ower), and petals that are
sterile stamina called staminodes.1
Many members of the Zingiberaceae are
economically important as spices, ornamental
plants, cosmetics, traditional medicines, and/or
ingredients of religious rituals. e seeds from
the genera Amomum Roxb. and Elettaria Maton
give the spice cardamom, the world’s third-most
expensive spice in price per weight aer vanilla and
saron.2 e rhizomes from the ai ginger Alpinia
galanga (L.) Willd., the turmeric Curcuma longa L.,
and the common ginger Zingiber ocinale Roscoe
are well-known spices, condiments, and avoring
compounds.3 And the leaves and owers from C.
longa, the grains of paradise Aframomum melegueta
K. Schum., the white ginger Hedychium coronarium
J. Koenig, and the east-Indian galangal Kaempferia
galanga L. are consumed as vegetables and used as
key ingredients of spicy savory dishes and/or herbal
teas.3
Various species in the genera Alpinia Roxb., 1810,
Curcuma L., Globba L., Hedychium J. Koenig,
Kaempferia L., and Renealmia L.f. have visually
attractive owers and inorescences and are
cultivated as ornamentals.3 e rhizomes from many
species in the genera Alpinia Roxb., 1810, Curcuma
L., Hedychium J. Koenig, and Zingiber Mill., 1754
contain essential oils for producing soaps, cosmetics,
and perfumes.3 In addition, a number of ginger
species are medicinally used in various traditional
systems throughout the world. Examples are A.
melegueta, C. longa, and Z. ocinale, preparations
of which are used for treating many diseases
ranging from infectious diseases and inammatory
conditions to hypertension and diabetes mellitus.4
Parts from A. melegueta, C. longa, and R. alpinia are
also used in religious ceremonies.3
is paper rst presents some general information
about the Zingiberacea family, subsequently provides
some background on Suriname, then extensively
addresses the traditional uses of one representative
species of the seven Zingiberacea genera in the
ABSTRACT
The Zingiberacea or ginger family is a family of flowering plants comprising roughly 1,600
species of aromatic perennial herbs with creeping horizontal or tuberous rhizomes divided
into about 50 genera. The Zingiberaceae are distributed throughout tropical Africa, Asia, and
the Americas. Many members are economically important as spices, ornamentals, cosmetics,
traditional medicines, and/or ingredients of religious rituals. One of the most prominent
characteristics of this plant family is the presence of essential oils in particularly the rhizomes
but in some cases also the leaves and other parts of the plant. The essential oils are in general
made up of a variety of, among others, terpenoid and phenolic compounds with important
biological activities. The Republic of Suriname (South America) is well-known for its ethnic and
cultural diversity as well as its extensive ethnopharmacological knowledge and unique plant
biodiversity. This paper first presents some general information on the Zingiberacea family,
subsequently provides some background about Suriname and the Zingiberacea species in the
country, then extensively addresses the traditional uses of one representative of the seven
genera in the country and provides the phytochemical and pharmacological support for these
uses, and concludes with a critical appraisal of the medicinal values of these plants.
Key words: Zingiberaceae, Suriname, Traditional uses, Rationale, Phytochemical composition,
Pharmacological activity.
Dennis RA Mans*, Meryll
Djotaroeno, Priscilla Friperson,
Jennifer Pawirodihardjo
Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of
Medical Sciences, Anton de Kom University of
Suriname, Paramaribo, SURINAME.
Correspondence
Dennis RA Mans
Department of Pharmacology, Faculty
of Medical Sciences, Anton de Kom
University of Suriname, Kernkampweg 6,
Paramaribo, SURINAME.
Phone no: 597 441071;
E-mail: dennismans16@gmail.com
History
• Submission Date: 01-10-2019;
• Review completed: 13-10-2019;
• Accepted Date: 14-10-2019.
DOI : 10.5530/pj.2019.11.
Article Available online
http://www.phcogj.com/v11/i6s
Copyright
© 2019 Phcogj.Com. This is an open-
access article distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International license.
2
Mans, et al.: Phytochemical and Pharmacological Support for the Traditional Uses of Zingiberacea Species in Suriname - A Review of the Literature
Pharmacognosy Journal, Vol 11, Issue 6(Suppl), Nov-Dec, 2019
country as well as the phytochemical and pharmacological support for
these uses, and concludes with a critical appraisal of the medicinal value
of these plants.
BACKGROUND
General aspects of Suriname
e Republic of Suriname is located on the north-east coast of South
America between French Guiana and Guyana and borders the Atlantic
Ocean to the north and Brazil to the south. It is the smallest and least
populated country in South America, occupying a land area of roughly
165,000 km2 and harboring an estimated 590,000 inhabitants.5 Roughly
80% of the population lives in the relatively narrow northern coastal
zone while the remaining 20% populates the savannas and hinterlands
in the interior of the country.5 Suriname’s most important economic
means of support are crude oil drilling, gold mining, agriculture,
sheries, forestry, and ecotourism.6 ese activities have substantially
contributed to the gross domestic income in 2017 of USD 2,996 billion
and the average per capita income in that year of USD 5,150. 6 is
positions Suriname on the World Bank’s list of upper-middle income
economies.7
Despite its relatively small population, Suriname is one of the ethnically,
religiously, culturally, and linguistically most diverse countries in
the world.5 In addition to the original inhabitants, the Indigenous
Amerindians, the country is home to the descendants from enslaved
Africans from various African countries called Maroons, those of
mixed black and white origin called Creoles; the descendants from
indentured laborers from China, India (called Hindustanis), and the
Indonesian island of Java (called Javanese), as well as those from several
European and Middle Eastern countries.5 More recently, individuals
from a number of Latin American and Caribbean countries including
Brazil, Guyana, French Guiana, the Netherlands Antilles, Haiti, Cuba,
and Venezuela have settled in Suriname.5
Traditional medicine in Suriname
e various ethnic groups in Suriname have largely preserved their
culture and identity, still practicing their original religion and speaking
their original language in addition to Dutch (the ocial language) and
Surinamese or Sranan Tongo.5,8 e same holds true for their specic
perceptions of health and disease, ethnopharmacological traditions,
and traditional medical concepts.8 is was probably partially due to
the divide-and-conquer policy of the colonial government which kept
the several groups isolated, and partially to the desire of each ethnic
group to adhere to its particular customs as a means of strengthening
the own identity in the new and unfamiliar environment of Suriname.8
Important factors which helped preserve the various traditional
medical systems were the extensive botanical knowledge of the
newcomers and their previous acquaintance with useful plants. Indeed,
the newcomers readily recognized many edible and medicinal plants
in Suriname because these plants, along with numerous commodities,
people, animals, and diseases had been transferred from the Old World
(Europe, Asia, and Africa) to the New World (the Americas) and vice
versa during the Columbian Exchange in the 15th and 16th centuries.9
A few of many examples of such plants were maize (Zea mays L.
(Poaceae)), cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz (Euphorbiaceae)),
okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench (Malvaceae)), and sesame
(Sesamum indicum L. (Pedaliaceae)).9 Z. mays and M. esculenta were
native to South America and had been introduced in Africa in the
16th century, while A. esculentus and S. indicum had been brought to
Suriname from Africa.9
Furthermore, the enslaved African and Asian indentured laborers
cultivated several food crops and medicinal plants from leovers
of the meals they were given during the trans-Atlantic journey.8 A
well-established example is the African rice Oryza glaberrima Steud.
(Poaceae) that has probably been introduced in Suriname by enslaved
African women who prepared meals on the slave ships and intentionally
collected rice seeds.10 e new arrivals also grew useful plants from plant
parts they had brought along from their home country to Suriname
to prepare their specic foods, traditional medicines, cosmetics, and
ritual artefacts.8 A few examples are the tamarind Tamarindus indica
L. (Fabaceae), the milkvetch or huáng qí Astragalus propinquus
Schischkin (Fabaceae), the neem plant Azadirachta indica A. Juss.,
1830 (Meliaceae), and the cat’s whiskers or kumis kutying Orthosiphon
stamineus Bold. (Lamiaceae).11 ese plants are important in African
traditional medicine, Chinese traditional medicine, Indian Ayurveda,
and Javanese Jamu, respectively.11
Zingiberaceae species in Suriname
In addition to the above-mentioned plant species and many others,
several members of the Zingiberaceae family have been introduced
into Suriname.12-15 ey are commonly used for preparing condiments
and so drinks, as spices in food, for medicinal purposes, and in ritual
practices.12-15 A. melegueta and H. coronarium, for instance, originate
from Africa where they had considerable economic and medicinal
signicance, and have probably been brought to Suriname and
popularized in the country by enslaved Africans and their descendants.
16 C. longa and H. coronarium are important plants in Indian Ayurveda
and are associated with Hindustani indentured workers and their
children17, and A. alpinia as well as K. galanga presumably originate
from Indonesia, where they have been for centuries important plants
in Jawa traditional medical and cultural practices.14 Not surprisingly,
particularly the Surinamese Javanese abundantly use Zingiberacea
species in health supplements known as jamus.14
Only 7 of the 50 genera of the Zingiberaceae plant family are present
in Suriname. ese include the genera Aframomum, Alpinia, Curcuma,
Hedychium, Kaempferia, Renealmia, and Zingiber. Table 1 shows
a representative species of each genus that is commonly used in the
country. Hereunder, the various applications of these plants including
their traditional medical uses are in detail addressed, and the scientic
support for these uses is provided on the basis of available phytochemical
and pharmacological information.
Aframomum melegueta K. Schum.
e grains of paradise or Guinea pepper A. melegueta is native to the
western African coast but is now cultivated in most African countries as
well as parts of South America and the Caribbean including Suriname.
e plant bears trumpet-shaped, purple owers which develop into
pods of 5 to 7 centimeters long (Figure 1) that contain many small,
reddish-brown seeds. Between the 16th and the 19th century, the sharp-
tasting seeds were in high demand in Europe as an alternative for the
relatively expensive black pepper Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae) from
Asia. e thriving trade of A. melegueta seeds in that period is reected
by the name ‘Pepper Coast’ or ‘Grain Coast’ given to the coastal area
of western Africa that was then one of the centers of A. melegueta
cultivation and trade, and currently comprises the Republic of Liberia.
A. melegueta seeds are commonly used in western and northern
African cuisines as a spicy seasoning for sausages and meats and as a
avoring for hot and cold beverages, ice cream, candy, and bread. In
various other parts of the world, the seeds are used in gourmet cuisine
as a replacement for pepper; to avor certain cra beers, gins, and
the Scandinavian alcoholic beverage akvavit; and as a condiment in
exquisite dishes such as exclusive okra stews and apple pie recipes. A.
melegueta seeds have also been used to provide a ctitious strength to
alcoholic beverages, but this practice has been declared illegal and has
been banned.
3Pharmacognosy Journal, Vol 11, Issue 6(Suppl), Nov-Dec, 2019
Mans, et al.: Phytochemical and Pharmacological Support for the Traditional Uses of Zingiberacea Species in Suriname - A Review of the Literature
Plant species
(vernacular names in
English; Surinamese/
Javanese/Hindustani/
Dutch)
Traditional medicinal uses Phytochemical composition Pharmacologcial activities
Aframomum melegueta
(Roscoe) K. Schum.
(grains of paradise;
nengrekondre pepre)
Respiratory tract infections, gastrointestinal
problems, snakebites and scorpion stings,
cancer, infertility, hypertension, diabetes
mellitus8,14,15
Arylalkanoids such as paradols, shogaols,
and gingerols, labdane diterpenoids such
as zerumin A, sesquiterpenes such as
humulene and caryophyllene, avonoids
such as quercetin and kaempferol16,17
Antimicrobial,19-22 antiparasitic,24,25
antiinammatory,23 anticancer and
chemopreventive activity,28-31 blood
pressure-lowering,36 hypoglycemic
activity;37 (male) fertility booster;32,33
abortifacient35
Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd.
(ai ginger; laos)
Microbial infections, HIV infection,
rheumatic disorders, gastrointestinal
ailments, headache and body aches7,39,40,41
Phenylpropanoids such as 1’S’-1’-
acetoxychavicol acetate, terpenes/
terpenoids such as β-pinene, avonoids
such as galangin and alpinin43,44
Antimicrobial,46-50 anti-HIV,51
antiparasitic,52,53 antiinammatory,54-57
antiulcer,58,59 hepatoprotective activity60
Curcuma longa L.
(turmeric; haldi/kunyit)
Inammations, precancerous conditions
and cancer, microbial infections, brain
disorders such as depression and
Alzheimer's disease7, 8,13,63,64
Diarylheptanoids including curcuminoids
such as curcumin, diarylpentanoids,
sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, diterpenes,
and triterpenoids65-67
Antinammatory,68-83 chemopreventive and
anticancer,85-92 antimicrobial,62,93-95
Antiparasitic,96 anti-Alzheimer activity97-99
Hedychium coronarium J.
König
(white buttery ginger;
gember lelie)
Microbial infections, parasitic infections,
inammatory complaints, cancer104,105
Labdane diterpenes such as, coronarins,
farnesane sesquiterpenes such as nerolidol
and hedychiols, monoterpenes such as
1,8-cineole and α- and β-pinene107-109
Antimicrobial,110-115 antiparasitic,112,115,116
antiinammatory and analgesic,117-120
anticancer and chemopreventive
activity111,121-124
Kaempferia galanga (L.)
Willd.
(East-Indian galangal;
kentyur)
Microbial infections, inammatory
conditions, parasitic infections, headaches,
mouth ulcers, toothache, dermatological
problems, anxiety and depression7,126-128
Phenylpropanoids such as ethyl p-methoxy
cinnamate; avonols such as kaempferol;
terpenoids such as 1,8-cineole129,130
Antimicrobial,131-143 antiparasitic,136-143
antiinammatory, antinociceptive, and
sedative activity144-150
Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.)
Maas
(ink plant; bigi masusa)
Snake bites and scorpion stings,
bacterial infections, gastrointestinal
problems, fungal infections, convulsions
and seizures,8,151-154,172 anxiety,170
neurodegenerative disturbances171
Monoterpenes such as β-pinene; labdane
diterpenoids; diarylheptanoids; phenolic
compounds such as coumarins and
pinostrobin; desmethoxyyangonin155-158
Antivenom,152,159,160,162 analgesic,
antinociceptive, and anti-inammatory,161
antimicrobial,163-165 antiparasitic,116,165 MAO-
inhibitory activity169
Zingiber ocinale Roscoe
(common ginger; dyindya)
Nausea and vomiting, microbial infections,
parasitic infections, inammatory
conditions176-178
Sequiterpene hydrocarbons such as
zingiberol;179 phenolic compounds such
as gingerols, shogaols, paradols, and
zingerone179,180
Antiemetic,182-185,188,189 antimicrobial,191-193
antiparasitic,194-197 antiinammatory and
analgesic activity198-202
Table 1: Representative Zingiberacea species in Suriname, their traditional medical uses, and the phytochemical and pharmacological support for
these uses.
Figure 1: Seed pods of Aframomum melegueta (Roscoe) K. Schum.
(from: https://images.app.goo.gl/7i3LE4owB5vwjDJx7).
A. melegueta has a long traditional medical use in Africa and
Afro-American communities including those of the Surinamese
Maroons where it is known as ‘nengrekondre pepre’ (‘pepper from
the homeland of the Africans’). Seed preparations are used, among
others, against infections and inammations of the respiratory tract
and the gastrointestinal system; to repel pests of stored grains; to ght
cancer; for treating infertility; and against hypertension and diabetes
mellitus.15,18,19 A hot-water infusion of the seeds would also help against
stuttering when drunk from the larynx of a howler monkey or a large
snail shell12, and an alcoholic extraction would serve as an aphrodisiac.15
A. melegueta seeds are, furthermore, essential components of Maroon
rituals and herbal baths to exorcise evil spirits and neutralize witchcra,
but also in practices to attract good fortune.15
Important phytochemicals in A. melegueta seeds, seed extracts, and
the seed essential oil are arylalkanoids such as paradols, shogaols, and
gingerols, the aromatic ketones responsible for the strong aromatic
avor and pungent, peppery taste associated with the plant.20 Other
phytochemicals in the seeds are labdane diterpenoids such as zerumin A
and (E)-labda 8(17),12-diene-15,16-dial; sesquiterpene hydrocarbons
such as humulene and caryophyllene; and avonoids such as quercetin
and kaempferol and their derivatives.20,21 Of note, the relative abundance
and diversity of avonoids, diterpenoids, and sesquiterpenoids may
represent a chemotaxonomic marker of the genus Aframomum,
distinguishing it from other genera in the Zingiberaceae.22
4
Mans, et al.: Phytochemical and Pharmacological Support for the Traditional Uses of Zingiberacea Species in Suriname - A Review of the Literature
Pharmacognosy Journal, Vol 11, Issue 6(Suppl), Nov-Dec, 2019
e traditional use of A. melegueta against respiratory tract infections
is supported by the meaningful antibacterial and antifungal activity
(including activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococus aureus
(MRSA)) of preparations and constituents of the seeds and rhizomes.23,24
ese eects were also achieved with various avonoids, terpenoids,
as well as 6-paradol and related compounds isolated from these parts
of the plant.24,25 In addition, the seed essential oil inhibited the in
vitro proliferation of Bacillus cereus, an important causative agent of
foodborne illness.26 An ethanolic seed extract also reduced paw edema
in laboratory rats in a process involving inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) activity,27 and 6-paradol and 6-shogaol stimulated the
expression of proinammatory genes in an assay for proinammatory
gene expression.27 ese ndings are in accordance with the traditional
use of A. melegueta against inammatory conditions.
Indications for the usefulness of A. melegueta seed extracts as well as
6-gingerol and 6-shogaol against pests of stored foods are provided by
the repellent activity of both the seed extract and (S)-2-heptanol, (S)-
2-heptyl acetate, and (R)-linalool against the maize weevil Sitophilus
zeamais, an infamous agricultural pest.28 ese substances also elicited
antifeedant activity towards the subterranean termite Reticulitermes
speratus that is considered an urban pest of wooden constructions
in Japan.29 ese observations provide a tentative explanation for the
preference of wild western lowland gorillas to eat this plant and use it
to make the nests where they sleep at night.30 is behavior presumably
protects them from a bacterial or a viral infection that would cause
brosing cardiomyopathy, a common cause of heart failure and/or
sudden death in these animals.30
Indications for potential antitumor activity of A. melegueta were
provided by the inhibitory eects of 6-paradol as well as organic extracts
of the rhizome on the proliferation of various human tumor cell lines
(see, for instance31). e cytotoxic eects were accompanied by signs
of apoptosis31, possibly through a caspase-3-dependent pathway31.
Evidence for chemopreventive properties of A. melegueta came from the
inhibitory eects of 6-paradol and/or some of its synthetic derivatives
on the promotion of skin carcinogenesis and ear edema in ICR mice
induced by the laboratory tumor promoter phorbol 12-myristate
13-acetate (PMA).32 Furthermore, these compounds led to a reduction
in frequency and number of skin tumors caused by the laboratory
carcinogen 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene and promoted by PMA as
well as the induction of PMA-induced ornithine decarboxylase activity
in the animals.32 6-Paradol and its derivatives also led to a decrease in
DNA damage in cultured cancer cells.32
e use of A. melegueta seed preparations for improving fertility in
humans is supported by the stimulatory eect of an aqueous seed
extract on mating behavior, sexual arousal, and reproductive function
parameters in male Wistar rats 33, and the increased testosterone levels
in the animals following intaperitoneal injection of the seed oil.34 On
the other hand, administration of a seed extract to Sprague Dawley
rats led to termination of rst trimester pregnancy,35 suggesting that A.
melegueta seed also has abortifacient properties.
Other reported pharmacological eects of A. melegueta include blood
pressure-lowering activity of a seed preparation in both normotensive
and hypertensive individuals,36 and the hypoglycemic activity of an
aqueous leaf extract in alloxan-induced diabetic and non-diabetic
rats through the stimulation of insulin secretion from remnant or
regenerated pancreatic β cells.37 ese observations give some credit
to the traditional use of A. melegueta seed preparations against
hypertension and diabetes mellitus.
Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd.
e ai ginger, java galangal, greater galangal, or laos Alpinia galanga
(L.) Willd is one of four plants known as galangals or blue gingers. It
forms light-red or pale yellow rhizomes from which large clumps of
stalks arise which have small greenish-white owers (Figure 2) that
develop into orange-red fruits. A. galanga is probably native to Indonesia
and southern China but is now cultivated for its rhizome in various
other south-eastern Asian countries as well as Suriname. e rhizome
has an aromatic odor and a pungent and spicy taste comparable to that
of the common ginger Z. ocinale, and is used - either fresh or dried,
or powdered or sliced - as a avoring in many Indonesian, Chinese,
ai, Indian, and Surinamese dishes. e owers, ower buds, fruits,
and young shoots have a avor reminiscent of cardamom and are also
edible. e rhizome essential oil is used to confer an aroma of pine
needles to liqueurs such as Chartreuse and Angostura and certain so
drinks, and for preparing Essence d'Amali that is widely used in the
perfume industry.38
Preparations from fresh or dried A. galanga rhizomes have a wide range
of traditional applications. ese substances are used, among others,
against microbial infections including opportunistic (fungal) infections
such as those occurring in AIDS patients, HIV infection, parasitic
infections, rheumatic disorders, and gastrointestinal ailments.14,39,40
Furthermore, the dried rhizome is the most important raw material
in the worldwide renowned topical over-the-counter Chinese pain
reliever Tiger balm as well as other traditional Chinese remedies.41 And
in African-American hoodoo folk magic, A. galanga rhizome is known
as ‘Little John to chew’, ‘Chewing John’, and the ‘lucky court case root’,
as it would bring luck in court cases and legal matters when it is chewed
on and the juice is spit on the oor of the courthouse.42
Some of A. galanga’s traditional uses may be attributed to the
presence in the rhizome of various phytochemicals with meaningful
pharmacological activities including phenylpropanoids such as
1’S’-1’-acetoxychavicol acetate, 1’S-1’-acetoxyeugenol acetate, and
p-hydroxycinnamaldehyde; terpenes and terpenoids such as β-pinene,
camphor, and eugenol; as well as avonoids such as galangin and
alpinin.43,44 1’S’-1’-acetoxychavicol acetate is one of the pungent
Figure 2: Flower of Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. (from: https://images.
app.goo.gl/XVNmeSWm7jxx6Ls8A).
5Pharmacognosy Journal, Vol 11, Issue 6(Suppl), Nov-Dec, 2019
Mans, et al.: Phytochemical and Pharmacological Support for the Traditional Uses of Zingiberacea Species in Suriname - A Review of the Literature
ingredients of the rhizome38 while some of the terpenoids are
ingredients of the volatile rhizome essential oil and contribute to the
taste of the rhizome.45
e use of A. galanga against microbial infections is supported by
the activity of the rhizome essential oil and several organic rhizome
extracts against a variety of bacterial species including common food
borne bacteria46,47 as well as a number of fungi.46,48 ese eects have
been ascribed to 1’S’-1’-acetoxychavicol acetate in these preparations.49
is compound also inhibited R-plasmid transfer in various multidrug-
resistant bacteria49 and the active removal of drugs from drug-resistant
Mycobacterium spp.50 For these reasons, 1’S’-1’-acetoxychavicol acetate
may be pursued as a lead compound for developing more ecacious
antibacterial antibiotics.
at A. galanga also may be of benet against HIV infection is based
on the blockage of HIV-1 replication in cultured peripheral blood
mononuclear cells by 1’S-1’-acetoxychavicol acetate isolated from
the rhizomes.51 is compound inhibited HIV mRNA translocation
to the cytoplasm for translation into viral proteins, and acted
synergistically with the reverse transcriptase inhibitor didanosine in
halting HIV-1 replication in these cells.51 e supposed antiparasitic
properties of the plant are supported by the benecial eects of various
phenylpropanoids, terpenoids, and avonoids in rhizome extracts
against malaria in laboratory mice52 as well as their substantial in vitro
activity against promastigotes of Leishmania (Leishmania) donovani53,
the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis.
Support for the traditional use of A. galanga against rheumatic
disorders came from the antiinammatory activities of methanolic
and ethanolic rhizome extracts in carrageenan-induced paw edema
and pleurisy in laboratory rats.54,55 ese eects have been attributed to
1’S-1’-acetoxychavicol acetate and 1’S-1’-acetoxyeugenol acetate which
inhibited the release of β-hexosaminidase (a marker of IgE-mediated
degranulation) in cultured RBL-2H3 peripheral blood cells, reduced
the production of IgE-mediated tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α)
and interleukin (IL)-4 by these cells, and inhibited local anaphylaxis
in laboratory mice.56 p-Hydroxycinnamaldehyde may contribute to
the antiinammatory activity of A. galanga, since an acetone extract
enriched with this compound inhibited the release of hyaluronan,
sulfated glycosaminoglycans, and metalloproteinase-2 from primary
human chondrocytes challenged with the proinammatory cytokine
IL-1β.57
1'S-1'-acetoxychavicol acetate and 1'S-1'-acetoxyeugenol also reduced
the damage in the gastric mucosa of laboratory rats induced by HCl or
aspirin58 and were probably also responsible for the inhibitory eects
of rhizome and seed extracts on the development of gastric ulcers and
gastric mucosal damage produced in the animals by pyloric ligation
and hypothermic restraint stress.59 ese observations may justify
the traditional use of A. galanga against gastrointestinal conditions.
Notably, a crude rhizome extract substantially decreased the number
of necrotic cells in the liver of Sprague-Dawley rats treated with
paracetamol60, suggesting that A. galanga rhizome preparations also
possess hepatoprotective proporties.
Curcuma longa L.
e turmeric or yellow ginger Curcuma longa L. (1753) presumably
arose by selection and vegetative propagation of a hybrid between the
wild turmeric Curcuma aromatica Salisb. that is native to India, Sri
Lanka, and the eastern Himalayas, and other closely related species.
As a result, C. longa is not found in the wild and is only known as a
domesticated plant. e plant is abundantly cultivated in India (where
it is known as ‘haldi’) and Indonesia (where it is known as ‘kunyit’),
as well as many other tropical and subtropical regions throughout the
world. It is sterile but readily produces new sprouts from branches of its
pulpy orange-yellow tuberous underground rhizomes (Figure 3). e
maternal plant gives rise to yellow-white owers which do not produce
viable seed.
For human use, the rhizomes are boiled for several hours and then
dried in hot ovens, aer which they are ground to a deep orange-yellow
powder that has a bitter, slightly acrid yet sweet taste. e powder is
an essential ingredient of curry, an indispensable spice in many hot,
savory, and/or sweet south-eastern Asian and Surinamese-Hindustani
dishes. It is also widely used as a coloring agent in cheeses, butters, and
mustards, manufactured food products such as canned beverages, dairy
products, orange juice, popcorn, sweets, cake icings, cereals, sauces,
and gelatins.61 e essential oil from the fresh rhizome produced by
steam distillation is called turmerol and is incorporated in perfumes to
confer a spicy, fresh, and sweet fragrance61.
C. longa plays an important role in various social and religious Hindu
rituals symbolizing inner purity and pride as well as fertility and
prosperity. us, the rhizomes are oen given as a present to pregnant
women.17 A paste prepared from fresh rhizomes in coconut oil is
applied on the face of the bride and the groom on the the day before
the wedding ceremony as part of a purication ritual.17 Such a paste is
also rubbed on the forehead of newborn babies to protect them from
demons and the evil eye and promote their well-being.17 As this practice
may ward o harmful bacteria62, C. longa rhizome resin and essential
oil have been incorporated in several sunscreens and facial creams
including anti-acne creams.17
C. longa rhizome is also extensively used for preparing traditional
medicines, particularly in Indian Ayurveda and Unani as well as
Indonesian Jawa. ese medications are used against a variety of
inammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, inammations
of the gastrointestinal tract and liver, and eye inammations, but also
for treating precancerous conditions and cancer, various microbial
infections, as well as brain disorders such as depression and Alzheimer's
disease.15,17,63,64 Furthermore, C. longa rhizome is a key ingredient of
jamus to promote health and tness and to enhance mental functioning
and well-being.14
Important bioactive constituents of C. longa rhizome are polyphenolic
compounds such as diarylheptanoids (including the yellow-colored
curcuminoids such as curcumin which are responsible for the
characteristic color and flavor of the rhizome) and diarylpentanoids,
as well as terpenoids such as sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes,
diterpenes, and triterpenoids.65-67 e most common curcuminoid
in the plant is curcumin that makes up approximately 90% of the
Figure 3: Rhizome of Curcuma longa L. (from: https://images.app.goo.gl/
ZnQgCAFiXVrJHgt8A).
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curcuminoid content, as well as its derivatives demethoxycurcumin
and bisdemethoxycurcumin.65,66 e sesquiterpenes are the main
constituents of the rhizome essential oil, while the monoterpenes
dominate the essential oils from the leaves and the owers.66,67 e
major volatile principles of the rhizome oil are α- and β-turmerone and
aromatic -turmerone.66,67
A host of pharmacological studies support the traditional use of C.
longa preparations as well as curcumin against arthritic conditions (see,
for instance,68,69). Furthermore, administration of a rhizome extract, the
rhizome volatile oil, curcumin itself, natural analogues of curcumin, or
semi-synthetic curcumin analogues led to a decrease in carrageenin-
or formaline-induced rat paw edema as well as cotton pellet-induced
granuloma in laboratory rats.70-73 e use of curcumin also resulted in
a substantial reduction in the inammatory swelling in rats suering
from arthritis induced by treatment with Freud′s adjuvant.72 e
antiinammatory eects probably occurred through interference at
dierent levels of the arachidonic acid inammatory cascade and
inhibition of proinammatory compounds such as prostaglandins,
leukotrienes, and COX-2.68,69 Of note, a C. longa rhizome extract even
protected collagen-induced arthritic Sprague-Dawley rats from the
degenerative changes in the bone and ankle joints to a comparable
extent as betamethasone.74 Importantly, clinical trials with curcumin
produced encouraging results in patients with rheumatoid arthritis75
and postoperative inammation.76
e usefulness of C. longa in inammatory gastrointestinal conditions
is sustained by the inhibitory eects of curcumin on the gastric mucosal
damage caused by indomethacin in laboratory animals77 and on the
production of inammatory cytokines, intercellular adhesion molecule
1, and TNF-α in the animals.77 Furthermore, curcumin substantially
improved the prole of inammatory markers, severity of diarrhea,
and colonic architecture in laboratory mice with colitis induced by the
laboratory model compound trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid.78 Clinical
trials indeed showed benecial eects of curcumin or a standardized C.
longa rhizome extract in patients with peptic ulcers79 or inammatory
bowel disease.80 In fact, a Cochrane analysis revealed that curcumin
may be a safe and eective therapy for the maintenance of remission
in quiescent ulcerative colitis.81 In addition, there is some support for
the traditional use of C. longa against ocular inammations besides
arthritic disease and gastrointestinal inammations. is is based on
the encouraging results of oral curcumin in (a relatively small group of)
patients with eye inammations such as anterior uveitis and idiopathic
orbital inammatory pseudotumors while not producing serious side-
eects.82,83
Chronic inammation is considered an important driving factor
for malignant transformation and cancer progression84, providing
a rationale for using C. longa and its curcuminoid constituents as
chemopreventive and anticancer compounds. Indeed, comparably to
the antiinammatory eects, the antineoplastic eects would occur
through the modulation of critical intracellular signaling pathways
such as the NF-κB pathway.85 e potential chemopreventive eects
of curcumin have been observed in several preclinical models86-88 and
a few human studies.89-91 In addition to reducing the inammatory
cancer microenvironment, these eects might be due to the promotion
of apoptosis, inhibition of survival signals, and scavenging of reactive
oxidative species.92
Other potentially interesting pharmacological activities of C. longa
and its constituents that give credence to the traditional claims
are antimicrobial, antiparasitic, and anti-Alzheimer eects. e
antimicrobial properties have been observed in various standard
bacterial strains62,93,94 including common periopathogens95 and may
account for the inclusion of C. longa rhizome in jamus for treating
inamed gums, abscesses, menstrual pains, and skin rash7 as well
as the application of a C. longa-based Javanese ointment called
bobok for alleviating the discomfort of, among others, toothache.7
Furthermore, the broad antiparasitic activity of curcumin96 may explain
the Surinamese-Javanese custom of including C. longa rhizome in
preparations for treating pinworm infections in children.7
e potential usefulness of C. longa preparations against
neurodegenerative disorders is supported by their capacity to reduce
the deposition of plaques similar to those of Alzheimer’s disease in the
brains of aged mice and the oxidative damage and amyloid pathology
in transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease97, as well as that of
curcumin and dimethoxycurcumin to lessen lead-induced memory
decits in rats.98 Although the evidence supporting the ecacy of
curcumin in Alzheimer’s disease is currently insucient, the data
thus far available are suciently encouraging to justify further eorts
to optimize absorption, bioavailability, and the timing and length of
intervention of the treatment.99
Hedychium coronarium J. König
e white ginger, buttery ginger lily, or white buttery ginger
Hedychium coronarium J. König, in Suriname also known as ‘gember
lelie’ (Dutch for ‘ginger lily’), is native to southern China, Taiwan,
Myanmar, northeast India, and Nepal. It may have been brought to
South America and the Caribbean by enslaved Africans who used the
leaves of this plant as mattresses during their trans-Atlantic journey.100
e vernacular name ‘(white) buttery ginger’ refers to the shape
of the owers which resembles a ying buttery (Figure 4). is is
also reected by its vernacular name ‘or de mariposa’ (Spanish for
‘buttery ower’) in Cuba, where it has become the national ower.
However, H. coronarium has been declared an invasive herb in several
parts of Africa and the Americas.101 Its rapid vegetative reproduction
through underground spread of the rhizomes makes it dicult to
control its expansion.101 Notwithstanding, the considerable demand of
this plant for preparing Ayurvedic medicines has led to such an extent
of overharvesting that it has become an endangered species in certain
parts of India.102
Fortunately, H. coronarium is cultivated in many tropical and
subtropical countries as an ornamental garden plant and as a source
for ower garlands and cut owers. e essential oil of the owers has
a scent reminiscent of jasmine and is oen incorporated in commercial
cosmetic preparations such as perfumes, skin conditioners, and facial
masks. e juice from the mature seeds is used as a hair and skin
treatment by native Hawaiians.100 Both the owers and the rhizomes are
consumed as vegetables in parts of south-eastern Asia. e dried stem
Figure 4: Flower of Hedychium coronarium J. König (from: https://
images.app.goo.gl/xKuFp1A6ZnpZYVFS6).
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contains 43 to 48% cellulose, making it a useful source of raw material
for making paper.103
H. coronarium is also medicinally used in various traditional systems
throughout the world. Preparations from virtually all its parts are used
for treating, among others, microbial infections, parasitic infections,
inammatory complaints such as sti and sore joints along with pain
from rheumatism and arthritis, as well as cancer.104,105 e typical scent
of the ower is for an important part determined by the terpenes
β-transocimenone, α-farnesene, linalool, 1,8-cineole, and α-terpineol
in the essential oil.106 Important phytochemicals in the (essential oils
from the) rhizomes and leaves are the large array of biologically active
labdane diterpenes such as coronains, coronarins, hedychilactones,
and hedychenones, 107 farnesane sesquiterpenes such as nerolidol
and hedychiols,108 as well as the monoterpenes 1,8-cineole, β-pinene,
myrcene, limonene, and benzoyl eugenol.109
Pharmacological evidence for antimicrobial activity of H. coronarium
came from the broad antibacterial and antifungal eects of the rhizome
essential oil, extracts from the rhizomes, preparations from the leaves,
and decoctions from the owers.110-113 e antimicrobial activities
have been ascribed to various terpenoids in the essential oils110,112 Of
note, the sesquiterpenoid coronarin D isolated from the rhizomes also
showed considerable antibacterial and antifungal eects.113-115 In some
cases, the antifungal activity was comparable to that of standard drugs
such as nystatin and griseofulvin.113,114
Furthermore, the rhizome essential oil displayed remarkable activity
against earthworms and tapeworms115; an ethanolic rhizome extract
was active against cultured amastigotes from L. (L.) amazonensis
(Trypanosomatidae)116 and a chloroquine-resistant strain of Plasmodium
falciparum116; and leaf and rhizome essential oils exerted mosquito
larvicidal activities.112 ese eects have partially been attributed to
α-pinene, β-pinene, and 1,8-cineol112, and support the traditional use of
H. coronarium against parasitic infections.
Indications for antiinammatory and analgesic activity of H.
coronarium were provided by the inhibitory eects of rhizome
(essential oil) preparations on the activities of 5-lipoxygenase and
proinammatory cytokines in vitro117, as well as on carrageenan-induced
paw edema, heat- or acetic acid-induced writhing, and elongation
of tail ick time in laboratory mice.118,119 Furthermore, treatment of
laboratory mice with a methanolic rhizome extract led to suppression
of their motor activity and exploratory behavior, suggesting that central
mechanisms of pain perception had been depressed.120 ese eects
have been associated with labdabe diterpenes and farnesane-type
sesquiterpenes in the preparations.108,117,119.
Potential anticancer activity of H. coronarium is supported by the
cytotoxicity of a partially puried rhizome extract against brine shrimp
nauplii111, as well as that of several coronarins and their derivatives
isolated from the rhizome against cultured human and animal cancer
cell lines.121-123 Interestingly, some of the diterpenes substantially
inhibited the growth of cultured human umbilical vein endothelial
cells, suggesting that they may possess meaningful anti-angiogenic
properties.122 e cell growth inhibitory eects were in some cases
accompanied by cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase and signs of apoptosis.123
In addition, several coronarin labdane diterpenes as well as benzoyl
eugenol showed meaningful cancer chemopreventive activity in in vitro
assays, inhibiting NF-κB, COX-1 and COX-2 activities, the induction of
antioxidant response element, and cell proliferation.124
Kaempferia galanga (L.) Willd
e east-Indian galangal, sand ginger, aromatic ginger, or kentyur
Kaempferia galanga (L.) Willd. is a small, stemless herb that grows from
a rhizomatous rootstock, and is characterized by the thick, rounded
leaves that lay at in a rosette on the ground. e plant develops beautiful
white owers with an amethyst heart which have some resemblance to
orchids (Figure 5) and is widely grown as an ornamental in tropical
gardens. K. galanga is probably native to India but may have originated
from Myanmar. It is cultivated for its rhizome in southern China, India,
Bangladesh, ailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, as well as Suriname, but is
in general gathered from the wild for local use as a food and medicine.
As a result, K. galanga has become a highly priced but endangered
species in India.125
e rhizome has a slightly pungent fragrance with a spicy aroma
that resembles that of ginger and is a vital spice in oriental cuisine
that contributes to the unique taste and avor of many Indonesian,
Malaysian, ai, and Surinamese-Javanese dishes. e rhizome is also
used as a condiment and, when dried, as a substitute for turmeric in
curry powder. e young rhizomes and the young leaves are eaten raw,
steamed, in curries or cooked with chilli paste and served as a side dish
with rice. e crushed aromatic leaves are also used as a perfume in
washing hair.126,127 e essential oil extracted from the rhizome is used
in perfumery.126,127 and the powdered root is added to body powders
and cosmetics126,127 but also to repel moths in wardrobes.126,127
In addition, K. galanga has many traditional medical uses.
Preparations from particularly the rhizome are used against, among
others, colds, sore throat, coughing, bronchitis, asthma, rheumatism
and several other microbial infections and inammatory conditions;
various parasitic infections including helminthiasis and malaria;
headaches, mouth ulcers, and toothaches; skin problems such as
dandru, leprosy, and psoriasis; as well as restlessness, stress, anxiety,
and depression.126-128 Interestingly, Surinamese Javanese apply a K.
galanga-based preparation on the skin of babies to remove excessive
body hair; however, at a later age the child also does not develop hair
on arms and legs.14
e main pharmacologically active ingredients of K. galanga
probably are phenylpropanoids such as ethyl p-methoxy cinnamate,
p-methoxycinnamic acid, ethyl cinnamate, and cinnamaldehyde;
avonols such as kaempferol and kaempferide; as well as a number
of terpenoids such as 1,8-cineole, g-careen, and borneole.129,130 ese
compounds are constituents of the rhizome essential oil and have been
associated with various pharmacological activities, supporting some of
the traditional uses.127,128 Leaves and owers of the plant also contain a
number of avonoids with biological activity.130
at K. galanga may possess antimicrobial activity is supported by
the inhibitory eects of extracts from its rhizome and leaves on the
growth of a variety of pathogenic bacterial and fungal species.131-133
Figure 5: Flower of Kaempferia galanga (L.) willd. (from: https://images.
app.goo.gl/o9A3tx2YGBDJoxji9).
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including that of Lactobacillus acidophilus, the bacterium responsible
for dental caries.134 e antimicrobial activity might be attributed to
ethyl p-methoxy cinnamate that showed meaningful antibacterial
activity against the skin bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus
epidermidis, and Cutibacterium acnes without causing allergic
irritation.135 ese ndings may account for the above-mentioned
traditional use of K. galanga preparations against mouth ulcers and skin
conditions.
Several lines of evidence support pesticidal, larvicidal, and mosquito-
repellent activities of K. galanga. Methanolic leaf and rhizome extracts
as well as the rhizome essential oil elicited considerable repellent and
larvicidal activity against harmful mosquito vectors such as Aedes
spp., Anopheles spp., Armigeres subalbatus, Culex spp., and Mansonia
uniformis,136-138 including those resistant to the household insecticide
pyrethroid.139 ese mosquito strains are the carriers and transmitters
of serious diseases ranging from yellow fever and chikungunya to
malaria and lariasis. Furthermore, the rhizome essential oil displayed
strong contact toxicity against the booklouse Liposcelis bostrychophila
,140 and a rhizome extract showed anthelmintic activity against the
Bangladeshi earthworm Pheretima posthuma and insecticidal activity
against the rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae.141 Notably, neither a crude K.
galanga rhizome extract nor the rhizome essential oil produced signs of
dermal irritation,142 providing further support for the usefulness of this
plant against dermatological problems. e larvicidal and mosquito-
repellent properties of K. galanga may particularly be attributable to
ethyl p-methoxycinnamate, but also to other phenylpropanoids and/or
terpenoids and/or kaempferol 139,140,142,143
Indications for antinociceptive and antiinammatory activities of K.
galanga came from the substantial inhibitory eects of an aqueous leaf
extract and an alcoholic rhizome extract in abdominal constriction,
tail ick, hot plate, and/or formalin assays as well as carrageenan and/
or cotton pellet granuloma models.144-146 Markedly, in a double-blind
randomized clinical trial with patients suering from osteoarthritis of
the knee, the rhizome extract exerted the same eect on pain, stiness,
and physical interference as the nonsteroidal antiinammatory
drug meloxicam.147 e analgesic eects probably occurred through
both central components related to opioid receptors and peripheral
components associated with the COX pathway.145 e antiinammatory
eects probably involved the suppression of IL-1, TNF-α, as well as
angiogenesis-related events.130,147 Both eects were probably caused,
at least partially, by ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate.148 Together, these
observations support the traditional use of K. galanga leaves and
rhizomes for treating mouth ulcers, headaches, sore throat, swellings,
stomach ache, toothache, and rheumatism.
Importantly, K. galanga may also possess meaningful sedative
properties. is can be derived from the considerable decrease in
locomotor activity, onset and duration of thiopental sodium-induced
sleeping time, and/or exploratory activities of Swiss mice which had
received an extract of the rhizome and/or leaf by inhalation or per
os.149,150 e apparent central nervous system-depressant properties of
the plant have been attributed to ethyl trans-p-methoxycinamate and
ethyl-cinnamate.149 ese ndings support the traditional use of the
plant against anxiety and depression, as well as its use in aromatherapy
in Japan against sleeplessness and stress and as an ingredient of pain
relief Ayurvedic massage blends.149
Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) Maas
e inkplant, bigi masusa, or blaka masusa Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.)
Maas, also known as Renealmia exaltata L. l.), bears fruits that are red
when immature and turn purple-black when mature (Figure 6), and
then contain numerous seeds embedded in a yellow pulp. It grows from
red, aromatic rhizomes and oen forms large colonies. e vernacular
name ‘inkplant’ reects the previous use of the dark-colored sap of the
peels from the ripe fruits as an ink for writing and applying skin tattoos151
Reddish-colored ink was obtained by adding lime juice to the sap.151 R.
alpinia is native to tropical America and can be found from Mexico to
Brazil and in several Caribbean islands. In Suriname, it grows wild in
secondary forests and on river banks, but it is cultivated for the red-
brown oil from the pulp around the seeds that is used for preparing the
widely appreciated tasty Creole rice dish ‘masusa moksi aleysi’ (literally
‘masusa mixed rice’). Peasants from the interior of Brazil oen drink
a juice prepared from the leaves as a cooling beverage in hot weather.
And in Mexico, tamales and empanadas are given a special spicy taste
by steaming them while wrapped in fresh R. alpinia leaves.
R. alpinia is also an important plant in various traditional medical
systems. Preparations from the rhizomes and leaves are used against
the symptoms of snake bites and scorpion stings in humans and
(hunting) dogs; bacterial infections causing fever, gastrointestinal
problems, or heart problems manifesting as shortness of breath or chest
colds; fungal infections including those causing dandru and vaginitis;
and convulsions during, for instance, epileptic seizures.15,152-154 In
Suriname, particularly Maroons use preparations from R. alpinia leaves
or rhizomes - either alone or together with parts from other plants -
as a blood-purifying agent, against infertility in women, to speed up
delivery, and to prevent uterine inammation aer childbirth and to
quickly obtain a slim gure aer pregnancy.15 Parts of the plant are
also included into herbal baths for strengthening the nerves, to convey
spiritual strength and self-condence, to remove sadness, despair, and
depression, for protection from the evil eye, and to dispel the spirit of a
deceased person.13 Curiously, according to ancient Amerindian belief,
women should avoid holding R. alpinia fruits too long in their hands as
this would accelerate aging.15
e characteristic avor and fragrance of R. alpinia seed oil is
attributable to monoterpenes such as β-pinene, limonene, and
β-phellandrene, as well as β-carotene, labdane diterpenoids, and
diarylheptanoids.155 Other important phytochemicals in the rhizomes
and the leaves are biologically active phenolic compounds such as
coumarins and the avanone pinostrobin, several labdane diterpenes,
as well as the kavalactone desmethoxyyangonin.155-158
e coumarins and pinostrobin have been associated with the
meaningful antivenom properties of R. Alpinia.159,160 is has been
inferred from the substantial analgesic, antiedematous, antihemorrhagic,
antidebrinating, anticoagulant, and neutralizing eects of rhizome
and leaf extracts containing these compounds in laboratory mice
poisoned with B. atrox venom.152,159,160 Furthermore, pinostrobin (the
Figure 6: Fruits from Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) Maas (from: https://
images.app.goo.gl/qZF2bk1icRpYip3R8).
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main ingredient of a dichloromethane leaf extract) elicited strong in
vitro analgesic, antinociceptive, and antiinammatory activities while
inhibiting the local tissue damage caused by the hemorrhagic eects
of the viper venom.161 Pinostrobin may neutralize the eects of snake
bites by opposing the anticoagulant and membrane-damaging eects of
phospholipase A2 activity in the venom.162
e use of R. alpinia against microbial infections is supported by the
bactericidal activity of leaf and stem extracts against Bacillus subtilis163
and the fungicidal activity of rhizome extracts against several species
of Candida, the dermatophytic fungus Trichophyton rubrum, and two
varieties of the encapsulated yeast Cryptococcus neoformans. 164,165
ese activities have been attributed to several labdane diterpenoids in
the extracts.163-165 ese compounds have also been implicated in the
antileishmanial activity against cultured amastigotes of Leishmania
(Leishmania) chagasi and L. (L.) amazonensis;116,165 the antiprotozoal
activity against epimastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent
of Chagas’ disease;165 the antimalarial activity against a chloroquine-
resistant strain of P. falciparum;116 and the cytotoxic eects against
several cancer cell lines.156,166
Desmethoxyyangonin was previously isolated from the kava-kava plant
Piper methysticum167 and reversibly inhibited monoamine oxidase
(MAO) B in the central nervous system, thereby increasing serotonin
and dopamine levels.168 Desmethoxyyangonin puried from the
dichloromethane extract of R. alpinia leaves also potently inhibited
recombinant human MAOs - particularly MAO B - in an in vitro study169
us, this compound may not only suppress anxiety, stimulate feelings
of well-being, and promote attention,170 but also counter neurological
diseases associated with errors in MAOs such as neurodegenerative
disturbances171 and seizures,172 supporting the traditional use of
R. alpinia preparations for treating seizures in children and other
childhood conditions.151
Zingiber ocinale Rosco e.
e common ginger or dyindya Z. ocinale probably originates from
south-eastern Asia where it was presumably domesticated (it does not
exist anymore in its wild state), and subsequently spread throughout the
rest of the continent and many other parts of the world. It may have been
introduced in Suriname by enslaved Africans and Javanese indentured
laborers via Western Africa and south-eastern Asia, respectively.10,14
e inorescences directly arise from the rhizome on separate shoots
(Figure 7) and bear clusters of white and pink ower buds that bloom
into yellow owers. Because of its esthetic appeal, the plant is oen used
as landscaping around tropical and subtropical homes. However, Z.
ocinale is mainly cultivated for its rhizome which was one of the rst
spices exported from Asia to Europe during the spice trade, i.e., before
the beginning of the Christian era, and was already highly appreciated
by the ancient Greeks and Romans.173
Z. ocinale has remained an economically valuable crop. In 2018,
approximately 3.3 million tonnes were produced worldwide,
representing a market revenue of U$ 5.3 billion.174 China dominated the
exports in that year, accounting for 390 kilotonnes or more than two-
thirds of total exports, distantly followed by ailand (54 kilotonnes),
Peru (21 kilotonnes), India (21 kilotonnes), Brazil (15 kilotonnes), and
e Netherlands (13 kilotonnes).174
e fresh or dried rhizomes are widely used as a hot, fragrant kitchen
spice in many South Asian, Latin American, and Caribbean cuisines
for avoring seafood, meat, and vegetarian dishes and for making
curries and other spicy dishes. Both the fresh and the dried rhizome
are used for these purposes, but the latter is about twice as pungent as
the former. e young rhizomes are juicy and eshy and have a mild
taste and are also pickled in vinegar or sherry as a snack, and included
in gingerbread, ginger cake, cookies, and speculaas, a spiced shortcrust
biscuit that is traditionally baked in e Netherlands and Belgium for
consumption around St. Nicholas’ Day (5 and 6 December, respectively)
and in Germany around Christmas.
In addition, the rhizomes can be immersed in boiling water to make
ginger herb tea which is sweetened with honey, and they can be made
into ginger wine, ginger ale, and ginger beer. e rhizome also contains
an essential oil that is used to avor essences as well as in perfumery.175
e young inorescences can be eaten raw, and the young, slightly
spicy leaves and young shoots can be eaten as a vegetable or pureed
and added to sauces and dips. e leaves can also be used to wrap food
while it is cooked, adding extra avor to the food.
Z. ocinale has a myriad of applications in various traditional
medical systems. In India, it is regarded as a universal medicine176
and preparations from the rhizome are ingredients of numerous
prescriptions in Ayur vedic and traditional Chinese medicine.176,177 ese
products are internally used to control nausea and vomiting including
those caused by morning and motion sickness; microbial infections
of the upper respiratory tract; parasitic infections such as lariasis;
inammatory conditions such as asthma as well as rheumatoid arthritis
and osteoarthritis; problems with the peripheral circulation including
hypertension; and externally to treat spasmodic pain, rheumatism,
pain in the muscles and joints of the lower back, menstrual cramps,
and sprains.176-178
e distinctive odor and avor of Z. ocinale rhizome mostly
result from volatile oils but also from some nonvolatile phenolic
compounds.179 e volatile oils account for 1 to 3% of the weight of
fresh rhizome and mainly consist of sequiterpene hydrocarbons,
predominantly zingiberol.179 e nonvolatile phenolic phytochemicals
consist of gingerols, shogaols, paradols, and zingerone, as well as
various other gingerol-related compounds179,180 e major pungent
compound and the best studied phytochemical in Z. ocinale is
6-gingerol.179,180 Zingerone is produced from gingerols during drying
and is less pungent.179-181 Shagoals are about twice more pungent when
compared to the gingerols and and are not found in raw ginger but are
the dehydrated products of gingerols that are formed during drying,
heating, or prolonged storage of the rhizome.179-181
Support for the traditional use Z. officinale against nausea and
vomiting is provided by initial animal studies suggesting that
preparations from the rhizome had antiemetic activity in nausea
caused by cyclophosphamide or cisplatin.182-184 These effects
would occur peripherally, within the gastrointestinal tract, by
Figure 7: Rhizome of Zingiber ocinale Roscoe (from: https://images.
app.goo.gl/5DDiHrm1zRP5NzyF7).
10
Mans, et al.: Phytochemical and Pharmacological Support for the Traditional Uses of Zingiberacea Species in Suriname - A Review of the Literature
Pharmacognosy Journal, Vol 11, Issue 6(Suppl), Nov-Dec, 2019
increasing gastric tone and motility through anticholinenergic and
antiserotonergic mechanisms.185 However, human studies have not led
to conclusive results, some speaking in favor of antiemetic properties
of Z. ocinale (see, for instance,186) but others contradicting these
actions (see, for instance, 187). On the other hand, various gingerols,
6-shogaol, and zingerone were shown to antagonize the activation
of cholinergic and serotonin receptors in laboratory models,188,189 the
main targets of emetogenic chemotherapeutic drugs. Furthermore, a
few reviews and meta-analyses concluded that Z. ocinale was better
than placebo in pregnancy-related nausea and vomiting as well as
nausea and vomiting induced by chemotherapy or motion sickness but
that this should be veried in suciently large clinical studies (see, for
instance,190).
Indications for the usefulness of Z. ocinale against microbial
infections came from the broad in vitro antibacterial and antifungal
activity of organic extracts from the rhizome.191,192 ese eects might
be associated with the avonoid fractions of the extracts.193 Various lines
of evidence also support the usefulness of the plant against parasitic
infections. us, 6-gingerol, 10-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 10-shogaol, and/
or hexahydrocurcumin isolated from the rhizome elicited larvicidal
activity against the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti that carries
and spreads yellow fever, dengue fever, chikungunya, and Zika fever
viruses, as well as the southern house mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus,
the primary vector of the round worm Wuchereria bancroi that causes
lymphatic lariasis.194
Furthermore, methanol and aqueous extracts of Z. ocinale rhizome
displayed substantial anthelmintic activity against the barber's
pole worm Haemonchus contortus that causes anemia, edema, and
eventually death of infected sheep and goats195, as well as the Indian
earthworm Pheretima posthuma that has been used as a model for
intestinal roundworm parasites of humans.196 ese extracts also elicited
meaningful activity against larvae of the rat long worm Angiostrongylus
cantonensis as well as those of the parasitic sh nematode Anisakis
simplex.197 A. cantonensis produces angiostrongyliasis, the most
common cause of eosinophilic meningitis or meningoencephalitis in
south-eastern Asia and the tropical Pacic islands, and A. simplex is
associated with anisakiasis, a gastrointestinal infection characterized by
severe abdominal cramps.
e use of Z. ocinale as an antiinammatory and analgesic compound
is supported by the notable inhibitory eects of a rhizome extract on
edema, stretching, as well as jumping and hind paw-licking of laboratory
rodents subjected to the carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema test,
the acetic acid-induced writhing assay, and the hot plate test.198-200
Comparable results were found with several in vitro antiinammatory
assays activity such as protein denaturation inhibition, membrane
stabilization, protease inhibition, and anti-lipoxygenase assays.201 e
in vivo antiinammatory activity was mainly ssociated with certain
paradols, shogaols, and gingerols, and might involve, among others,
inhibition of LPS-induced PGE2 production202 and decreases in pro-
inammatory cytokines and chemokines resulting in inhibition of
the activation and migration of monocytes and leukocytes.200 ese
compounds also strongly inhibited COX-2 activity in intact cells.201
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In the current paper, phytochemical and pharmacological evidence have
been compiled to support the traditional medical uses of seven common
Zingiberacea species in Suriname. e data obtained are summarized
in Table 1 and indicate that there is for all plants scientic evidence to
support some of the traditional uses. erefore, there is at least some
merit to the broad use of these plants as traditional and alternative
medicines and as nutraceuticals, i.e., foods or food constituents that
provide health benets in addition to nutritional value. In addition,
drug regulatory authorities such as the FDA generally regard many if
not all Zingiberacea species as safe.203
Furthermore, almost all the plants possessed antimicrobial and
antiparasitic properties which may support their use against (certain)
infectious diseases. is is not unexpected when considering
the repellent properties of the pungent pharmacologically active
constituents in their essential oils. However, the apparent antimicrobial
and antiparasitic eects have in general been observed in a handful of
preclinical studies. Indeed, clinical proof that any of these compounds
elicit these eects is absent, particularly against more serious infectious
diseases such as, among others, malaria, chikungunya, laria, and
leishmaniasis. us, despite the availability of supporting data, claims
of antimicrobial and antiparasitic activities of Zingiberacea species
should be taken with caution to avoid the risk of using inecacious
substances and delay in seeking professional help in these cases.
Many of the plants also displayed antiinammatory and analgesic
activity, but again, mostly in studies with laboratory animals. us,
these data should also be regarded with caution. Still, the results from
clinical studies evaluating the ecacy of curcumin from C. longa
against rheumatoid arthritis75 and that of the rhizome extract from
K. galanga against osteoarthritis of the knee147 were encouraging. e
same holds true for clinical studies on the capacity of curcumin from C.
longa to improve neurodegenerative diseases such Alzheimer’s disease99
and that of Z. ocinale rhizome preparations to control pregnancy-
related, chemotherapy-associated, and motion sickness-related nausea
and vomiting.190
However, the relatively small size of the patient populations enrolled
in the studies as well as other aws in the study designs have led to
serious doubts about the reliability of the outcomes of the trials (see,
for instance75,76,190). Still, the many encouraging preclinical and clinical
data warrant re-evaluation of (some of) these substances in suciently
large and better designed clinical studies. ese studies should also
take into account that many pharmacologically active compounds of
Zingiberacea species are ingredients of volatile oils and thus poorly
water-soluble. is may create major pharmcodynamic challenges
when administered to humans. For instance, the high lipophilicity of
curcumin has led to too low oral bioavailability, chemical stability, and
intracellular concentrations to make the results from clinical studies
evaluating its anticancer activity reliable.204
is has led to attempts to increase the overall anticancer activity of
curcumin by introducing structural modications in the molecule
that would improve its selectivity towards cancer cells as well as its
bioavailability and/or stability, or to use delivery systems that would
improve its physicochemical properties.117 e active ingredients from
other Zingiberacea species may conceivably also pose such problems
which may be solved through comparable strategies. An example is
desmethoxyyangonin from R. alpinia that may be modied in order
to improve its delivery to the brain for treating seizures in children.131
ese studies may help denitely establish the therapeutic importance
of the Zingiberaceae.
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Mans, et al.: Phytochemical and Pharmacological Support for the Traditional Uses of Zingiberacea Species in Suriname - A Review of the Literature
ABOUT AUTHORS
GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT
Dennis RA Mans: Dennis Mans is Full Professor of Pharmacology at the Faculty of Medical Sciences of the
Anton de Kom University of Suriname, Paramaribo, Suriname. He holds the academic chair in pharmacognosy
research. He has more than thirty years of teaching and research experience, particularly in the area of medicinal
plants. He has published more than one hundred full papers in international and national journals.
Jennifer Pawirodihardjo: Jennifer Pawirodihardjo has a teaching degree in Chemistry and is working for five
years as a chemical analyst at the Faculty of Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Anton de Kom
University of Suriname, Paramaribo, Suriname.
Priscilla Friperson: Priscilla Friperson has studied Higher Laboratory Sciences at the Polytechnic College and is
working as a chemical analyst at the Faculty of Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Anton de Kom
University of Suriname, Paramaribo, Suriname.
Meryll Djotaroeno: Meryll Djotaroeno has a BTech degree in Higher Laboratory Sciences and is working as a
chemical analyst at the Faculty of Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Anton de Kom University of
Suriname, Paramaribo, Suriname.
Cite this article: Mans DRA, Djotaroeno M, Friperson P, Pawirodihardjo J. Phytochemical and Pharmacological Support for the
Traditional Uses of Zingiberacea Species in Suriname - A Review of the Literature. Pharmacog J. 2019;11(6)Suppl:
