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Determinants analysis of change of direction ability in elite soccer players

January 2012

January 2012

Conference: The 3rd World Conference on Science and Soccer

Authors:

Anis Chaouachi

Del P. Wong

Hong Kong Metropolitan University

Vincenzo Manzi

Università Telematica Pegaso

Karim Chamari

Institut Supérieur du Sport et de l’Education Physique de Ksar-Said

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DETERMINANTS ANALYSIS OF CHANGE-OF-DIRECTION

ABILITY IN ELITE SOCCER PLAYERS

ANIS CHAOUACHI,

VINCENZO MANZI,

2,5

ANIS CHAALALI,

DEL P. WONG,

KARIM CHAMARI,

1,4

AND CARLO CASTAGNA

5,6

Tunisian Research Laboratory ‘‘Sport Performance Optimization,’’ National Center of Medicine and Science in Sports, Tunis,

Tunisia;

Fiorentina Football Club, Florence, Italy;

Department of Health and Physical Education, The Hong Kong Institute of

Education, Hong Kong, China;

Higher Institute of Sport and Physical Education of Ksar-Saı

d, University of Manouba, Tunis,

Tunisia;

Football Training and Biomechanics Lab, Technical Department, Italian Football Federation, Florence, Italy; and

Marche Regional School of Sport, Italian Olympic Committee, Ancona, Italy

BSTRACT

Chaouachi, A, Manzi, V, Chaalali, A, Wong, DP, Chamari, K, and

Castagna, C. Determinants analysis of change-of-direction

ability in elite soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 26(10):

2667–2676, 2012—In this study, we examined the components

of 2 change-of-direction (COD) ability (CODA) tests in elite-

level male soccer players (n = 23, age 19 6 1 years, height

181 6 5.7 cm, body mass 73.2 6 4.1 kg, % body fat 11 6 2.4).

As CODA paradigms, the T-test and 5-m shuttle run-sprint

(5mSS) test assumed as describing the opposing ends of

the COD complexity in soccer (i.e., general and speciﬁc tests,

respectively) were considered. Results showed that the anthro-

pometric and muscular performance variables were able to

account for ;45% (p , 0.04) of the common variance of

CODA. The T-test performance was explained by 8 variables

(adjusted R

= 0.45, p = 0.026), with 5mSS, height, knee

extensors isokinetic concentric strength at 60°per second,

and right-to-left knee extensors eccentric strength deﬁcit

reaching a level of signiﬁcance in the provided model (p #

0.02). The best-ﬁtting equation for 5mSS performance included

10 variables (adjusted R

= 0.48, p = 0.036) of which T-test

performance, height, percentage of body fat, and peak power

during the countermovement jump resulted signiﬁcantly

affecting the common shared variance (p # 0.03). This study

ﬁnding showed that the affecting variables of CODA differ

according to the test characteristics. Furthermore, the magni-

tude of the reported associations suggests that currently

CODA should be regarded mainly as a task-speciﬁc ﬁtness

attribute. Further studies are warranted to detect more relevant

performance variables to describe CODA. Meanwhile, soccer

coaches and ﬁtness trainers are advised to improve players’

CODA using training drills that mimic crucial match actions.

KEY WORDS team sports, ﬁtness training, power, strength,

agility, eccentric training

INTRODUCTION

occer like other team sports is considered as

a casually intermittent activity involving sudden

variation in directional modes that parallel game-

related changes in intensity (45). As a consequence,

the ability to perform sudden changes of direction (CODs) is

considered as a logically valid criterion for ﬁtness detection in

soccer players of different age, competitive level, and gender

(38–40,45). The premises that support the logical relevance

of COD ability (CODA) in soccer come from the observation

of only a limited amount of match time spent by players

with ball possession (37,45). Consequently, most of the

;1,300 changes in activity are deemed to be undertaken

in off-the-ball conditions (37,45). This reasoning has been

recently supported by observational studies that showed

frequent variation in directional changes during a competitive

match in elite soccer players (8,9).

Despite the perceived and provided evidence of CODA

relevance, only few studies have been published with the aim

to examine the nature of this ﬁtness component in soccer

(12,42). Furthermore, no soccer-speciﬁc CODA test has been

developed so far based on observational studies; conse-

quently, the tests used to assess this ability possess at best

only logical validity or are general in nature (12,38,42,45).

This should be considered an important limitation to

soccer physical ﬁtness assessment and development because

CODA has been reported to be task speciﬁc in observational

and training studies (12,13,31,38,42,45,48,52).

In the absence of a gold standard for CODA, soccer players

are evaluated with a number of tests aiming to capture a

range of neuromuscular abilities that may cover the causal

requirements imposed by the match (i.e., tactical strategies,

opponent levels, and fatigue development) (13,31,38–40,48).

Address correspondence to Dr. Carlo Castagna, castagnac@libero.it.

26(10)/2667–2676

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

Ó 2012 National Strength and Conditioning Association

VOLUME 26 | NUMBER 10 | OCTOBER 2012 | 2667

As a result, the used CODA tests may possess a different

degree of association with game activities and they spread

along the test speciﬁcity spectrum according to their

relevance to soccer (12,45).

The tests aiming to assess CODA may be grouped

according to the number and type of the directional changes

involved in the trial (12). These features may result in

differences in the neuromuscular prerequisites necessary to

sustain test performance (12,42). In this regard, Sheppard and

Young (42) proposed a universal agility multicomponent

model in which CO DA was supposed as a systematic

module. However, to the best of our knowledge, this model

was not tested as per estimation power with relevant

variables in soccer (12,42). Information about the compo-

nents of CODA may discover the important issues in guiding

training prescription and intervention studies in soccer.

Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the general

and speciﬁc CODA performance (i.e., logical constructs) and

to evaluate the neuromuscular determinants (i.e., determin-

istic constructs) of CODA in elite soccer players. As a work

hypothesis, we assumed the logical validity of the deter-

ministic model provided by Sheppard and Young (42,43) for

CODA in soccer.

METHODS

Experimental Approach to the Problem

In this observational-deterministic research, a group of

well-trained elite soccer players were studied for general

and speciﬁc CODA (i.e., logical constructs) (46). As general

CODA test was assumed, players’ performance over the

T-test reported to be a reliable and valid test in team sports

and physical education (7,12,16,24,33,41,42). The T-test

involving sudden CODs and directional modes with

a duration of ;10 seconds can be considered as mainly

involving neuromuscular performance components, thus

limiting the inﬂuence of metabolic fatigue on the ﬁnal score

(12,16,24,41).

Shuttle running has been extensively reported to be a team

sports–relevant directional mode (12,30,35,42). In a study

carried out with Norwegian top-level soccer players, shuttle

running-sprinting (i.e., 10 m) was reported to be a soccer-

speciﬁc ability (48). More recently, shuttle running-sprinting

showed to be associated with match physical activities

performed at high intensity in elite-level professional soccer

players (i.e., English Premier League) (35). This provides

direct validity (14) for this COD mode in elite-level soccer.

In this study, the speciﬁc CODA was represented by the

5-m shuttle run-sprint test (5mSS; 5-m go-and-back = 10 m)

involving only 1 COD (i.e., 180° turn) according to the

general information provided by Barnes et al. (6). These

authors reported that in team sports, players are mostly

subjected to sharp COD (i.e., 180° turn) during sprints of

;5 m (6). Consequently, COD tests involving these

characteristics would likely be ideal for speciﬁc CODA

assessment in team sports. Speciﬁcally, in competitive soccer,

functional shuttle running takes the form of very short sprints

supporting the relevance (i.e., logical speciﬁcity) of the 5mSS

for soccer CODA assessment (8,9,45,48).

These 2 short-duration (i.e., ,10 seconds) tests were

considered with the preplanned aim to represent the upper

and lower end of the complexity spectrum of CODA with

respect to the concepts of generality and speciﬁcity (i.e., T-test

and 5mSS, respectively) for soccer (42).

In an attempt to describe agility, Sheppard and Young (42)

proposed a universal multifactorial deterministic model

supposing logical validity. In this universal deterministic

model of agility, CODA assumed a key role and was

considered as the interplay of a number of physical and

neuromuscular components (42). However, to the best of our

knowledge, no investigation has been carried out so far to

examine the supposed association between independent

variables (i.e., neuromuscular and anthropometric variables)

and the afferent dependent variable (i.e., CODA perfor-

mance). According to the deterministic model for agility

proposed by Sheppard and Young (42), test scores for

straight sprinting speed, lower-limb reactive strength,

concentric strength and power, and left-right strength

balance were included in the systematic module of CODA.

In addition to the proposed model, measures of lower-limb

eccentric strength were considered in this study (42). This is

because in COD, eccentric strength is deemed to be involved

to maintain joint congruence and to exert braking actions to

allow directional changes (12,23,29,44). As neuromuscular

components of the universal model for agility proposed by

Sheppard and Young (42), 5-m sprinting, countermovement

jumping, and 5-jump test (5JT) were considered for their

reported relevance to soccer performance and ﬁtness

(3,15,45,48). According to its reported diagnostic importance

in soccer, muscular strength (eccentric and concentric) was

reported as isokinetic strength (1,2,19).

Subjects

Twenty-three elite-level male soccer players (age 19 6 1

years, height 181 6 5.7 cm, body mass 73.2 6 4.1 kg, % body

fat 11 6 2.4) were randomly chosen among members of

a successful ﬁrst division professional soccer club of the

Tunisian National League 1 (Club Africain, Tunis, Tunisia).

The club is considered as one of the top 3 ranked teams in

Tunisia for the past 15 years. All players involved in this study

had competed at national and international level for their

respective age-groups. Twelve players were members of

the Tunisian national under-21 team, and the remaining

11 belonged to the under-19 team that ranked ﬁrst during the

2007–08 season (i.e., assessment year). Players possessed at

least 6 years of experience in soccer training and competitions

at elite level, and took part in national or international

championships at the time of the investigation. Players

trained 5–6 times a week (;90 minutes per session) with

a competitive match taking place during the weekend.

Training sessions consisted mainly of technical and tactical

2668

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Resear ch

the

Change-of-Direction Ability in Elite Soccer Players

skill development (80% of the training time). Physical

conditioning was performed twice a week and was aimed

toward anaerobic and aerobic performance development (5).

Anaerobic training consisted of plyometrics and sprint

training drills (5). Aerobic ﬁtness was developed using

small-sided games (36) and short-interval or long-interval

running (26).

Testing procedures were performed during the last stage

of the competitive season (February to March 2007). During

the 48 hours preceding testing, players refrained from

heavy training and kept their usual daily activities. To avoid

dehydration, players were advised to drink ‘‘ad libitum’’

during the testing procedures and to remain in a high-

carbohydrate diet the day before and during the time of

the investigation.

Written informed consent was obtained from all players

after verbal and written explanation of the experimental design

and potential risks of the study. The study was conducted

according to the Declaration of Helsinki and the protocol

fully approved by the Clinical Research Ethics Committee

and the Ethic Committee of the National Center of Medicine

and Science in Sports of Tunis before the commencement of

the assessments. All players were informed that they could

withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.

Procedures

All the players were well accustomed to the procedures

involved in this study because they were part of their testing

follow-up during this study and preceding seasons. To

re-arouse testing procedure, players performed a familiariza-

tion session during the week preceding testing, with test

leaders (ﬁrst authors) providing a procedural advice when

necessary. To limit circadian effect on performance, the

testing procedures were performed during the ﬁrst hours of

the afternoon (3–5

PM) when team practice usually took place.

Each subject completed testing over 3 separate sessions

with at least 48 hours of recovery in-between. The period

between the ﬁrst and the last tests was within 2 weeks to avoid

any change in the physical ﬁtness of the subjects during the

testing period. The tests included the 5mSS and T-test for

agility, vertical and horizontal jump tests, 30-m sprint, and

isokinetic testing (concentric and eccentric contractions) of

the knee extensors and ﬂexors. Vertical and horizontal jumps

were assessed during the ﬁrst session, whereas the sprinting

ability and CODA were assessed during the second testing

session. The third session was dedicated to the isokinetic

tests. The week before testing, subjects attended 2 practice

sessions, during which they became familiar with the testing

equipment and procedures. All anthropometric measure-

ments were obtained during the familiarization sessions.

Anthropometry. Body mass was obtained to the nearest 0.1 kg

using an electronic scale (Seca Instruments Ltd., Hamburg,

Germany). Height was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm using

a stadiometer (Holtain Ltd., Crymych, United Kingdom).

Skinfold thickness at 4 sites (biceps, triceps, subscapular, and

suprailiac) was measured using a Harpenden calliper (Lange,

Cambridge, MA, USA). To increase measurement reliability,

the skinfold sites were measured 3 times by the same

investigator, with the average value used for data analysis.

Percentage of body fat was estimated using the equations

described by Durnin and Womersley (21).

Jump Testing. Vertical jump performance was assessed using

a portable force platform (Quattro Jump; Kistler, Winterthur,

Switzerland). Players performed a countermovement jump

(CMJ) according to the protocol described by Bosco et al.

(10). Before testing, players performed self-administered

submaximal CMJs (2–3 repetitions) as a practice and speciﬁc

additional warm-up. Subjects were asked to keep their hands

on their hips to prevent any inﬂuence of arm movements on

the vertical jumps and to avoid coordination as a confounding

variable in the assessment of the leg extensors neuromuscular

performance (16). Each subject performed 3 maximal CMJs,

with ;2 minutes recovery in-between. Players were asked to

jump as high as possible and the highest jump was used for

analysis. Reliability of the CMJ has been shown in previous

studies from our laboratory to be very high (16–18).

A quintuple horizontal jump test (5JT) was also performed

by each player (15). The 5JT required the subject attempting

to cover the greatest horizontal distance possible by per-

forming a series of 5 forward jumps with alternated left and

right foot contacts. Immediately before the 5JT, players were

instructed to begin and end with their feet parallel. The

participants were instructed to move forward using their

preferred leg. The 5JT performance was measured, with

a measuring tape, as the distance from the front edge of the

player’s feet at the starting position to the rear edge of the

feet at the ﬁnal landing position. The assessor at landing had

to focus on the last stride of the player to determine exactly

the last footprint because the players could not always stay

on their feet at landing. The starting position was settled

on a ﬁxed point. Subjects were allowed 3 trials, with the

longest distance used for analysis. The intraclass correlation

coefﬁcient (ICC) and SEM for the 5JT were reported to be

0.96 and 0.2, respectively (17), in a population similar to that

considered in this study.

Sprint and Change of Direction Testing. All sprint and COD

times were recorded to the nearest 0.01 second using the same

electronic timing system (Brower Timing Systems, Salt Lake

City, UT, USA). The running speed of players was evaluated

with 30-m sprints (with 5- and 10-m split times also recorded).

The subjects performed 3 maximal 30-m sprints on an indoor

synthetic track. During the recovery period between 30-m

sprints (2–3 minutes), the subjects walked back to the starting

line and then waited for their next sprint bout. When ready,

the subjects began the sprint from a standing start 0.5 m

behind the ﬁrst timing gate. Stance for the start was consistent

for each subject. The run with the shortest 30-m time (and

VOLUME 26 | NUMBER 10 | OCTOBER 2012 | 2669

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

the

www .nsca.com

corresponding 5- and 10-m split times) was selected for

analysis. Data from our laboratory for 2 4 soccer players (with

similar characteristics to the sample of this study), who

performed sprint test on 2 separate occasions, yielded an ICC

and SEM of 0.96 and 0.0 2, respectively.

The T-test was administered using the protocol outlined by

Semenick (41). Four cones were arranged in a T-shape, with

a cone placed 9.14 m from the starting cone (photocell gates

2 m apart) and 2 further cones placed 4.57 m on either side

of the second cone. Subjects were asked to sprint forward

9.14 m from the start line to the ﬁrst cone and touch the tip

with their right hand, shufﬂe 4.57 m left to the second cone

and touch it with their left hand, then shufﬂe 9.14 m right

to the third cone and touch it with their right hand, and

shufﬂe 4.57 m back left to the middle cone and touch it with

their left hand before ﬁnally back pedaling to the start line.

Trials were deemed unsuccessful if participants failed to

touch a designated cone, crossed their legs while shufﬂing,

or failed to face forward at all times. Only 1 timing gate

placed on the start-ﬁnish line was used for timing the T-test.

Subjects performed 3 trials and the fastest time from 3 trials

was used as the T-test score. Previous research from our

laboratory showed T-test to be highly reliable, with an ICC

and SEM of 0.96 and 0.1, respectively (17).

For the 5mSS, 2 lines (start line and 5-m line) were marked

on the ground, 5 m apart. The subject sprinted from the start

line and then turned 180° on the front line 5 m apart, to sprint

back crossing the starting line again. One timing gate placed

on the start-ﬁnish line was used for timing the 5mSS. Only

trials that had players stepping on the front line at the 180°

turn were considered valid. Players performed 2 valid 5mSS

trials, with the fastest retained for calculations (2-minute

recovery between trials). Change of direction was performed

freely with the preferred foot of the subject. The ICC and

SEM for the 5mSS (i.e., test-retest design, n = 24) were

0.91 and 0.05, respectively.

Isokinetic Testing. Isokinetic concentric and eccentric knee

extensor (quadriceps) and ﬂexor (hamstrings) strength of

both limbs was assessed at an angular velocity of 60°per

second using an isokinetic Cybex II Norm dynamometer

(Cybex NORM; Henley Healthcare, Cybex International,

Inc., Medway, MA, USA), according to Chamari et al. (15).

The concentric strength of the quadriceps and hamstrings

was assessed during continuous (bidirectional) knee exten-

sion-ﬂexion movements. A pause of 1 second was allowed

between extension-ﬂexion movements to avoid a contribu-

tion to hamstring torque from the previous quadriceps

action. Eccentric muscle strength was measured during dual

concentric-eccentric actions of the same muscle group. The

order of tests was concentric extensor, concentric ﬂexor,

eccentric extensor, and eccentric ﬂexor. Testing was pre-

ceded by a standardized warm-up procedure including

cycling and hamstring and quadriceps dynamic stretching

exercises. As part of the warm-up, the subjects sat on the

Cybex Norm dynamometer and were secured to both the

dynamometer and the corresponding chair according to

the manufacturer’s speciﬁcations to minimize extraneous

movements and to maintain a constant hip joint angle (90°).

After height, limb mass, gravity correction, and individu-

al-speciﬁc full range of knee motion were recorded, subjects

performed a set of 4–5 submaximal leg extension and ﬂexion

contractions on the isokinetic dynamometer at 18 0°per

second as a speciﬁc warm-up. After a 3-minute rest, the

participants were asked to perform 5 maximal concentric and

eccentric repetitions with a rest period of 3 minutes between

sets, and the highest peak torque values of the ﬂexors and

extensors of each leg were used for the analysis. Five

repetitions were chosen because it is acknowledged in the

literature that no more than 5 repetitions are necessary when

assessing strength (11). The limb tested ﬁrst was randomly

chosen for each participant. After testing, the participants

completed a 5-minute cool-down period on a cycle ergom-

eter. Bilateral muscle strength imbalance was calculated using

the formulae (right leg 2 left leg/right leg 3 100).

Statistical Analyses

Data are presented as mean 6 SD and conﬁdence intervals at

95% level (95% CIs). Before any parametric statistic was

performed, the assumption of normality was tested with the

Shapiro-Wilk test on each variable. Association between

variables was assessed using Pearson’s correlation coefﬁcient.

Magnitude of correlation was qualitatively ranked according

to Hopkins (25) as follows: trivial r ,0.1, small 0.1 , r , 0.3,

moderate 0.3 , r , 0.5, large 0.5 , r , 0.7, very large

0.7 , r , 0.9, nearly perfect r . 0.9, and perfect r =1.

The Sheppard and Young (42) deterministic model for

CODA was tested using a linear model (i.e., forward stepwise

multiple regression). The model assumed as constructs of

CODA the 5mSS or T-test (i.e., dependent variables).

According to Sheppard and Young (42), the following

variables were considered as components of the universal

agility model proposed: (a) body mass, percentage of body fat

(% body fat), height, leg length, and body mass index as

representatives of anthropometry; (b) 5-m sprint perfor-

mance as straight sprinting speed factor; (c) CMJ peak power

(CMJ-PP) as power factor; (d) 5JT performance as a reactive

strength measure (15); (e) quadriceps and hamstring con-

centric (QuadConc and HamConc, respectively) and eccen-

tric (QuadEcc and HamEcc, respectively) isokinetic strength

at 60° per second (mean of the right and left limbs) as

dynamic strength factors (19,28); and (f) percentage of dif-

ference of right versus left concentric and eccentric isokinetic

strength (60° per second) of quadriceps (QuadCImb% and

QuadEImb%, respectively) and hamstrings (HamCImb%

and HamEImb%, respectively) muscles as representative of

left-right muscle imbalance.

Median-split technique was used to assess the likelihood

of difference between pla yers scoring high or low with

respect t o CO DA performance (i.e., T-test and 5mSS test).

2670

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Resear ch

the

Change-of-Direction Ability in Elite Soccer Players

Multivariate analysis of variance with a between-group

design was used assuming as d ependent variables T-test and

5mS S performances split into 2 groups according to the

median score (i.e., best and worst performers groups ).

Preliminary assumption t esting was conducted to check for

normality, line arity, univariate and multivariate outliers,

homogeneity of variance-covaria nce matrices, an d multi-

collinearity. The same te st scores as dependent variables

were used as per the multiple regression analysis. The

independent variables were group differen ce in T- test and

5mS S scores.

Practical signiﬁcance was

assessed by calculating the

Cohen’s d effect size (0.1 =

trivial, 0.2 = small, 0.5 =

medium, 0.8 = large) and eta

square (h

; small = 0.01,

medium = 0.06, large =

0.14). The reliability of the

tests used in this study was

assessed with ICCs before the

commencement of the study

in a population of soccer

players and ranged from 0.91

to 0.96 (47).

RESULTS

Using T-test as a dependent

variable (15 model independent

variables), the forward stepwise

multiple regression showed

best ﬁt after 8 steps (R = 0.81,

= 0.65, adjusted R

= 0.45, F

8,14

= 3.25, p = 0.026). The best

ﬁt for the 5mSS performance was achieved with a 10-step

model (R = 0.85, R

= 0.72, adjusted R

= 0.48, F

10,12

= 3.03,

p = 0.036). Details of the forward stepwise multiple

regressions are reported in Tables 1 and 2.

Signiﬁcant effects (p , 0.05) were obtained for 5mSS,

height, QuadConc, and QuadEImb% for the T-test model,

and for T-test, height, % body fat, and CMJ-PP for the 5mSS

model. Using the ‘‘median-split’’ technique, the soccer

players were divided into 2 groups (best and worst)

according to the median T-test (T-test

best

and T-test

worst

)

and the 5mSS (5mS S

best

and

5mSS

worst

) scores. The player

with the median time value was

excluded to obtain 2 subgroups

with the same number of

participants (n = 11).

T here was a statistically signif-

icant difference between T-test

best

and T-test

worst

on the combined

dependent variables (F

4,17

= 4.65,

p = 0.01, h

=0.52).Whenthe

results for the dependent varia-

bles were considered separately,

statistically signiﬁcant differences

were observed in sprint time

over 5 m (F

1,20

= 7.52, p =

0.0013, h

= 0.273), CMJ-PP

1,20

= 5.20, p = 0.034, h

0.206), 5mSS (F

1,20

= 4.99, p =

0.037, h

= 0.200), and ham-

string peak eccentric torque

1,20

= 5.49, p = 0.030, h

0.215) (Table 3). No signiﬁcant

TABLE 1. Multiple correlation summary of the deterministic model assuming T-test as

a dependent variable.*

T-test Beta (SE) B (SE) pR

Step

5mSS 0.64 (0.20) 1.32 (0.41) 0.006 0.15 1

Height 0.93 (0.27) 0.05 (0.01) 0.003 0.29 2

QuadConc 20.88 (0.30) 20.01 (0.01) 0.011 0.37 3

QuadEImb% 20.44 (0.18) 20.01 (0.01) 0.029 0.43 4

QuadEcc 20.55 (0.28) 20.04 (0.01) 0.066 0.50 5

5-m sprint 0.29 (0.18) 0.96 (0.62) 0.145 0.55 6

CMJ-PP 0.38 (0.22) 0.02 (0.01) 0.104 0.59 7

% Body fat 0.40 (0.26) 0.05 (0.03) 0.139 0.65 8

*Step = forward stepwise regression variable inclusion step; 5mSS = 5-m shuttle

run-sprint; QuadConc = quadriceps concentric isokinetic strength at 60° per second;

QuadEImb% = percentage of difference of right vs. left eccentric isokinetic strength of

quadriceps muscles; QuadEcc = quadriceps eccentric isokinetic strength at 60° per second;

CMJ-PP = countermovement jump peak power.

TABLE 2. Multiple correlation summary of the deterministic model assuming 5mSS

test as a dependent variable.*

5mSS Beta (SE) B (SE) pR

Step

T-test 0.59 (0.18) 0.29 (0.09) 0.008 0.15 1

QuadCImb% 0.15 (0.21) 0.01 (0.01) 0.489 0.29 2

Height 21.43 (0.40) 20.04 (0.01) 0.004 0.35 3

% Body fat 20.62 (0.23) 20.04 (0.01) 0.020 0.44 4

CMJ-PP 20.48 (0.19) 20.01 (0.01) 0.027 0.50 5

Leg length 0.75 (0.43) 0.03 (0.02) 0.109 0.58 6

QuadEImb% 0.41 (0.21) 0.01 (0.01) 0.074 0.63 7

QuadConc 0.66 (0.35) 0.01 (0.01) 0.081 0.66 8

QuadEcc 0.42 (0.30) 0.01 (0.01) 0.182 0.69 9

5JT 20.26 (0.25) 20.05 (0.05) 0.331 0.72 10

*Step = forward stepwise regression variable inclusion step; QuadCImb% = percentage of

difference of right vs. left concentric isokinetic strength of quadriceps muscles; CMJ-PP =

countermovement jump peak power; QuadEImb% = percentage of difference of right vs. left

eccentric isokinetic strength of quadriceps muscles; QuadConc = quadriceps concentric

isokinetic strength at 60° per second; QuadEcc = quadriceps eccentric isokinetic strength at

60° per second; 5JT = 5-jump test.

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difference between the variables of interest was found when

the groups were formed according to the 5mSS score.

DISCUSSION

This is the ﬁrst study that has examined the components of

CODA in elite-level soccer players using the Sheppard and

Young (42) universal model components for agility. The main

ﬁnding of this study was the existence of explanatory models

that were moderately successful in describing the determin-

ing variables of the CODA tests considered here in elite

soccer players.

Change-of-direction ability is considered as a relevant

ﬁtness variable in team sports (12,42). However, despite the

supposed importance of CODA, no universal gold standard is

currently available for its assessment (12,16,42). Furthermore,

there are several constructs that have been proposed in the

international literature to deﬁne CODA (6,12,42).

Recently, Sheppard and Young (42) proposed CODA as

a systematic component of agility considered as a physical

performance attribute possessing a strong cognitive compo-

nent. The CODA was deﬁned by Brughelli et al. (12) as the

ability to change direction while sprinting over a preplanned

course. Despite the logical validity of this deﬁnition, no

universal test is currently available in team sports and the

attempts to develop speciﬁc tests provided protocols that at

best possess logical validity (12,16,42,43). The CODA tests

may be successfully classiﬁed according to the number of

CODs considered in the test protocol and complexity of

variation in movements (12).

In this study to assess the CODA in elite-level soccer

players, 2 tests were used that differed for CODs number and

exercise modes involved (i.e., 5mSS and T-test). The T-test

initially developed for CODA assessment in basketball pro-

gressively acquired team sports interest for its feasibility,

validity, and reliability (7,12,16,33,41). Indeed, the T-test,

involving lateral and backward running switching from short

sprinting, mimics the movement pattern considered as

relevant in most of the team sports (12).

Shuttle run-sprinting performance is considered as a perti-

nent activity in elite soccer and descriptive studies suggested

to consider it as a ‘‘per se’’ ability (22,27,31,35,45,48). In this

study, we used the T-test and the 5mSS test, as logical

representative of general and speciﬁc CODA test paradigms

in soccer, respectively. The independence of the 2 tests used

as agents of the ideal CO DA spectrum ends (i.e., universality

vs. speciﬁcity) was supported by the moderate and non-

signiﬁcant correlation between 5mSS and T-test (n =23,r

0.14, 95% CI 20.03 to 0.69, p = 0.07).

The CO DA is commonly considered as a multifactorial

ﬁtness attribute of team sport players. Sheppard and Young

(42) proposed a universal multicomponent model to describe

the supposed determinant of CODA. However, they did

not provide information about the speciﬁc nature of the

components proposed. In this study, the logically valid

framework of the universal multicomponent model was

challenged using a number of performance variables that

were considered relevant to soccer physical performance and

assumed as representative of the component constructs

(19,40,45,48). Differently from what originally proposed by

Sheppard and Young (42), the deterministic model was fed

with variables describing lower limb eccentric strength as

well (28). This was undertaken because C ODA involves

fast acceleration that converts into sudden decelerations

requiring high–eccentric strength gradients (12,42).

Multiple correlation analyses showed that 8 and 10

variables determined the best-ﬁtting model for the T-test

and 5mSS test, respectively (Tables 1 and 2). Interestingly, in

both models, CODA performance, anthropometry, strength,

and muscular imbalance provided signiﬁcant effect in the

predicting equations. However, the adjusted R

resulting

from best ﬁtting ranged from 0.45 to 0.48, showing that the

explanatory strength of the models was moderate.

These ﬁndings are similar to those recently reported by

Jones et al. (28) who studied the physical determinants of

COD speed in a population (n = 38) of university students

who were involved in recreational sport activities. These

authors reported that the explanatory terms (i.e., short-term

TABLE 3. Summary of the multivariate analysis of variance statistics (signiﬁcant differences, p # 0.01) using the median-

split technique for T-test score.*

T-test

best

(mean 6 SD)

T-test

worst

(mean 6 SD)

Mean

difference

95% Conﬁdence

interval

Magnitude of the difference

Effect size Interpretation

CMJ-PP (W) 34.38 6 5.73 30.02 6 2.76 4.36 0.26 to 8.47 0.206 Large effect

5-m sprint (s) 1.07 6 0.07 1.16 6 0.08 20.93 20.16 to 20.02 0.284 Large effect

Time 180° (s) 2.82 6 0.09 2.95 6 0.13 20.13 20.24 to 20.03 0.200 Large effect

HamEcc 60° (Ns

) 2174 6 22 2148 6 28 225.36 247.95 to 22.78 0.215 Large effect

*CMJ-PP = countermovement jump peak power; HamEcc = hamstring eccentric isokinetic strength at 60° per second.

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Change-of-Direction Ability in Elite Soccer Players

linear sprinting and isokinetic eccentric strength) used were

able to explain ;67% (using R

) of the common variance of

COD (i.e., 505 test) performance (42). Unfortunately, Jones

et al. (28) did not report the adjusted R

to characterize the

population goodness of ﬁt, and consequently, the general-

ization of their ﬁndings is doubtful.

In this study, the considered line-sprint component (i.e.,

5-m sprinting) showed only a marginal effect on the pre-

dictive model differently from what was reported by Jones

et al. (28). Indeed, in the Jones et al. (28) study, the ﬂying 5-m

sprint accounted for ;58% of the COD variance.

The difference found between the studies may be because

of the populations assessed and may suggest speciﬁc training

adaptations in soccer players (45). Interestingly, the effect of

linear sprinting was detected by the proposed model only for

the general CODA test in this study (i.e., T-test) and in

recreational athletes in the Jones et al. (2 8) study. This ﬁnding

challenges the consideration of straight sprinting speed (i.e.,

5 m) as a factor in the soccer-speciﬁc component model of

CODA. It could be argued that the sprint distance considered

in this study may have had an impact on the explanatory

strength of the straight sprinting speed component in the

model. In this study, player’s sprint performance was also

assessed for the 10 and 30 m according to what was

suggested by Cometti et al. (19). Results showed that the 5-m

sprint time was almost perfectly and very largely correlated

with the 10 m (r = 0.97, p , 0.0001, 95% CI 0.94–0.99, n =23)

and 30 m (r = 0.74, p , 0.0001, 95% CI 0.46–0.88, n =23)

sprint scores, respectively. Furthermore, the 10-m sprint

performance was very largely associated with the 30-m

scores (r = 0.85, p , 0.0001, 95% CI 0.67–0.93, n = 23). The

resulting high collinearity and the evidence-based soccer

sprinting pattern suggested the introduction of the 5-m test

as representative of linear sprinting performance in the

predicting model considered (19,45,48).

The ﬁndings of this study are in line with other research

reports that suggested CODA as not being inﬂuenced by

forward sprinting ability in soccer (12,45,48). It is of interest to

note that the CODA tests employed in this study showed

a mutual inﬂuence on the relative explanatory models despite

absence of collinearity. This suggests that simple CODA,

as represented by 5mSS performance, may play a role in

the more articulated CODA test (i.e., T-test) performance

when associated with ideal anthropometric and muscular

conditions and vice versa.

Muscle power and strength variables only marginally

explained the CODA performances. Despite the supposed

effect in either deterministic model, the quadriceps and

hamstring eccentric strength played a marginal role. Spe-

ciﬁcally, eccentric strength yielded a signiﬁcant support to

CODA determinism only in T-test model when assumed as

eccentric strength imbalance between the right and left

legs. However, the models’ best ﬁtting showed to be

optimized by the introduction of eccentric strength variables

(Tables 1 and 2).

It could be speculated that probably the considered

expression of eccentric strength (i.e., isokinetic strength at

60°) was the cause of the resulting marginal effect of this

type of contraction regimen on CODA. Consequently, future

studies using more functional eccentric strength variables (i.e.,

assessed at higher angular velocities) are warranted.

These results are different from those reported by Jones et al.

(28) who showed a signiﬁcant effect of hamstring isokinetic

eccentric strength at 60° on a CODA test similar to 5mSS.

These differences may be partly explained by difference in

training background (recreational athletes vs. elite soccer

players) and the nature of the explanatory variables used.

Reactive strength is considered as a measure of the ability

to change rapidly from an eccentric to a concentric action

(42). In C O DA and agility studies, measures of reactive

strength have been performed using a depth jump (DJ) from

various drop heights (6,12,2 0,2 8,51). Despite the supposed

effect of reactive strength, the studies that examined the

association between C O DA and DJ performance only

reported moderate associations (i.e., correlation coefﬁcient)

(6,12,20,28,51). Indeed, in the reported studies, the shared

variance (i.e., r

) between CODA and DJ performance

ranged from 0.13 to 0.22, an effect that was dramatically

lower than the critical 0.50 threshold that should b e

exceeded to justify generality (46). According to these

ﬁndings, the use of DJ as a measure of reactive strength in

CO DA studies is questioned.

In this study, the 5JT was considered as testimonial of

reactive strength (15). Recent studies showed that 5JT was

a valid and reliable test in elite-level soccer players (15).

Furthermore, 5JT performance showed large association (i.e.,

r = 20.61, p = 0.02) with T-test in elite-level male basketball

players (16). The rationale that informed the introduction of

the 5JT in the predictive models was its greater functional

relevance to CODA performance compared with classic

variables of reactive strength such as DJ performance

(12,15,16,42,49). Despite the supposed relevance to COD

performance, results showed only a marginal effect of 5JT in

5mSS performance.

This ﬁnding and those of others do not provide evidence to

justify the inclusion of reactive strength in the speciﬁc model

of CODA in soccer (6,12,20,28,51). However, it could be

speculated that at the moment, a functional measure of

reactive strength has yet to be found in soccer (45). In this

regard, training and descriptive studies using several mea-

sures of reactive strength are warranted.

Muscle power has been suggested to be an explanatory

variable of CODA (42). According to Young et al. (50), CMJ-

PP was considered as a variable representing muscle power

in this study. Peak power during CMJ showed to be sig-

niﬁcantly (p = 0.027) associated with 5mSS performance

(Table 3) only. This ﬁnding was different from what was

previously reported in other studies that showed trivial and

nonsigniﬁcant relationship between CMJ power or height

and CODA test performance (12,42). The selective

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association of CMJ-PP and CODA (i.e., 5mSS vs. T-test) may

be explained with CODA test complexity (42). Sheppard and

Young (42) suggested that probably CO DA test complexity

(i.e., distance covered and number of change in directions)

was related to variability in acceleration and deceleration

before changing in direction and in technique, which may

have affected the magnitude in association between CMJ

performance and CODA test results. Indeed, in the only

study reporting signiﬁcant association between CMJ and

CODA performance, the considered test involved only 1

COD like in this study (32).

In this study, the effect of muscle imbalance on CODA was

examined considering the right-to-left difference in concen-

tric and eccentric strength of knee extensors and ﬂexors.

Although measures of muscle imbalance were entered in both

the T-test and 5mSS explanatory models, the association

resulted signiﬁcant only for the former test. Speciﬁcally, the

higher the player right-to-left imbalance (QuadEImb%), the

better the T-test performance. This is quite an unexpected

ﬁnding that suggests that eccentric asymmetry of knee

extensors should be considered as an advantage in multi-

direction agility tasks (i.e., forward, sideward, and backward

running). It could be speculated that players during T-test

performance used as pivoting leg their right lower limb. The

studies that examined muscular imbalance effect on CODA

performance reported no supporting evidence; consequently,

this study ﬁnding was quite unexpected. With the descriptive

nature of this study, it was not possible to explain the reason

underpinning this ﬁnding and this warrants further studies.

Future research should focus on more functional strength

imbalance measures to evaluate its relationship with COD

technique (4 2).

Anthropometry was proposed to have potential in affecting

COD speed (12,16,42). Body composition (i.e., body mass

and percentage of body fat) has been reported to affect T-test

performance in elite male professional basketball players (16).

Indeed, Chaouachi et al. (16) found very large (i.e., r = 0.80,

p , 0.001) and large (i.e., r = 0.58, p , 0.05) associations

between T-test performance and percentage of body fat in

elite male basketball players. In this study, percentage of

body fat signiﬁcantly contributed to the 5mSS prediction

model suggesting that in 180° CODA tests, the amount of

body fat may result detrimental.

Other anthropometric factors that may potentially be

related to CODA are players’ height, lower limb length, and

center of gravity height (42). In this study, players’ height

accounted signiﬁcantly to the explained variance of T-test

and 5mSS models. Leg length only marginally contributed to

the 5mSS variance (Table 2).

These ﬁndings suggest that shorter height and or a lower

center of mass may be an advantage in soccer players when

attempting sharp COD and more complex COD tasks. A

possible explanation of this result may be that players with

lower center of mass could be conceivably able to apply

horizontal forces more effectively than taller players, with

shorter time required to lower the center of gravity to perform

a quick lateral COD (12,42).

The within-group cross-sectional designs enable tracking of

independent variables that are associated with the partition-

ing construct (i.e., dependent variable) (17). This analysis

method constitutes an explorative strategy useful to gain

information to guide training interventions through de-

scriptive (i.e., time independent) studies (i.e., static screening)

(46). In this study, with the aim to simulate training effects,

players were grouped according to their CODA performance

(i.e., discriminative construct, T-test, and 5mSS test) using the

median-split technique (17). Players possessing greater-than-

median T-test performance reported better performance also

in some of the supposed attributes of the multicomponent

model (42). Speciﬁcally, soccer players scoring high in the

T-test showed superior performance also in CMJ-PP, 5-m

sprinting, and 5mSS performance. Furthermore, they showed

higher eccentric strength of hamstrings. Interestingly, the

same statistical procedure (i.e., median-split technique) was

not successful in discriminating model component variables

when grouping players according to their 5mSS perfor-

mance. These ﬁndings may be considered as evidence of the

supposed different nature of the CODA tests used. The more

complex protocol of T-test, involving superior demand on

balanced movement skill, may partly explain the reported

differences.

The 5mS S performance paralleled difference in T-test

performance sugge sting that sho rt-term shuttle running

ability can favorably affect more complex CO D tasks as

those involved i n the T-test. This provides support to the

resultsobtainedbytheforwardstepwiseregressionanalysis

when challenging the T-test universal CO DA model.

However, this was not a biunivocal occurrence because

T-test was not able to discriminate betwee n best and

worst performance groups when 5mSS was considered as

a dependent variable.

Unfortunately, with this research design (i.e., descriptive

correlational design), it was not possible to disclose the

reasons underpinning this difference. However, it could be

speculated that movement or protocol complexity played

a role in the discriminative ability of the performance

components considered here.

Interestingly, eccentric strength level of hamstrings showed

to discriminate between T-test performance groups. These

results are in line with those reported by Jones et al. (28)

that showed association between CODA performance and

hamstring isokinetic eccentric strength in recreational

athletes. Findings of descriptive studies in association with

enhancement of short-sprint performance in soccer players

as a consequence of eccentric strength hamstring improve-

ment suggest the importance of eccentric hamstring strength

in complex CODA tasks (4,28). It could be speculated that

this was the result of hamstrings acting as mediators of the

breaking forces occurring during sudden change of move-

ment and directions (12).

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Change-of-Direction Ability in Elite Soccer Players

In light of the ﬁndings of this study, the CODA universal

proposed model failed to fully explain the performance in the

5mSS test and T-test. Indeed, a number of the variables used

to represent the supposed explanatory model constructsdid

not affect the estimation of the CODA tests. Acceleration

ability, muscular strength, and body makeup showed to be

predictors of CODA in this population of elite-level soccer

players. Further studies using more relevant CODA tests to

soccer performance and functional representative of model

constructs are warranted. In this context, lower limb internal

and external rotational peak torque and abductors/adductors

power may be considered in further studies. Even though not

currently and widely assessed, these 2 functional perform-

ances are involved in most, if not all, CODA tasks. We

therefore hypothesize that including such functional perform-

ances could empower the COD explanatory model.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

When acceleration abilities are required such as in team sports,

the body composition of players should be considered. Elite

soccer players should get rid of excess of body fat to optimize

their ability to perform sudden COD with large angles (from

90 to 180°). This can be favorably achieved as soccer is not

a collision sport and players different from football and team

handball do not require fat to dampen opponent impacts

during crucial part of the game (34). Eccentric strength

training should be considered for improving maximal

dynamic strength of knee extensor and ﬂexor muscles.

The information provided by this study results support

the already reported notion of training prescription speciﬁcity

for CODA (12,42). With the current gained evidence, soccer

strength and conditioning coaches should elaborate CODA

drills that replicate the most frequent and challenging action

of the match (45). In this regard, sport scientists interested

in soccer should carry out descriptive studies (i.e., match

and time-motion analyses) to better detect movement pat-

tern during soccer competitions. Studies aiming to develop

soccer-speciﬁc CODA tests are warranted.

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Change-of-Direction Ability in Elite Soccer Players

Do stiffness and asymmetries predict change of direction performance?

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2016

Change of direction speed (CODS) underpins performance in a wide range of sports but little is known about how stiffness and asymmetries affect CODS. Eighteen healthy males performed unilateral drop jumps to determine vertical, ankle, knee and hip stiffness, and a CODS test to evaluate left and right leg cutting performance during which ground reaction force data were sampled. A step-wise regression analysis was performed to ascertain the determinants of CODS time. A two-variable regression model explained 63% (R2 = 0.63; P = 0.001) of CODS performance. The model included the mean vertical stiffness and jump height asymmetry determined during the drop jump. Faster athletes (n = 9) exhibited greater vertical stiffness (F = 12.40; P = 0.001) and less asymmetry in drop jump height (F = 6.02; P = 0.026) than slower athletes (n = 9); effect sizes were both “large” in magnitude. Results suggest that overall vertical stiffness and drop jump height asymmetry are the strongest predictors of CODS in a healthy, non-athletic population.

Determinants of the half-turn with the ball in sub-elite youth soccer players

Article

Apr 2016

We explored the biomechanics of the 180° change-of-direction with the ball (half-turn) in soccer. We aimed at identifying movement strategies which enhance the players' half-turning performance, by characterising technique kinematics and understanding the structure of biomechanical and anthropometrics variables. Ten Under-13 sub-elite male players were recorded with an optoelectronic motion analyser while performing a 5-m straight dribbling followed by a half-turn with the sole. Joints kinematics differences between faster and slower trials were found in support-side hip rotation, driving-side hip adduction, trunk flexion and rotation, and arms abduction. To unveil the data-set structure, a principal component (PC) analysis and a stepwise linear discriminant analysis were performed using 30 biomechanical parameters and four anthropometric variables for each trial. Seven retained PCs explained 79% of the overall variability, featuring combinations of original variables that help in understanding the factors facilitating fast half-turns: keeping short steps, minimising lateral and forward body movements, and centre-of-mass lowering, even with ample lower limbs ranges of motion (RoM); abducting the upper limbs while limiting trunk flexion and pelvic inclination RoM. Balance and task-constrained exercises may be proposed to improve this technique. Moreover, a quantitative knowledge of the movement structure could give coaches objective insights to better instruct young players.

The Effects of Training Interventions on Interlimb Asymmetries: A Systematic Review With Meta-analysis

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2021
Strength Condit

Inter-limb asymmetries have been recently investigated in athletic populations. However, the effects of training interventions on inter-limb asymmetries have been scarcely examined. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the effects of training interventions on changes in inter-limb asymmetries from pre-to post-training. Furthermore, to examine the effects of training programs on intervention groups compared to control groups. A database search was completed (MEDLINE, CINAHL, and SPORTDiscus). Eight studies were then included in the meta-analysis. Results showed small reductions in inter-limb asymmetries in single leg broad jump (SLBJ) and change of direction (COD) speed from pre-to post-training interventions, whereas moderate effects were found in single leg countermovement jump (SLCMJ) and single leg (SL) lateral jump. When comparing the training interventions to the control groups, results showed small effects in favour of the training groups for reducing inter-limb asymmetries in SLBJ and large effects in SLCMJ, and COD speed. Thus, training interventions can evoke small to moderate reductions in inter-limb asymmetries from pre-to post-training programs. Strength training performed unilaterally or bilaterally may elicit these reductions. Furthermore, training interventions showed larger effects compared to the control groups in reducing inter-limb asymmetries. However, further research is needed.

Functional Assessment and Injury Risk in a Professional Soccer Team

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2017

At the last World Conference on Sport and Physical Therapy celebrated in Bern (Switzerland, 2015), it was confirmed that the functional skills of an athlete are a very important variable to be considered in the recovery of an injury. On the other hand, its use as a predictive risk tool still lacks solid evidence. The purpose of this study was to determine whether a battery of functional tests (FPT) could be used as a preliminary measure for the season in order to identify the injury risk in a professional soccer team in the Spanish Second Division B League. Fifty-two soccer players (ages of 25.3 ± 4.6 years, 10.33% ± 0.9% fat) were functionally assessed during two seasons (2012–2013 and 2013–2014) and analyzed from an injury perspective. A total of 125 injuries were recorded. The sample was grouped based on the number of injuries and the required absence days. Except for the bipodal vertical jump (CMJ), none of the functional tests revealed differences among the groups. The correlation study between the functional condition and the suffered injuries did not show any significant results.

PHYSICAL PROFILE IN AMATEUR CATEGORY SOCCER PLAYERS ACCORDING TO FIELD POSITION (In Spanish)

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2016

The aims of this study were, first, to analyze the anthropometry, performance in the straight sprint, change of direction ability (CODA), cardiovascular capacity, vertical jump, horizontal jump and repeat sprint ability in amateur soccer players, and secondly, to examine the differences of these data among different positions in the field. This study involved 59 amateur soccer players (age = 23.41 ± 3.54 years, mass = 73.61 ± 6.51 kg, size = 1.76 ± 0.06 m, fat percentage = 12.49 ± 3.02%, body mass index = 23.67 ± 1.65 kg/m2, bone mass = 3.31 ± 0.31 kg, muscle mass = 61.87 ± 5.00 kg, percentage of water = 63.13 ± 3.00%) from three different category team (First Regional, Regional Preferred and Third Division). No significant differences by position groups in the anthropometry, Modified Agility T-test (MAT) and Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 (YYIR1) were found, but if the acceleration capacity in SP10m and SP20m where the forward group (DEL) were the fastest and the slowest group is the goalkeeper (P) group. Also the bilateral countermovement vertical jump (VCMJAS) and the bilateral horizontal jump (HCMJAS) unilateral horizontal jump (HCMJASI) being the most jumped group P and the group midfielder (MC) the least. In the repeat sprint ability (RSA30m) was observed as the group DEL was the faster and the MC group was the slower. Due to the results obtained, can lead us to think that it might be interesting to implement specific training programs for each position in the field because the roles of the soccer players are different.

Effects of Post-Activation Performance Enhancement (PAPE) Induced by a Plyometric Protocol on Deceleration Performance

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2021

Post-Activation Potentiation (PAP) is a phenomenon which can improve power performance executed after a previous conditioning activity. PAP is usually evoked through heavy resistance or plyometric exercise. It has been suggested to refer to as Postactivation Performance Enhancement (PAPE) when research is field-based on explosive activities. To our best knowledge, no studies have investigated the effects of PAPE on deceleration performance, which is a key factor in sports involving change of directions. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the influence of a plyometric exercise protocol on a subsequent deceleration running performance. University soccer players (n = 18) performed seven deceleration trials and were assessed at baseline and after ~15 s, 2, 4, 8, 12 and 16 min either following a walking control condition (C) or three sets of ten repetitions of alternate-leg bounding (plyometric, P). Results showed no significant differences at any of the trials under the control condition (C) in comparison to the relative baseline. Under the plyometric condition (P), deceleration performance executed two minutes after the plyometric activity resulted in significantly faster results compared to the baseline values (p = 0.042; ES = 0.86, large effect; % of improvement = 4.13 %). The main findings are that plyometric exercise improves a subsequent running deceleration performance, 2 min after its execution. Future investigations should focus on more complex actions such as changes of direction and agility.

Relation between Different Variables of Vertical Jumps and Sprints in Brazilian Professional Soccer Players

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2017

Relation between Different Variables of Vertical Jumps and Sprints in Brazilian Professional Soccer Players. JEPonline 2017;20(1):33-46. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relation between different variables of vertical jumps and sprints in professional soccer players. The study consisted of 25 Brazilian elite soccer players (28.1 ± 1 yrs, 78.2 ± 6.8 kg, 1.81 ± 0.12 m, % Fat = 14.2 ± 3.2) who were ran the 10 m (S10m) and 20 m (S20m) sprint tests with change of direction at 40 m (20 + 20 m) (Acyclic Sprint) and the ZigZag sprint (ZZT) as well as Squat Jumps (SJ) and Counter Movement Jumps (CMJ). The Pearson's linear correlation and the stepwise linear regression model were used to investigate both the relation and the prediction between variables. All the correlations between the variables were significant (P<0.05). The correlation magnitude between S10m-S20m (r=0.83, P<0.0001), SJ-CMJ (r=0.86, P<0.0001), and ZZT-Acyclic Sprint (r=0.79, P<0.0001) were very large. The S20m variable 34 explained 68% (P=0.002) of the performance in S10m (P=0.001), CMJ explained additional 7%, and ZZT, 4%. The S10m variable explained 68% (P=0.001) and ZZT explained additional 9% (P=0.001) of S20m. The CMJ was the only explanatory variable (74%) for SJ (P=0.001) with additional 5% at S10m. The Acyclic Sprint explained 62% (P=0.001) of ZZT with additional 10% at S10m and S20m (P=0.001). It was concluded that the S10m-S20m, CMJ-SJ, and ZZT-Acyclic Sprint relations in the analyzed sample have dependent attributes between each other. The CMJ and SJ did not help in explaining the ZZT and the Acyclic Sprint; whereas, the S10m and S20m had low explanatory power for sprints with change of direction.

Using Loaded and Unloaded Jumps to Increase Speed and Power Performance in Elite Young and Senior Soccer Players

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2016
Strength Condit

Speed and power abilities are progressively required in contemporary soccer in order to enable players to fulfill the demands of a competitive match. However, there are limited scientifically-based recommendations related to training strategies able to improve these neuromuscular capacities in soccer athletes. This article highlights the evidence available in the literature while also applying it to strength and conditioning professionals who seek effective approaches to increase sprint and jump performances in elite young and senior soccer players.

Relación entre la capacidad de aceleración, cambio de dirección y salto horizontal en atletas jóvenes

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2016

El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la asociación existente entre la capacidad de aceleración en línea recta, la capacidad de cambiar de dirección (CODA) y la capacidad de salto horizontal (SH) en jóvenes atletas. En este estudio participaron un total de 264 jóvenes atletas de entre 8 y 16 años (10,2 ± 2,6 años; 37,5 ± 11,7 kg; 1,4 ± 0,1 m, 17,7 ± 2,4 kg•m-2). Se evaluó la capacidad de aceleración en línea recta en los test de 5 y 15 m, la CODA en el test 505 (505) y en el modified agility test (MAT) y la capacidad de SH con contra movimiento (HCMJ) y manos libres (HCMJAS). La asociación entre la capacidad de aceleración en 5 m y los test de CODA (505: r = 0,54, p < 0,01 y MAT: r = 0,62, p < 0,01) o salto horizontal (HCMJ: r = -0,64, p < 0,01 y HCMJAS: r = -0,67, p > 0,05) fue más consistente que la asociación entre la aceleración en 15 m y los test de CODA o SH. La asociación entre el test MAT y el SH (HCMJ: r = -0,73, p < 0,01 y HCMJAS: r = -0,74, p < 0,01) fue mayor que la relación observada entre el 505 y el HCMJ (r = -0,63, p < 0,01) o el HCMJAS (r = -0,61, p < 0,01). El tipo, la duración y la naturaleza de los test de campo utilizados, condicionan las asociaciones observadas entre las distintas habilidades motoras.

Acute Improvement of Vertical Jump Performance After Isometric Squats Depends on Knee Angle and Vertical Jumping Ability

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2016

This study examined the acute effects of maximum isometric squats at two different knee angles (90 or 140) on countermovement jump (CMJ) performance in power athletes. Fourteen national level male track and field power athletes completed 3 main trials (two experimental and one control) in a randomized and counterbalanced order one week apart. CMJ performance was evaluated using a force-plate before and 15 s, 3, 6, 9 and 12 minutes after 3 sets of 3 s maximum isometric contractions with 1 minute rest in between, from a squat position with knee angle set at 90 or 140. CMJ performance was improved compared to baseline only in the 140 condition by 3.8 ± 1.2% on the 12th minute of recovery (p = 0.027), while there was no change in CMJ height in the 90 condition. In the control condition there was a decrease in CMJ performance over time, reaching -3.6 ± 1.2% (p = 0.049) after 12 minutes of recovery. To determine the possible effects of baseline jump performance on subsequent CMJ performance, subjects were divided into two groups ("high jumpers" and "low jumpers"). The baseline CMJ values of "high jumpers" and "low jumpers" differed significantly (CMJ: 45.1 ± 2.2 vs. 37.1 ± 3.9 cm, respectively, p = 0.001). CMJ was increased only in the "high jumpers" group by 5.4 ± 1.4% (p = 0.001) and 7.4 ± 1.2% (p = 0.001) at the knee angles of 90 and 140, respectively. This improvement was larger at the 140 angle (p = 0.049). Knee angle during isometric squats and vertical jumping ability are important determinants of the acute CMJ performance increase observed following a conditioning activity.

The Relationship between Isokinetic Open and Closed Chain Lower Extremity Strength and Functional Performance

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2000

Objectives To determine (1) correlations between isokinetic lower extremity strength and functional performance and (2) correlations among different modes of isokinetic testing. Design and Setting A correlational design with 6 measures. A series of strength, power, and agility tests was performed at a hospital-based outpatient physical therapy clinic. Participants A volunteer sample of 29 male and 31 female, college-age subjects participated. Measurements All subjects were tested in the following isokinetic tests: reciprocal leg press, single-leg squat, and knee extension. Performance tests included single-leg hop and vertical jump and a speed/agility test. Results Analysis showed isokinetic knee extension, leg press, and single-leg squat strength significantly correlated to all functional tests. There were significant correlations among the 3 different isokinetic strength measures, as well. Conclusions These results suggest a significant relationship between lower extremity open and closed chain isokinetic strength and functional performance testing.

Turning movements performed during FA Premier League soccer matches.

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2007
J SPORT SCI MED

Deceleration movements performed during FA Premier League soccer matches

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2007
J SPORT SCI MED

Sprint vs. Interval Training in Football

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2007

The aim of this study was to compare the effects of high-intensity aerobic interval and repeated-sprint ability (RSA) training on aerobic and anaerobic physiological variables in male football players. Forty-two participants were randomly assigned to either the interval training group (ITG, 4 x 4 min running at 90 - 95 % of HRmax; n = 21) or repeated-sprint training group (RSG, 3 x 6 maximal shuttle sprints of 40 m; n = 21). The following outcomes were measured at baseline and after 7 weeks of training: maximum oxygen uptake, respiratory compensation point, football-specific endurance (Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test, YYIRT), 10-m sprint time, jump height and power, and RSA. Significant group x time interaction was found for YYIRT (p = 0.003) with RSG showing greater improvement (from 1917 +/- 439 to 2455 +/- 488 m) than ITG (from 1846 +/- 329 to 2077 +/- 300 m). Similarly, a significant interaction was found in RSA mean time (p = 0.006) with only the RSG group showing an improvement after training (from 7.53 +/- 0.21 to 7.37 +/- 0.17 s). No other group x time interactions were found. Significant pre-post changes were found for absolute and relative maximum oxygen uptake and respiratory compensation point (p < 0.05). These findings suggest that the RSA training protocol used in this study can be an effective training strategy for inducing aerobic and football-specific training adaptations.

ASEP Procedures recommendation I: Accurate assessment of muscular strength and power

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2001

The content of this manuscript is intended to assist the reader in collecting valid and reliable data for quantifying muscular strength and power. Various drawbacks and pitfalls of specific tests, as well as recommendations for the practitioner are also provided. The content is divided into sections covering isometric, isotonic, field tests, and isokinetic modes of exercise. Inherent in these modes are both concentric and eccentric muscle actions as well as both open and closed kinetic chain activities. For Isometric testing, contractions should occur over a four to five seconds duration with a one second transition period at the start of the contraction. At least one minute of rest should be provided between contractions. For each muscle tested at each position, at least three contractions should be performed although more may be performed if deemed necessary by the tester. For isotonic testing, the 1-RM test should be performed. After the general warm-up, the subject should perform a specific warm-up set of 8 repetitions at approximately 50% of the estimated 1-RM followed by another set of 3 repetitions at 70% of the estimated 1-RM. Subsequent lifts are single repetitions of progressively heavier weights until failure. Repeat until the 1-RM is determined to the desired level of precision. The rest interval between sets should be not less than one and not more than five minutes. The optimal number of single repetitions ranges from three to five. Data and guidelines of the following field tests are also provided; vertical jump, bench press, Wingate anaerobic cycle test (WAT), and the Margaria stair-run test. For isokinetic testing, details are provided for testing peak torque, work, power, endurance, and estimation of fiber type percentages.

Relationship between speed, agility and strength qualities in Australian Rules football

Article

Jan 1996

Reliability and Validity of the T-Test as a Measure of Agility, Leg Power, and Leg Speed in College-Aged Men and Women

Article

Nov 2000

The reliability and validity of the T-test as a measure of leg power, leg speed, and agility were examined. A total of 304 college-aged men (n = 152) and women (n = 152), selected from varying levels of sport participation, performed 4 tests of sport skill ability: (a) 40-yd dash (leg speed), (b) counter-movement vertical jump (leg power), (c) hexagon test (agility), and (d) T-test. For both men and women, significant differences (p < 0.05) in mean scores were found among groups for the T-test. The intraclass reliability of the T-test was 0.98 across 3 trials. For men, the Pearson product moment correlations between the T-test and the 40-yd dash, vertical jump, and hexagon test were r = 0.53, r = -0.49, and r = 0.42, respectively (p < 0.05). For women, the corresponding correlations were r = 0.73, r = -0.55, and r = 0.48 (p < 0.05). Regression analyses showed that for men 48% of the variability and for women 62% of the variability of the T-test scores can be predicted from measures of leg power, leg speed, and agility (p < 0.05). Computing partial correlations assessed the criterion validity of the T-test as a measure of agility, leg power, and leg speed. The T-test appears to be highly reliable and measures a combination of components, including leg speed, leg power, and agility, and may be used to differentiate between those of low and high levels of sports participation. (C) 2000 National Strength and Conditioning Association

Relationship of Jumping and Agility Performance in Female Volleyball Athletes

Article

Nov 2007

Court sports often require more frequent changes of direction (COD) than field sports. Most court sports require 180= turns over a small distance, so COD in such sports might be best evaluated with an agility test involving short sprints and sharp turns. The purposes of this study were to (a) quantify vertical and horizontal force during a COD task, (b) identify possible predictors of court-sport-specific agility performance, and (c) examine performance difference between National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I, II, and III athletes. Twenty-nine collegiate female volleyball players completed a novel agility test, countermovement (CM) and drop jump tests, and an isometric leg extensor test. The number of athletes by division was as follows: I (n = 9), II (n = 11), and III (n = 9). The agility test consisted of 4 5-meter sprints with 3 180= turns, including 1 on a multiaxial force platform so that the kinetic properties of the COD could be identified. One-way analysis of variance revealed that Division I athletes had significantly greater countermovement jump heights than Division III, and the effect size comparisons (Cohen's d) showed large-magnitude differences between Division I and both Divisions II and III for jump height. No other differences in performance variables were noted between divisions, although effect sizes reached moderate values for some comparisons. Regression analysis revealed that CM displacement was a significant predictor of agility performance, explaining approximately 34% of the variance. Vertical force was found to account for much of the total force exerted during the contact phase of the COD task, suggesting that performance in the vertical domain may limit the COD task used herein. This study indicates that individuals with greater CM performance also have quicker agility times and suggests that training predominantly in the vertical domain may also yield improvements in certain types of agility performance. This may hold true even if such agility performance requires a horizontal component. (C) 2007 National Strength and Conditioning Association

PLYOMETRICS: Sprint bounding and the sprint bound index

Article

Aug 1992

Warren B Young

The Influence of Aerobic Capacity on Anaerobic Performance and Recovery Indices in Basketball Players

Article

Nov 1999
J STRENGTH COND RES

This study examined the effect of aerobic capacity on performance, fatigue, and heart rate recovery following high-intensity anaerobic exercise in national-level basketball players. Twenty subjects (19.0 ± 1.7 years, 88.4 ± 8.0 kg, 194.2 ± 6.0 cm, 50.2 ± 3.8 ml·kg·min-1) participated in this investigation. Each subject performed a treadmill test to determine maximal oxygen consumption (Vo2max), a Wingate Anaerobic Power Test (WAnT), and a field test of anaerobic power common to basketball players (line drill). The line drill is a continuous 143-m sprint with several changes of direction. The line drill was performed 3 times (T1, T2, and T3) with a 2-minute passive rest between each sprint. A moderate correlation was seen between Vo2max and mean power of the WAnT (r = 0.57). However, no significant relationship was observed between Vo2max and the fatigue index in either the WAnT (r = -0.23) or line drill (r = 0.01). Little to no correlation was observed between Vo2max and heart rate recovery in the WAnT (r = -0.22) and line drill (r = -0.04, r = -0.19, and r = -0.30 in T1, T2, and T3, respectively). These results showed little to no relationship between aerobic capacity and recovery indices from high-intensity exercise in basketball players.

Determinants analysis of change of direction ability in elite soccer players

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