Impact of Forest fire and aspect on phytosociology, tree biomass and carbon stock in Oak and Pine mixed Forests of Kumaun central Himalaya, India

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Impact of Forest fire and aspect on phytosociology, tree biomass and carbon stock in Oak and Pine mixed
Forests of Kumaun central Himalaya, India
Nabin Raj Joshi*, Ashish Tewari and Deepak Bahadur Chand
Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, D.S.B. Campus Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand
(India)
*Corresponding author; E-mail-: nabin2001@gmail.com
Abstract: Fire is one of the main factors causing biodiversity losses, its main effect on ecological process in the
forests are losses in stocks of biomass, change in hydrological cycle and nutrients, forest fires are growing in their
size and frequency. Forest fire frequencies, aspect, phytosociological analysis, and population structure of the forest
of the two community managed forest locally called (Community Forests) of Almora district, in Kumaun Central
Himalaya were studied. The sites were divided into two different aspects i.e. South West (SW) and North West
(NW). Based on the phytosociological analysis of four sites represented two major forest types: Pure oak forest and
mixed oak-conifer forest. The total basal cover of trees ranged from 4.44 m2 ha-1 to 46.52m2 ha-1.Total tree
densities varied from 160 ind ha-1 to 230ind ha-1. Sapling density varied from 360ind ha-1 to 610 ind ha-1 and
seedling density from 120 ind ha-1 to 530 ind ha-1. Pinus roxburghii was the dominant species in SW aspect and
Quercus leucotrichophora in NW aspect. The total tree biomass ranged between 9.47 t ha-1 to 62.54 t ha-1 in all
aspect of the forests, and the maximum tree biomass was found in north-western aspect of Dhaili van Panchayat
forest (62.54 t ha-1). Fire was a strong agent of reducing the number of seedlings and saplings and the biomass
stock as well in the studied forest sites, it was observed that those studied sites where fire frequency was regular
(every year) the number of sapling and seedling count was 360 ind ha-1 and 370 ind ha-1 in south-eastern aspect for
both study sites respectively, while this number increased to 610 and 530 ind ha-1 for the north-western aspect
where fire occurred once in a five year.
[Nabin Raj Joshi, Ashish Tewari and Deepak Bahadur Chand. Impact of Forest fire and aspect on
phytosociology, tree biomass and carbon stock in Oak and Pine mixed Forests of Kumaun central Himalaya,
India. Researcher 2013; 5(3):1-8]. (ISSN: 1553-9865). http://www.sciencepub.net/researcher. 1
Key words: Aspect, Biomass, Carbon, Forest fire, Regeneration, Community.
INTRODUCTION
The Central Himalaya, accounts for 8.68% of
the total Indian Himalayan area (59436 km2) and
harbor rich biodiversity due to geographical and
geological peculiarities subtending a wide range of
vegetation types (Rikhari et.al., 1997). The Himalayan
biodiversity is severely threatened by natural and
anthropogenic means. The various disturbances
present in the area are eroding this rich biological
diversity day by day and has led to the expansion of
xerophytic conditions (Singh and Singh, 1987). The
majority of the population in the region is agricultural
and pastoral. Forests present around the agricultural
fields are highly degraded due to continuous
anthropogenic disturbances. A large number of cattle
are kept for manure production. Villagers frequently
graze their cattle in the adjoining forest which
increases the pressure beside fodder and fuel wood
extracted from oak forest and accidental fires (Singh
and Singh, 1984). Forest biodiversity is the main
source of livelihood of the people of Uttrakhand. The
exploitive management practices and the biotic stress
exerted by hill population in relation to oak species
have encouraged the pine in various ways (Saxena and
Singh, 1984). Much of the area now occupied by pine
was originally under the potential natural vegetation
of oaks (Champion and Seth, 1968). Conversion of
oak forests to pine is still proceeding on larger scale
this trend may lead to severe reduction in the oak
forest area in the region. A reversal of this trend
requires a thorough evaluation of current management
practices including local people participation.
Conservation of biological resources under
community based conservation system is a key tool to
lessen the depletion of biodiversity. Various
programme have been implemented for the
conservation of biological resources in the Indian
Himalaya under the protected area network. The
active participation and involvement of local people
either at community or individual level is essential
towards conservation of the forest and other natural
resources.
Because of its aggressiveness and capacity to
colonize disturbed areas, chir pine (Pinus roxburghii)
is spreading at the expanse of Banj oak (Qurecus
leucotrichophora) forests the latter being under
immense biotic pressure(Singh et al,1984), recently,
chir pine has also been planted as monoculture in
many areas. However, plantations involved high costs
in comparison to natural regeneration. It is, therefore

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desirable that a forest is allowed to regenerate
naturally without large inputs of material and labour.
Inorder to develop proper management chir pine
forests at low inputs, it is necessary to document its
regeneration status under current management
practice. From the view point, this study was done on
phytosociological analysis, population structure, and
regeneration status, species diversity, species richness
of constituent species of the forest occurring along
elevational gradients. Some outstanding contributions
on phytosociology (Knight 1975, Saxena and Singh,
1982, Rahlan et al. 1982).
Uttrakhand the newly created state in central
Himalaya, forest fire are common as a result of which
vast tracts of forest land in the 1,000-1,800 m range
are covered by fire –adapted chir pine (Pinus
roxburghii) forests. Almost all fires are man-caused
(intentional or accidental). Local people of the region
burn chir pine forests in controlled way during
summers to enhance the growth of the succulent
herbaceous fodder during monsoon. In addition to this
grazers, school boys and forest personnel also causes
forest fires for various purposes. Accidental fires takes
place mainly in during burning of crops remains in
agricultural fields located near forests in April- May,
flames that escape during controlled burning done by
department a live cigarette or bidi butt thrown by a
careless passerby, motor road repairs, cooking and
campfire activities of pilgrims and tourists etc.
Among disasters, the forest fire has been
emerging as the most common disaster since last
decade, disturbing the bio-diversity, the ecology and
environment of a region. The forests of Western
Himalayas are more frequent vulnerable to forest fire
as compared to those in Eastern Himalayas. In 1995
forest fire had destroyed more than 3.75 million
hectares of forest wealth in Uttaranchal alone. Of the
total inventoried forest area of the country, on an
average 8.92% is affected by frequent fire and 44.25%
by occasional fire. Today, the most forest fires are the
result of human neglect. The best way to control a
forest fire is to prevent it from spreading by creating
Fire Breaks in the shape of small clearings of ditches
in the forests. Burning of forests and grasslands add
also to already serious threat of global warming and
pollution and may be a global source of methyl
bromide, which is ozone, depleting substance. In India
there is as yet no proper action plan to control forest
fires. In Himalayan states, the involvement of the
people under Joint Forest Management may certainly
be helpful in preventing forest fires by using the
modern fire fighting methods.
In the central Himalayan region, every year forest
fires leave a devastating impact on the regional
landscape affecting flora, fauna, human livelihoods,
and the local climate.
Although fire may be both of natural and
anthropogenic origin, the limited studies on this
subject suggest that in this region fire is entirely of
anthropogenic origin. In this region fire is used as a
tool to meet several objectives, both by the local
inhabitants and the Forest Department. On the one
hand, the local people harvest good growth of fodder
grasses after fire, and on the other the Forest
Department uses fire as a tool (by controlled burning
or to “fight fire with fire”) to reduce the severity of
fire during the summer season. In a study in the
Garhwal hills by Semwal it was reported that 63% of
the total fire incidents were intentionally man-made
and the remaining 37% were accidental. The Chir Pine
(Pinus roxburghii) forests are more prone to forest fire
as they shed their resin-containing leaves during
summer. These forests are mostly spread over the
middle altitudinal zone of the region (1000-2000
masl), the fire cycle is repeated every 2-5 years, and
about 11% forest area of the region faces fire every
year. The main reasons for intentional forest fire were:
the amusement of livestock herders and children, to
hide the realities of forest operations by some interest
groups/individuals, driving game animals, and driving
away honey bees. Among the reasons for accidental
fires were: clearing weeds from the crop fields for
crop cultivation, the spread of intentional fires to
nearby forests during road repairs, carelessness by
travellers (e.g., discarding an ignited cigarette butt),
camp fires, etc.
Fire is a common feature in Indian
Himalayan forests every year, causing incalculable
damage to the forest wealth and ecosystem. High
proportions of fires are attributed to man made reasons
either deliberately or accidentally. Normal fire season
in India is from the month of February to mid- June.
Human induced fires are common in early summer
months in the forests of Uttrakhand. The local people
deliberately set fires in Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii)
forests to promote growth of understory herbaceous
species comprehensively used for fodder by local
people.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Study Area
The present study has been carried out in the
Two Van Panchayat forest situated between
29°32.98'-29°34.32' N latitudes and 79°41.44'-
79°43.2' E longitude of Lamgara Developmental
Block of Almora District (Uttarakhand). The basic
climate pattern is governed by the monsoon rhythm.
The annual rainfall varied from 832.0 mm to 921.9
mm, mean maximum temperature from 16.7°C to
32.6°C and the mean minimum temperature from
5.8°C to 19.5°C (Jina, 2008). Rock types mainly
comprises of schist, micaceous quartizimeta
morphism, plutonic bodies of granodiorites and

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granites (Valdiya, 1980). The vegetation type mainly
comprises Himalayan moist temperate Oak forest,
subtropical pine forest. The dominated tree species of
the Van Panchayat are Quercus leucotrichophora,
Pinus roxburghii, Rhododendron arboreum, and
Myrica esculenta.
Methods
Phytosociological Analysis:
Information regarding different landscapes
and vegetation was collected through questionnaires
which were distributed to the villagers and members
of the Community Forests. Two aspects South-West
and North-West were identified with in each aspect
trees were analysed by placing randomly 10, 100m2
circular quadrats, the size and number of samples was
determined following MacDicken (1997). Sapling and
seedling were studied in 10, 5×5 m2 quardrats placed
randomly. The vegetational data were calculated for
density, frequency, abundance, mean basal area, total
basal area (Curtis and McIntosh, 1950). Importance
value index for trees was determined as the sum of the
relative density relative frequency, relative dominance
(Curtis, 1959). Individuals of the tree species were
divided in to three classes, Trees were consider to be
individual >30cm cbh (Circumference at breast
height), Sapling 10-30cm cbh and seedling <10cm cbh
(Saxena and Singh, 1984).
Tree Biomass and Carbon
The d.b.h. and height of the tree were
measured using diameter tape and Clino master
respectively in the selected plots, placed randomly in
2010. The data was then subjected to regression
model developed by (Rawat and Singh, 1988) and are
applied to mean d.b.h of each tree species to calculate
the biomass accumulation in different tree
components. The average biomass attained was then
multiplied to the tree density in the diameter classes.
The half of thus obtained tree biomass is the total
carbon stock for all tree species. Analysis for Biomass
and carbon stock was done using R-statistical software
(R development Core Team 2009).
RESULTS
Tree layer-:
The total tree density ranged between 160 to
230 ind ha-1 and total basal area ranged between 4.44
and 46.52m2 ha-1 among all the aspects (Table-1). The
highest tree density was that of Pinus roxburghii (230
ind ha-1) at south-west facing aspect, where the lowest
tree density was that of Myrica esculenta (10 ind ha-
1each) south-west aspect. Pinus roxburghii was the
most dominant species in term of the total basal area
and it also shows the maximum IVI (i.e. 46.52 m2 ha-1
and 300) at south-western aspect respectively.
Sapling layer
The total sapling density ranges from 360 to
610 (ind ha-1) in south-western and north western
aspect respectively. Pinus roxburghii and Quercus
leucotrichophora shows the maximum density in both
south-western and north-western aspect i.e. (360 ind
ha-1and 500 ind ha-1) respectively. The most dominant
species was Pinus roxburghii (IVI=300) in south-
western aspect in both the van Panchayat forests,
however the total basal area was highest for Quercus
leucotrichophora (18.31m2ha-1) at north-western
aspect (Table-1).
Seedling layer
The total seedling density varied from 120 to
530 ind ha-1at south-western to north-western aspect
of both Community Forests. The seedling density was
highest for Pinus roxburghii at the south western
aspect (350 ind ha-1) and lowest on north facing aspect
for Rhododendron arboreum (10 ind ha-1 in both
Community Forests it was also observed that total
number of seedlings found highest in south-western
aspect (400 to 530 ind ha-1) respectively (Table-1).
Regeneration status
The population structure of the all species is
given in Figure 3. The number of seedlings and
saplings of Pinus roxburghii were quite higher among
all the aspect(720 ind ha-1) Quercus
leucotrichophora seedlings, saplings and tree were
present only on north western aspects, while Pinus
roxburghii was encountered in both south western and
north western aspects. Majority of trees was of the
younger size class of 31-60 cm (Fig. 3).
Biomass and carbon distribution in the forest site
The total tree biomass and carbon (values
inside the bracket) content ranged between 9.47(4.73)
t ha-1 to 62.54(31.27) t ha-1 in SW and NW aspect of
Dhaili Van Panchayat. The plots in NW aspects of
Dhaili CF have most spreading biomass values as
compared to the plots in SW aspect of Dhaili CF
(Figure.1).Similarly the total tree biomass and carbon
(values inside the bracket) content in Two different
aspects of Toli CF ranged between and 38.54(19.27) t
ha-1 to 49.53(24.76) t ha-1. Plots in Toli CF NW
aspects of have most spreading biomass values as
compared to the plots in SW aspect of Dhaili CF
(Figure.2).The maximum tree biomass was found in
north-western aspect of Dhaili van Panchayat forest
(62.54 t ha-1) while the minimum tree biomass was
found in pine mixed forest in SW aspect of Dhaili VP
forest 9.47 t ha-1(Table-2 and Table-4). Only a plot in
SW aspect of Dhaili CF and NW aspect of Toli CF
shows the outlier plots also the both of these aspect in
both CF shows the highest sampling precision values
i.e. above 10% which might be due to the fact that for
sampling survey might need to be optimized in order
to achieve higher accuracy.
DISCUSSION
Among disasters, the forest fire has been
emerging as the most common disaster since last

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4
decade, disturbing the bio-diversity, the ecology and
environment of a region. In the central Himalayan
region, every year forest fires leave a devastating
impact on the regional landscape affecting flora,
fauna, human livelihoods, and the local climate. Fire
was a strong agent of reducing the number of
seedlings and saplings in the studied forest sites.
It
was observed that those studied sites where fire
frequency was every year the number of sapling and
seedling count was 360 ind ha-1 and 120-370 ind ha-1
in south-eastern aspect for both study sites
respectively. While this number increased to 400-610
and 400-530 ind ha-1 for the north-western aspect
where fire occurred once in a five year.
The amount of
fuel load on the forest floor was more in NW aspects
for all forest sites, where fire occurs once with in five
year. These community managed forests contains
immense amount of dry mass in the form of standing
biomass.
Any time any accidental fires takes place in
these fire regime may cause disasters and there is a
possibility of loss of immense biomass stock and
carbon content in the atmosphere emitting huge
amount of CO2 causing incalculable damage to the
forest wealth and ecosystem loss of bio-diversity,
deteriorating the ecology and environment of a
region. The alternate strategies i.e. utilization of pine
needles ( locally called Pirul) as an alternate source of
energy, for economic purpose ( like packing cases)
will play significant role in reducing the constantly
accumulating fuel load, reduce the dependence of
rural population on other ecologically valuable forests
like (Quercus leucotrichophora) and gain economic
upliftment. The total tree density (160 ind ha-1 to
230ind ha-1) reported in the present study falls within
the range of values 280-1680 ind/ha reported earlier
by Singh et.al. (1994), Jina (2006), Kharkwal (2009)
for different central Himalayan oak and pine forest. In
the four aspects the density of Quercus
leucotrichophora seedling were highest (640ind ha-1)
followed by sapling and young trees indicating an
expanding type of population pattern. Fire regimes
play an important role in biomass allocation patterns.
For example, in fire- prone ecosystems, total plant
biomass, growth rates, and distribution of biomass
between roots and shoots is influenced by fire
intensity and frequency (Pare and Bergeron 1995, de
Vinas and Ayanz 2000, Dijkstra et al. 2002, Day et al.
2006, Mack et al. 2008).The tree biomass stock and
carbon in north-western site for each forest shows
higher values (62.54 tha-1and 49.93tha-1) as compared
to the south-western sites(9.47 tha-1 and 38.54 t ha-1)
respectively. The forest tree biomass also decreased in
south-western aspects of both Community Forests
where fire frequency is every year. While it was found
significantly higher in north-western aspects for both
sites .It is interesting that the previous researches on
chir pine forests indicates that pine is good reproducer
not only in its own forest but also in other forest
(Saxena and Singh, 1982) and is invading the oak
forest area due to which the replacement of the oak
forest by pine has become a common and ever-
increasing phenomenon (Saxena and Singh, 1984).
From this study it is clear that if the forests are
managed properly the regeneration of Banj-oak will
occur particularly in good seed years. The total basal
area of the present study for tree layer varied from
4.44m2 ha-1 and 45.52m2 ha-1 which have been
reported earlier by Saxena and Singh (1982), Upreti,
(1985), Ralhan et al. (1982) for young forests. These
values are generally comparable with the values
reported earlier for sub-tropical forests (Rawat and
Chandhok, 2009, Srivastawa et. al., 2008, Kharkwal,
2009). These facts suggest that forest types of the
study area are highly representative in their
composition. The distribution, ecosystem functions
and occurrence of species had been affected by human
interventions (Singh and Singh, 1987). Among human
influence, commercial exploitation, agricultural
requirements, forest fire, and grazing pressure,
reckless lopping is the important source of disturbance
(Singh and Singh, 1992). Pinus roxburghii which is
reported to invade most of the oak forest as a
consequence of disturbance in terms of tree removal
and burning has failed to establish itself in the present
study site. It appears that although some individuals of
Pinus roxburghii reached the periphery of the forests,
subsequently to a major disturbance, it could not
regenerate in the relatively undisturbed conditions
thereafter (Singh, et al 1987).Repeated disturbances
release carbon directly in to the atmosphere. The
availability of carbon is important in controlling
nutrient cycling and soil biological activity. Soil stores
2.5 to 3.0 times as much as that stored in plants in the
terrestrial ecosystem (Post, et.al., 1990). In the present
day situation of increasing atmospheric level of CO2
and continued accelerated rate of deforestation,
finding simple and low cost management strategies for
enhancing carbon sequestration rates of forests is
important worldwide. Sustainable management and
participatory conservation of forests is therefore an
important strategy for dealing with climate change.
Forests are a much cheaper and easier way to store
biomass and carbon than industrial capture and
storage, local community involvement is inevitable for
reducing the fire as the forest department has shortage
of staffs and economic assistance to the community
will enhance a sense of ownership towards the forest.

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Table-1Vegetation analysis of Dhaili and Toli Community Forests.
Dhaili VP Tree Sapling Seedling
Stand 1and 2 Every year fire Density
(ind/ha)
TBA
(m2ha-1)
IVI (%) Density
(ind/ha)
TBA
(m2ha-1)
IVI
(%)
Density
(ind/ha)
Aspect Species
SW Pinus roxburghii 230 46.52 300 360 7.14 300 350
Myrica esculenta - - - - - - 20
Total 230 46.52 300 360 7.1 4 300 370
Fire occurred once in a five year
NW Quercus
leucotrichophora
140 13.61
203.56 500 18.31 226.60 430
Rhododendron
arboretum
- - - 30 1.07 18.29 10
Myrica esculenta - - - 50 1.79 36.4 30
Pinus roxburghii 60 6.72 96.40 30 0.44 19 60
Pinus wallichiana - - - - - - -
Total 200 20.43 299.96 610 21.63 299.8 530
Toli VP Tree Tree Sapling Seedling
Aspect Stand 3 and 4 Density
(ind/ha)
TBA
(m2/ha)
IVI
(%)
Density
(ind/ha)
TBA
(m2/ha)
IVI
(%)
Density
(ind/ha)
Every year fire
SW Pinus roxburghii 150 3.12 249.78 360 14.15 300 120
Myrica esculenta 10 1.31 50.2 - - - -
Total 160 4.44 299.98 360 14 .15 300 120
Fire occurred once in a five year
NW Quercus
leucotrichophora
50 7.80
168.75 300 7.18 198.62 210
Pinus roxburghii 110 31.36 131.2 100 2.44 86.48 90
Myrica esculenta - - - - - 14.84 -
Total 160 39.17 299.9 400 9.63 299.9 300
Figure 1: Box-and-whisker plot of above ground tree biomass for Dhaili CF showing five-number summaries and
outliers.

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Table -2 Tree biomass and carbon stock distribution Dhaili CF
S.no
Site
Aspect
Forest stand
Biomass(t ha
-
1
)
Carbon(t ha
-
1
)
1
Dhaili VP
SW
Pine mixed
9.47
4.73
2
Dhaili VP
NW
Oak mixed
62.54
31.27
Table-3. Summary statistics of sampling of trees Dhaili CF
Aspe
ct Variable unit
Number of
plots Mean
Std.
deviation
Half width of
confidence interval Max Min Median
Sampling
precision
SW Biomass [t ha
-
1
] 10 9.48 9.92 7.09 27.30 0.24 5.44 33.09
NW Biomass [t ha
-
1
] 10 62.54 14.12 10.10 80.00 37.91 63.33 7.14
Table -4 Tree biomass and carbon stock distribution in Toli CF
S.no
Site
Aspect
Forest stand
Biomass(t ha
-
1
)
Carbon(t ha
-
1
)
1
Toli VP
SW
Pine mixed
38.54
19.27
2
Toli VP
NW
Oak mixed
49.93
24.96
Figure 2: Box-and-whisker plot of above ground tree biomass for Toli CF showing five-number summaries and
outliers.
Table-5. Summary statistics of sampling of trees Toli CF
Aspect Variable unit
Number
of plots Mean
Std.
deviation
Half width of
confidence interval Max Min Median
Sampling
precision
SW Biomass[t ha
-
1
] 10 38.52 9.43 6.74 55.98 25.14 36.68 7.74
NW Biomass[t ha
-
1
] 10 49.94 55.02 39.36 194.43 8.01 31.76 34.84
Acknowledgements
Authors are thankful to Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, Kumaun University, Nainital
for providing necessary facilities and encouragement. Authors are also thankful to members of the Community
forests for their support in the field data collection and co-operation throughout the study period.

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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Relative
den sity( %)
0-10 11-30 31-60 61-90 91- 120
Girth clas s(cm )
Population structure(Dhaili Van Panchayat)
SW Pinus roxburghii
SW Myrica esc ulenta
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Relative density(%)
0-10 11 -
30
31-
60
61-
90
91-
120
121-
150
Girth class(cm )
Population structure (Dhaili Van Panchayat)
NW Quercus leucotrich ophora
NW Rhodo dend ron arboriu m
NW Myrica escul enta
NW Pinus roxburghii
NW Pinus walli chiana
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Relative
dens ity(%)
0-10 11-30 31-60 61-90 91-120 121-150
Girth class (cm)
Popula tion structure(Toli Va n Pa nchayat)
SW Pinus roxburghii
SW Myrica esc ulenta
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Relative
dens ity( %)
0-10 11-30 31-60 61-90 91-120 121-
150
Girth class (cm)
Popula tion structure(Toli Va n Pa nchayat)
NW Quercus leucotrichophora
NW Pinus roxburghii
NW Myrica esculenta
Figure- 3 Population structures of dominant species on four different community forests and two different aspects ;
the relative density is on y-axis and the diameter classes on x-axis; 0-10cm = Seedlings, 11-30cm = Saplings, Trees
= 31-60 cm, 61-90 cm, 91-120 cm,121-150 cm.

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