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Multi-locus phylogenetic inference among New World Vultures (Aves: Cathartidae)
... Gymnogyps + Vultur + Sarcoramphus). This hypothesis was proposed previously by Johnson et al. (2016). We also found strong evidence (bootstrap value = 100) that Gymnogyps was sister to Vultur + Sarcoramphus, corroborating one of the poorly supported topologies recovered by Johnson et al. (2016). ...
... This hypothesis was proposed previously by Johnson et al. (2016). We also found strong evidence (bootstrap value = 100) that Gymnogyps was sister to Vultur + Sarcoramphus, corroborating one of the poorly supported topologies recovered by Johnson et al. (2016). Our ...
... We estimated that Sagittariidae diverged from the Pandionidae + Accipitridae clade ~60.9 Mya, shortly after the split between Accipitriformes and Cathartiformes, and that Pandionidae diverged from Accipitridae ~50.8 Mya. These estimates were similar to those inferred by Johnson et al. (2016) (2016) also used several fossil calibrations to inform the divergence estimates. Interestingly, although we used different priors and fossils from those used by Johnson et al. (2016), we arrived at nearly identical divergence estimates for these two splits. ...
Hawks, eagles, and their relatives (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae) are a diverse and charismatic clade of modern birds, with many members that are instantly recognized by the general public. However, surprisingly little is known about the relationships among genera within Accipitridae, and several studies have suggested that some genera (in particular, the megadiverse genus Accipiter) are not monophyletic. Here, we combine a large new dataset obtained from ultraconserved elements, generated from whole genome sequencing of 134 species, with publicly available legacy markers (i.e. a suite of commonly sequenced mitochondrial and nuclear genes) to infer a well-supported, time-calibrated phylogeny of 237 extant or recently extinct species. Our densely sampled phylogeny, which includes 90% of recognized species, confirms the non-monophyly of Accipiter and provides a sufficient basis to revise the genus-level taxonomy, such that all genera in Accipitridae represent monophyletic groups.
... Some analyses with nucleotide sequences show that the Andean Condor is related to the King Vulture, while the Black Vulture is a sister species of the California Condor [9][10][11]. However, Johnson et al. [12] have a different proposal: the family can be divided into two monophyletic groups: in the first one, the Andean Condor, King Vulture and California Condor are related, while in the second one, the Black Vulture is more related to species of the genus Cathartes. ...
... We used the most complete and robust molecular phylogeny of the New World Vultures inferred by Johnson et al. [12] for all analyses in this study. This phylogeny corresponds to a maximum clade credibility tree (MCC), reconstructed with Bayesian inference from two mtDNA genes (Cyt-b and ND2) and five sets of nuclear introns (EEF2, GAPDH, HMGN2, RHOD and TGFb2). ...
... This phylogeny corresponds to a maximum clade credibility tree (MCC), reconstructed with Bayesian inference from two mtDNA genes (Cyt-b and ND2) and five sets of nuclear introns (EEF2, GAPDH, HMGN2, RHOD and TGFb2). Johnson's [12] phylogenetic tree provides an estimate of divergence times and is supported by posterior probabilities of nodes mostly greater than 0.8. It includes representative species of the most related families (e.g., Pandionidae, Sagittariidae and Accipitridae). ...
The New World Vultures (Cathartidae) include seven species of obligate scavengers that, despite their ecological relevance, present critical information gaps around their evolutionary history and conservation. Insights into their phylogenetic relationships in recent years has enabled the addressing of such information gaps through approaches based on phylogeny. We reconstructed the ancestral area in America of the current species using two regionalization schemes and methods:
Biogeography with Bayesian Evolutionary Analysis (BioGeoBears) and Bayesian Binary Model–Monte Carlo Markov Chains (BBM–MCMC). Then, we identified the priority species and areas for conservation by means of the Evolutionary Distinctiveness index (ED), as a proxy of the uniqueness of species according to phylogeny, and the Global Endangerment index (GE), mapping phylogenetic
diversity. We found that the ancestral area of NewWorld Vultures in America corresponds to South America, with dispersal processes that led to a recolonization of North America by Coragyps atratus, Gymnogyps californianus and Cathartes aura. We identified the Black Vulture, G. californianus and Vultur gryphus as priority species based on ED and “Evolutionary Distinct Globally Endangered” (EDGE)
indexes, and the lowlands of Amazon River basin and the Orinoco basin and some tributaries areas of the Guiana Shield were identified as the priority areas when mapping the phylogenetic diversity. This study highlights the importance of filling knowledge gaps of species of conservation concern through the integration of evolutionary and ecological information and tools and, thus, developing adequate
strategies to enhance the preservation of these species in the face of the current loss of biodiversity.
... Extant vultures contain 16 species of Old World vultures and 7 species of New World vultures, inhabiting diverse biomes from East African savannahs and high Himalayas, to the Amazonian rainforest and the Sahara Desert (Campbell, 2015) (Fig. 1). Molecular evidence indicates the Old World vultures belonging to Accipitridae are closely related to hawks and eagles, and New World vultures belonging to Cathartidae are the sister group to Old World vultures (Fig. 3) (Johnson et al., 2016;Mindell et al., 2018;Kuhl et al., 2021). Moreover, Old World vultures consist of two clades: Aegypiinae and Gypaetinae. ...
... They also share many similarities in physiological structures, such as a degenerated or non-functional back toe, bare face and neck, and lack of syrinx resulting in basically no sound (Campbell, 2015). Hence, the cathartid-stork hypothesis has been proposed based on behavioral and morphological characteristics since the 19th century (Garrod, 1874;Ligon, 1967), and was further supported by nuclear DNA-DNA hybridization (Sibley and Ahlquist, 1990) and mitochondrial cytochrome b (cytb) sequences (Avise Fig. 3. Phylogenetic relationships among the major groups of Accipitriformes (Johnson et al., 2016;Mindell et al., 2018;Kuhl et al., 2021). Species names in bold refer to vultures with available genomic data. ...
... Based on the mitochondrial cytb gene, previous analyses suggested that the Turkey and Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture form one clade, and the Black and California Condor form a second clade (Wink, 1995;Wink and Sauer-Gürth, 2004). However, a different conclusion was revealed using two mitochondrial and five nuclear genes, which proposed one sister relationship between the Black and Cathartes Vultures, and another between the condors and King Vulture (Johnson et al., 2016). Molecular clock analyses, calibrated with fossil records, have estimated the origin of the Cathartidae to be around 69 Ma, and these two primary clades diverging around 14 Ma, with genera ranging in age from about 3 to 12 Ma (Johnson et al., 2016;Mindell et al., 2018). ...
Vultures are the only obligate scavengers among extant vertebrates. They provide valuable ecological services in ecosystems through removing carcasses, thus preventing the growth of other scavenger populations and the spread of pathogens. Moreover, their specific diets expose them to various deadly pathogens, which makes them potential candidates for studying molecular adaptations required to survive this extremely specialized scavenging habit. In this review, we summarize the morphological characteristics and behavioral habits, origin and phylogeny, and molecular adaptations to scavenging in both Old and New World vultures. The two groups of vultures share a similar appearance, indicative of convergent evolution. Vultures have experienced different degrees of specialization in their sensory organs; Old World vultures depend on sight, while New World ones depend on both smell and sight. Combined fossil records and molecular data suggest that vultures evolved independently, with distinct phylogenetic positions. We also explored their adaptation to scavenging in facial and intestinal microbiomes, gastric acid secretion and immunity. Compared with the facial microbiome, the intestinal microbiome had a lower diversity, dominated by Fusobacteria and Clostridia. The phages and single invertebrate species Adineta vaga, which feeds on dead bacteria and protozoa, present in the gut suggest a possible alternative defense mechanism. Several genes involved in gastric acidic secretion (including ATP4B, SLC26A7 and SST) and immunity (including BCL6, STING, and TLRs) undergoing positive selection likely have essential roles in eliminating invasive pathogens and initiating an innate immune response. Taken together, this review presents the current research status of vultures and highlights the use of vultures as a model for exploring molecular adaptations of dietary specialization in birds. It also provides a theoretical basis for the study of the genetic mechanisms of vultures to scavenging, and contributes to the formulation of vulture conservation strategies.
... Condors are characterised by their great ability at soaring flight, scavenging habits, and their large body size, including one of the greatest wingspans among living birds. Condors include two living species: the California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) and the Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus) that live in high mountains and arid regions of North and South America respectively (Fisher 1946;Emslie 1988; but see Johnson et al. 2016). ...
... Comparisons were based on published measurements and additional osteological specimens (Vultur gryphus MACN-OR, 53532, 5017, 54747, 54749, 24389;MLP-PV-OR 61, 367, 807). Measurements (in mm) were taken with a digital vernier caliper to the nearest 0.1 mm We employ the name Cathartiformes, for the clade including vultures and kin, now recognised by means of molecular studies (Johnson et al. 2016), and which was early sustained morphologically by Alvarenga (1985) with the aim to emphasise the distinctiveness of this clade. The phylogenetic arrangement of Emslie (1988) is followed. ...
... The 'condor group' as recognised by Emslie (1988) and previous authors is here termed as Vulturinae, after Campbell (1979) and Agnolín et al. (2017). In spite that Johnson et al. (2016) proposed Sarcoramphus was well nested among condors, we opt not to follow this arrangement until new evidence sustaining such proposal become available. ...
The fossil record of condors in South America is relatively extensive. However, fossil specimens from the late Pleistocene of Argentina are still very scarce. Here, we describe fragmentary remains of a large sized cathartid of the condor lineage. The new specimen is represented by an incomplete ulna, radius and metacarpal belonging to the Lujanian (Late Pleistocene) of San Pedro locality, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Its large size (it is among the largest cathartids reported up to the date) and some anatomical details indicate that it belongs to a previously unrecognised taxon. The new specimen reinforces previous proposals indicating a high diversification of condors at South American lowlands, and indicates that the Pleistocene history of the clade is far from being satisfactorily known. The extinction of giant scavenger birds in South America may be not only related to the extinction of their food resources (i.e., megafauna) but also to ecological constraints that characterise large-sized birds.
... Falconiformes or in their own order 7,8 . Moreover, relationships within Cathartidae are still unclear largely due to incomplete taxonomic sampling and limited genetic resolution 9 . Recent nuclear genomic analyses showed that Falconiformes excluded the Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura), and suggested that Cathartidae split from a common ancestor of their sister group Accipitridae at some point between the late Cretaceous and early Paleogene or even later 10,11 . ...
... Hence, the inclusion of mitogenomic data of condors supports the hypothesis that NW and OW vultures belong to Accipitriformes 10,58 and that vultures are not closely related to Falconiforms as previously believed. Conspicuous phenotypic differences between NW and OW species, such as the functional hind toe, lack of syrinx, internal separation of the nostrils, or the lack of squirting behavior on the legs in OW vultures, among others 7,9 , suggest that evolutionary constraints (parallel evolution sensu neo-Gouldian 59 ) are not driving their overall similarities. Moreover, NW vultures seem to be more sensitive to lead contamination than OW species 20 , while the striking tolerance to Diclofenac in the Turkey vulture (> 100 times than in OW vultures) suggests that NW vultures are less vulnerable to the toxic effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs 60 . ...
... Our molecular dating of the origin of NW vultures in the early Paleogene (61.2 Mya; CI 72.5-50.3; Fig. 3) differs from the estimates of recent analysis using whole nuclear genome data of raptor species 11 , but is in agreement with previous studies including wider taxon sampling 9,10,47,58 . A partial explanation for this discrepancy is that 9,62,63 . ...
The evolution of large vultures linked to mountainous habitats was accompanied by extreme physiological and behavioral specializations for energetically efficient flights. However, little is known on the genetic traits associated with the evolution of these obligate soaring scavengers. Mitochondrial DNA plays a vital role in regulating oxidative stress and energy production, and hence may be an important target of selection for flight performance. Herein, we characterized the first mitogenomes of the Andean and California condors, the world’s heaviest flying birds and the only living representatives of the Vultur and Gymnogyps genus. We reconstructed the phylogenetic relationships and evaluated possible footprints of convergent evolution associated to the life-history traits and distributional range of vultures. Our phylogenomic analyses supported the independent evolution of vultures, with the origin of Cathartidae in the early Paleogene (~ 61 Mya), and estimated the radiation of extant condors during the late Miocene (~ 11 Mya). Selection analyses indicated that vultures exhibit signals of relaxation of purifying selection relative to other accipitrimorph raptors, possibly indicating the degeneration of flapping flight ability. Overall, our results suggest that the extreme specialization of vultures for efficient soaring flight has compensated the evolution of large body sizes mitigating the selection pressure on mtDNA.
... The disproportionate number of bird species with black or dark gray plumage in arid regions [43] suggests that comparably high plumage temperatures are routine. Hundreds of diurnal bird species live in open-habitat formations or forage aerially in full sunlight, but few species experience as much solar irradiation as New World vultures [44], a monophyletic group (Cathartiformes) of obligate scavengers of vertebrate carrion [44][45][46]. Vultures engage in thermal soaring [47] and are renowned for conspicuous spread-wing sunning at roosts and loafing sites [35,47]. ...
... The disproportionate number of bird species with black or dark gray plumage in arid regions [43] suggests that comparably high plumage temperatures are routine. Hundreds of diurnal bird species live in open-habitat formations or forage aerially in full sunlight, but few species experience as much solar irradiation as New World vultures [44], a monophyletic group (Cathartiformes) of obligate scavengers of vertebrate carrion [44][45][46]. Vultures engage in thermal soaring [47] and are renowned for conspicuous spread-wing sunning at roosts and loafing sites [35,47]. Indeed, sunning appears to be a deeply-ingrained behaviour in the Cathartiformes. ...
... The avian order Cathartiformes forms a monophylytic lineage composed of seven living species of obligate carrion scavengers that are now geographically restricted to the Americas [44,47]. New World vultures are often confused with the ecologically convergent Old World vultures (Accipitriformes), which have been decimated by livestock pharmaceuticals ingested in carrion in Africa and Eurasia [79,80]. ...
Background
Stereotyped sunning behaviour in birds has been hypothesized to inhibit keratin-degrading bacteria but there is little evidence that solar irradiation affects community assembly and abundance of plumage microbiota. The monophyletic New World vultures (Cathartiformes) are renowned for scavenging vertebrate carrion, spread-wing sunning at roosts, and thermal soaring. Few avian species experience greater exposure to solar irradiation. We used 16S rRNA sequencing to investigate the plumage microbiota of wild individuals of five sympatric species of vultures in Guyana.
Results
The exceptionally diverse plumage microbiotas (631 genera of Bacteria and Archaea) were numerically dominated by bacterial genera resistant to ultraviolet (UV) light, desiccation, and high ambient temperatures, and genera known for forming desiccation-resistant endospores (phylum Firmicutes, order Clostridiales). The extremophile genera Deinococcus (phylum Deinococcus-Thermus) and Hymenobacter (phylum, Bacteroidetes), rare in vertebrate gut microbiotas, accounted for 9.1% of 2.7 million sequences (CSS normalized and log2 transformed). Five bacterial genera known to exhibit strong keratinolytic capacities in vitro (Bacillus, Enterococcus, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, and Streptomyces) were less abundant (totaling 4%) in vulture plumage.
Conclusions
Bacterial rank-abundance profiles from melanized vulture plumage have no known analog in the integumentary systems of terrestrial vertebrates. The prominence of UV-resistant extremophiles suggests that solar irradiation may play a significant role in the assembly of vulture plumage microbiotas. Our results highlight the need for controlled in vivo experiments to test the effects of UV on microbial communities of avian plumage.
... We have also recently published a phylogeny for all seven Cathartiformes species (Johnson et al. 2016). Two primary clades were identified: (1) black vulture (Coragyps atratus) together with the three Cathartes species (lesser yellow-headed vulture C. burrovianus, greater yellow-headed vulture C. melambrotus, and turkey vulture C. aura) and (2) king vulture (Sarcoramphus papa), California condor (Gymnogyps californianus), and Andean (Vultur gryphus) condor. ...
... These two primary Cathartiformes clades are estimated to have first diverged about 14 MY ago, with genera ranging in age from about 3 to 12 mya (Johnson (Johnson et al. 2016) old to about 60 MY old (Jarvis et al. 2014;Prum et al. 2015). Ninety-five percent credibility intervals for these estimates overlap, and the latter two estimates are based on much larger datasets. ...
... And progress is being made. Single phylogenetic analyses including all currently recognized species are available, as working hypotheses, for Falconiformes and Cathartiformes Johnson et al. 2016). These analyses are limited, however, to a small number of individuals for most species and fewer than 10 genes per study. ...
An ideal taxonomy for organisms incorporates comprehensive knowledge of existing species diversity and their phylogenetic relationships. This knowledge is used in developing consistent criteria for recognizing and naming species as well as monophyletic groups (clades) above the species level, including genera, families, and orders. This provides well-justified, consensus names for taxa that can be used globally in studying and managing the health of species and their populations. Having the taxonomic hierarchy of names reflects evolutionary history and advances our understanding of the origins and causes of change over time in biological diversity.
... Cathartids or New World vultures are characterized by their great ability at soaring flight, scavenging habits, and, for condors, their large body size, including one of the greatest wingspans among living birds. This clade currently includes seven species in five genera, divided into two groups: condors (Gymnogyps, Vultur) and the smaller vultures (Coragyps, Cathartes, Sarcoramphus) (Fisher, 1946;Emslie, 1988; but see Johnson et al., 2016). Condors include two living species: the California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) and the Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus) that live in high mountains and arid regions of North and South America respectively. ...
... The clade Cathartiformes, now widely recognized by means of molecular studies (Johnson et al., 2016), was recently sustained morphologically by Alvarenga (1985) with the aim to emphasize the distinctiveness of this clade. ...
... The "condor group" as recognized by Emslie (1988) and previous authors is here termed as Vulturinae, after Campbell (1979). In spite that Johnson et al. (2016) proposed Sarcoramphus to be well-nested among condors, we discard this arrangement until new evidence sustaining such proposal become available. ...
The fossil record of condors in South America is relatively extensive. However, fossil specimens for the late Pleistocene of Argentina are scarce. Here, we report a new genus and species of a large sized cathartid of the condor lineage. The new taxon, Pampagyps imperator nov. gen. et sp. is based on a right tarsometatarsus from the “Cantera Nicolás Vignogna III” fossiliferous locality, at Marcos Paz County, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. The fossil was found in the middle levels of the outcrop assigned to the Lujanian Stage/Age (late Pleistocene). Its size is comparable to Geronogyps and Gymnogyps, being smaller than Vultur. Its combination of characters is unique, allowing recognizing a new taxon. An overview of fossil cathartids from Argentine lowlands indicates the existence of several condors that are not closely related to the extant Vultur gryphus. The presence of these large cathartids allows to review the fossil record of V. gryphus. The latter taxon has been recorded in the Pliocene of Buenos Aires Province (Argentina), and the Pleistocene of Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia and Brazil. A review of the Pliocene specimens from Buenos Aires Province suggests that they belong to an unnamed form not closely related to Vultur. Moreover, specimens from Bolivia are different from living V. gryphus, indicating that they belong to the extinct species “Sarcoramphus” patruus. Brazilian records are fragmentary and found near to the locality where the fossil form Pleistovultur nevesi was described. Thus, we restrict the record of V. gryphus to the late Pleistocene of Andean and Patagonian regions.
... We have also recently published a phylogeny for all seven Cathartiformes species ( Johnson et al. 2016). Two primary clades were identified: (1) black vulture (Coragyps atratus) together with the three Cathartes species (lesser yellow-headed vulture C. burrovianus, greater yellow-headed vulture C. melambrotus, and turkey vulture C. aura) and (2) king vulture (Sarcoramphus papa), California condor (Gymnogyps californianus), and Andean (Vultur gryphus) condor. ...
... et al. 2016). Age estimates for Cathartiformes range from about 69 MY old (Johnson et al. 2016) old to about 60 MY old ( Jarvis et al. 2014;Prum et al. 2015). Ninety-five percent credibility intervals for these estimates overlap, and the latter two estimates are based on much larger datasets. ...
... And progress is being made. Single phylogenetic analyses including all currently recognized species are available, as working hypotheses, for Falconiformes and Cathartiformes ( Fuchs et al. 2015;Johnson et al. 2016). These analyses are limited, however, to a small number of individuals for most species and fewer than 10 genes per study. ...
Understanding how and why lineages diversify is central to understanding the origins of biological diversity. The avian family Falconidae (caracaras, forest-falcons, falcons) has an uneven distribution of species among multiple well-supported clades, and provides a useful system for testing hypotheses about diversification rate and correlation with environmental changes. We analyzed ten independent loci for 1 to 7 individuals from each of the 64 currently recognized Falconidae species, together with two fossil falconid temporal calibrations, to assess phylogeny, absolute divergence times and potential shifts in diversification rate. Our analyses supported similar diversification ages in the Early to Middle Miocene for the three traditional subfamilies, Herpetotherinae, Polyborinae and Falconinae. We estimated that divergences within the subfamily Falconinae began about 16 mya and divergences within the most species-rich genus, Falco, including about 60% of all Falconidae species, began about 7.5 mya. We found evidence for a significant increase in diversification rate at the basal phylogenetic node for the genus Falco, and the timing for this rate shift correlates generally with expansion of C4 grasslands beginning around the Miocene/Pliocene transition. Concomitantly, Falco lineages that are distributed primarily in grassland or savannah habitats, as opposed to woodlands, and exhibit migratory, as opposed to sedentary, behavior experienced a higher diversification rate.
... Molecular-level investigations have provided insights into origin and domestication in other domestic animals, such as horse (Achilli et al. 2012), donkey (Kimura et al. 2011), dog (Pang et al. 2009), cattle (Achilli et al. 2009), and sheep (Lv et al. 2015). Evolutionary history and divergence in other vertebrate taxa were analyzed by reconstructing a time-calibrated phylogeny in recent studies (Johnson et al. 2016;Kehlmaier et al. 2017;Mahony et al. 2017;Crouch et al. 2019;Meegaskumbura et al. 2019). ...
... Phylogenetic reconstruction was based on the analysis of the cytochrome b gene (cyt-b) sequence. Cyt-b sequences of Pakistani chickens were compared with the published cyt-b sequences of chickens from the literature (Kornegay et al. 1993;Kimball et al. 1999;Shen et al. 2002;Froman and Kirby 2005;Nishibori et al. 2005;Miao et al. 2013;Johnson et al. 2016;Xie et al. 2016;Huang et al. 2017). The model of evolution was tested by jModelTest2 (Darriba et al. 2012). ...
Pakistan is one of a few sites, associated with the earliest known independent domestication event in the evolutionary history of chicken, which is socio-economically and historically the most important poultry bird in the country. However, the divergence, past population dynamics, and demographic history of Pakistani chickens have not been addressed so far. Therefore, we herein investigated the indigenous Pakistani chickens using mitogenomic markers. We first prepared individual DNA samples from the chicken feathers, and generated nucleotide sequence data, which was then subjected to various population genetics analyses. In molecular phylogenetic analysis, the Pakistani chickens were clustered under nine different clades. Among the wild fowls, the Indian red jungle fowl (IRJF) shared very close affinities to Pakistani chickens. The Bayesian skyline plot showed an increase in the effective population size of Pakistani chickens during the last 50 years. Finally, a time-calibrated phylogeny inferred molecular divergence of the Pakistani chickens. A molecular rate of 3.6 × 10−6 mutations/site/year (95% HPD interval: 2.28 × 10−8 to 9.32 × 10−6) was estimated for the data set. In a rooted tree with root-age of 12058 years (95% HPD interval: 1161–38411), the Pakistani chicken haplotypes showed divergence from IRJF haplotypes around 6987 years (95% HPD interval: 1132–20746) ago, and they shared their most recent common ancestor with Gallus gallus spadiceus, and G. g. jabouillei at the root of the tree. Overall, these results suggest that Pakistani chicken haplotypes share their ancestral gene pool with the IRJF as compared to other red jungle fowl subspecies.
... Vultures are obligate scavengers, birds of prey that provide several ecological services such as nutrient recycling or avoiding soil contamination by carcass feeding, which help to reduce the spread of diseases in their habitats (Ogada, Keesing & Virani, 2012;Chung et al., 2015;Buechley & Şekercioğlu, 2016). Vultures are classified into two non-phylogenetically related groups (Wink, 1995;Johnson et al., 2016): Old World vultures inhabiting Africa, Asia, and Europe that find carcasses exclusively by sight, and New World vultures, located in North and South America that find carcasses by sight and by smell (Seibold & Helbig, 1995). ...
Background
The Andean condor ( Vultur gryphus ) is the largest scavenger in South America. This predatory bird plays a crucial role in their ecological niche by removing carcasses. We report the first metagenomic analysis of the Andean condor gut microbiome.
Methods
This work analyzed shotgun metagenomics data from a mixture of fifteen captive Chilean Andean condors. To filter eukaryote contamination, we employed BWA-MEM v0.7. Taxonomy assignment was performed using Kraken2 and MetaPhlAn v2.0 and all filtered reads were assembled using IDBA-UD v1.1.3. The two most abundant species were used to perform a genome reference-guided assembly using MetaCompass. Finally, we performed a gene prediction using Prodigal and each gene predicted was functionally annotated. InterproScan v5.31-70.0 was additionally used to detect homology based on protein domains and KEGG mapper software for reconstructing metabolic pathways.
Results
Our results demonstrate concordance with the other gut microbiome data from New World vultures. In the Andean condor, Firmicutes was the most abundant phylum present, with Clostridium perfringens , a potentially pathogenic bacterium for other animals, as dominating species in the gut microbiome. We assembled all reads corresponding to the top two species found in the condor gut microbiome, finding between 94% to 98% of completeness for Clostridium perfringens and Plesiomonas shigelloides , respectively. Our work highlights the ability of the Andean condor to act as an environmental reservoir and potential vector for critical priority pathogens which contain relevant genetic elements. Among these genetic elements, we found 71 antimicrobial resistance genes and 1,786 virulence factors that we associated with several adaptation processes.
... The analyses of the mitochondrial phylogeny corroborated the distinct W haplotype observed in saker-like Altai falcons (Fig. 3, A and B), consistent with both being maternally-inherited in birds. Peregrines diverged from hierofalcons around 2.77 MYA, a result consistent with previous estimates (39,40). Hierofalcon is a complex of species that includes the saker (F. ...
The taxonomic classification of a falcon population found in the Altai region in Asia has been heavily debated for two centuries and previous studies have been inconclusive, hindering a more informed conservation approach. Here, we generated a chromosome-level gyrfalcon reference genome using the Vertebrate Genomes Project (VGP) assembly pipeline. Using whole genome sequences of 44 falcons from different species and populations, including "Altai" falcons, we analyzed their population structure, admixture patterns and demographic history. We find that the Altai falcons are genomically mosaic of saker and gyrfalcon ancestries, and carry distinct W- and mitochondrial-haplotypes that cluster with the lanner falcon. The Altai haplotype diverged 422,000 years ago from the ancestor of sakers and gyrfalcons, both of which, in turn, split 109,000 years ago. The Altai W chromosome includes coding variants that may influence important structural, behavioral and reproductive traits. These findings support the designation of Altai falcons as a distinct falcon species ( Falco altaicus ).
... Accipitrimorphae is composed of several groups of birds of prey including "Old and New World" vultures, the Secretary Bird, the Osprey, eagles, hawks, harriers, and kites (Jarvis et al., 2014;Mindell et al., 2018). Molecular divergence estimates place the origin of this large clade at approximately 60-70 million years ago (De Panis et al., 2021;Jarvis et al., 2014;Johnson et al., 2016), with most phylogenetic hypotheses supporting the Strigiformes (owls)-Coraciimorphae (rollers, woodpeckers, hornbills, etc.) pairing as its sister clades among Telluraves (Jarvis et al., 2014). ...
Postcranial skeletal pneumaticity, air‐filled bones of the trunk and limbs, is exclusive to birds among extant tetrapods and exhibits significant variation in its expression among different species. Such variation is not random but exhibits relationships with both body mass and locomotor specializations. Most species‐level comparative research to date has focused on aquatic‐oriented taxa (e.g., Anseriformes). The lack of data from non‐aquatic birds constrains our ability to characterize global (i.e., avian‐wide) patterns of this trait complex. To address this gap, the study conducted herein quantified postcranial pneumaticity in Accipitrimorphae, a mostly terrestrial clade composed of species that span a range of body sizes and exhibit diverse flight/foraging behaviors. All examined species (n = 88) invariably pneumatized the postaxial through pre‐caudal vertebrae, sternum, coracoid, humerus, vertebral and sternal ribs, and pelvic girdle, a pattern herein referred to as the accipitrimorph baseline. Of the 88 sampled species, 41 expanded upon this pattern, whereas 10 species exhibited a reduction. No species deviated from the accipitrimorph baseline by more than two anatomical regions. A phylogenetically‐informed regression analysis failed to identify a significant relationship between body mass and pneumaticity. However, specific pneumaticity phenotypes deviating from the baseline were correlated with aspects of wing morphology, tail length, and home range size. Results from this and previous studies provide clarity on two hypotheses: (1) aquatic taxa display distinct pneumaticity expression patterns relative to non‐aquatic birds, notably with reductions in the proportion of the skeleton filled with air in diving specialists and (2) contemporary comparative studies, including the one herein, that explicitly account for phylogenetic relationships consistently fail to support the oft‐cited positive relationship between pneumaticity and body mass. Instead, historical relationships and functional/ecological attributes (e.g., diving, specialized flight behaviors) appear to be the primary drivers underlying patterns of variation in this trait complex. Non‐aquatic birds exhibit more stable pneumaticity expression than clades composed of either obligate or predominantly aquatic species. However, when variability in postcranial skeletal pneumaticity does occur, it is most commonly associated with locomotor specialization. The regional alteration of mass‐volume relationships of bone may allow for expansive exploration of locomotor behaviors without significantly altering the conservative avian Bauplan.
... Los buitres son aves voladoras que se alimentan principalmente de carroña, tienen una distribución mundial e incluyen a 23 especies del Orden Falconiformes (O´Neal, 2016). Estas aves están divididas en dos grandes grupos, los buitres del Viejo Mundo con 16 especies, distribuidas en África, Europa y Asia, y los buitres del Nuevo Mundo con siete especies distribuidas desde Canadá hasta América del Sur (Johnson et al., 2016;O´Neal, 2016). ...
El presente artículo revisa la información existente sobre el grupo de aves denominado buitres, aves especializadas en la ingestión de carroña, distribuidas en casi todos los continentes y que tienen características físicas y comportamientos similares. El objetivo de la revisión es dar a conocer la problemática mundial y amenazas a las que es sometido este grupo de aves, principalmente por el efecto antrópico, pérdida de su hábitat natural, intoxicación por plomo, y envenenamiento provocado o accidental, entre otros factores, que han causado su desaparición en diversos países y los han colocado al borde de la extinción. Se revisa el estado actual de conservación y principales amenazas de los dos grandes grupos, buitres del Viejo y del Nuevo Mundo.
... Because of convergent evolution, these two groups of vultures would have adapted their lifestyle to the same ecological niche, developing similar morphology and behaviour [17]. However, more recent studies have disproved the "cathartid-stork hypothesis" and pointed out a Cathartidae sister relationship with Accipitridae [18][19][20][21]. Both Old World and New World vultures are scavenging birds and feed mostly on carcasses of dead animals. ...
Human activities are having increasingly devastating effects on the health of marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Studying the adaptive responses of animal species to changes in their habitat can be useful in mitigating this impact. Vultures represent one of the most virtuous examples of adaptation to human-induced environmental changes. Once dependent on wild ungulate populations, these birds have adapted to the epochal change resulting from the birth of agriculture and livestock domestication, maintaining their essential role as ecological scavengers. In this review, we retrace the main splitting events characterising the vultures’ evolution, with particular emphasis on the Eurasian griffon Gyps fulvus. We summarise the main ecological and behavioural traits of this species, highlighting its vulnerability to elements introduced into the habitat by humans. We collected the genetic information available to date, underlining their importance for improving the management of this species, as an essential tool to support restocking practices and to protect the genetic integrity of G. fulvus. Finally, we examine the difficulties in implementing a coordination system that allows genetic information to be effectively transferred into management programs. Until a linking network is established between scientific research and management practices, the risk of losing important wildlife resources remains high.
... The other analyses included also mitogenomic data but a smaller number of sequences and not all genes, which could influence the inferred phylogenies. Our results on relationships between subfamilies of Accipitriformes and within Cathartiformes are in agreement with other authors (Jiang, et al. 2015;Johnson, et al. 2016;Knapp, et al. 2019;Mindell, et al. 2018;Song, et al. 2015), but we obtained greater support values especially for more deep nodes. We found that the genus Accipiter is paraphyletic, because Circus is nested within it. ...
The rearrangement of 37 genes with one control region, firstly identified in Gallus gallus mitogenome, is believed to be ancestral for all Aves. However, mitogenomic sequences obtained in recent years revealed that many avian mitogenomes contain duplicated regions that were omitted in previous genomic versions. Their evolution and mechanism of duplication are still poorly understood. The order of Accipitriformes is especially interesting in this context because its representatives contain a duplicated control region in various stages of degeneration. Therefore, we applied an appropriate PCR strategy to look for duplications within the mitogenomes of the early diverged species Sagittarius serpentarius and Cathartiformes, which is a sister order to Accipitriformes. The analyses revealed the same duplicated gene order in all examined taxa and the common ancestor of these groups. The duplicated regions were subjected to gradual degeneration and homogenization during concerted evolution. The latter process occurred recently in the species of Cathartiformes as well as in the early diverged lineages of Accipitriformes, i.e. Sagittarius serpentarius and Pandion haliaetus. However, in other lineages, i.e. Pernis ptilorhynchus, as well as representatives of Aegypiinae, Aquilinae and five related subfamilies of Accipitriformes (Accipitrinae, Circinae, Buteoninae, Haliaeetinae and Milvinae), the duplications were evolving independently for at least 14-47 million years. Different portions of control regions in Cathartiformes showed conflicting phylogenetic signals indicating that some sections of these regions were homogenized at a frequency higher than the rate of speciation, while others have still evolved separately.
... Wetmore (1926) provides a discussion on the use of this name. This is a sister species of Greater Yellow-headed Vulture (Johnson et al. 2016) and the two were not recognised as specifically distinct until Wetmore (1964) demonstrated its validity. ...
Paraguay is often overlooked by ornithological researchers as much of its literature is obscure, hard to find or published locally. This is equally true of Cathartid vultures. In an effort to bring this information to a wider audience, we provide a summary of the published Paraguayan literature for each of the four species of vultures that occur in the country, including a history of vulture studies, folklore, a local synonymy and an attempt at a complete bibliography
... Wetmore (1926) provides a discussion on the use of this name. This is a sister species of Greater Yellow-headed Vulture (Johnson et al. 2016) and the two were not recognised as specifically distinct until Wetmore (1964) demonstrated its validity. ...
Paraguay is often overlooked by ornithological researchers as much of its literature is obscure, hard to find or published locally. This is equally true of Cathartid vultures. In an effort to bring this information to a wider audience, we provide a summary of the published Paraguayan literature for each of the four species of vultures that occur in the country, including a history of vulture studies, folklore, a local synonymy and an attempt at a complete bibliography.
... Given their striking similarities, the phylogenetic relationships of this group has been challenging for many years, traditionally placing New World (NW) vultures (Cathartidae) along with Old World (OW) vultures (Accipitridae) in the order Falconiformes or in their own order [7;8]. Moreover, relationships within Cathartidae are still unclear largely due to incomplete taxonomic sampling and limited genetic resolution [9]. Recent nuclear genomic analyses showed that Falconiformes excluded the Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura), and suggested that Cathartidae split from a common ancestor of their sister group Accipitridae at some point between the late Cretaceous and early Paleogene or even later [10;11]. ...
The evolution of large vultures linked to mountainous habitats was accompanied by extreme physiological and behavioral specializations for energetically efficient flights. However, little is known on the genetic traits associated with the evolution of these obligate soaring scavengers. Mitochondrial DNA plays a vital role in regulating oxidative stress and energy production, and hence may be an important target of selection for flight performance. Herein, we characterized the first mitogenomes of the Andean and California condors, the world’s heaviest flying birds and the only living representative of Vultur and Gymnogyps genus. We reconstructed the phylogenetic relationships and evaluated possible footprints of convergent evolution associated to the life-history traits and distributional range of vultures. Our phylogenomic analyses supported the independent evolution of vultures, with the origin of Cathartidae in the early Paleogene (~ 59 Mya), and estimated the radiation of extant condors during the late Miocene (~ 10 Mya). Selection analyses indicated that vultures exhibit signals of relaxation of purifying selection relative to other accipitrimorph raptors, possibly indicating the degeneration of flapping flight ability. Overall, our results suggest that the extreme specialization of vultures for efficient soaring flight has compensated the evolution of large body sizes mitigating the selection pressure on mtDNA.
... The "condor group" is recognized by the cited work and previous authors termed it Vulturinae, after Campbell (1979). Nevertheless, Johnson et al. (2016) proposed Sarcoramphus to be well-nested among condors (sensu Brito, 2008). However, we taken into account Agnolin et al. (2017) recommendations that discard this arrangement until new evidence sustaining such a proposal becomes available. ...
The fossil record of South American cathartids, with few exceptions, is largely restricted to Late Pleistocene and Holocene sites. This contribution provides for the first time fossil records of cathartids from Uruguay. The specimens reported here include an; almost complete fibula, an incomplete furcula, and the distal end of a tibiotarsus. The; first two specimens came from Late Pleistocene beds at two localities of from Northern Uruguay, and the last one comes from Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene beds from South-western Uruguay. All the specimens were associated with several megafaunal fossil remains. The systematic assignation and paleobiological implications of these scavenger birds are here discussed.
... Patterns of egg measurements and appearance, and also clutch sizes, found on this review clearly agree with Cathartidae phylogeny of Johnson et al. (2016). We could note the occurrence of two primary clades: one with the condors and the King Vulture (larger adult size, and clutch of one large, all-white egg), and the other with the remaining four smaller species (usually clutches of two marked eggs). ...
New World vultures (Cathartidae) have essential roles in ecosystem functioning, but are susceptible to increasing anthropogenic impacts. Knowledge of several breeding, behavioral, and distributional parameters of Neotropical vultures is poorly organized and have not been properly reviewed. Here, we made a comprehensive review of original breeding records from museums, literature, and citizen science (WikiAves) for each of the six species of vultures occurring in the Neotropical region. These data were used to review breeding patterns and geographical distribution, and identify information gaps. The 567 records of breeding from the Neotropics assembled are very biased, mostly for Black Vulture Coragyps atratus (n = 319) and Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura (n = 166), and unevenly distributed among regions and subspecies. The four other species still have a great lack of knowledge about their breeding in the wild (Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture Cathartes burrovianus (n = 20), Greater Yellow-headed Vulture C. melambrotus (n = 2), King Vulture Sarcoramphus papa (n = 21), and Andean Condor Vultur gryphus (n = 30)). We show for the first time that Neotropical Cathartidae have convergent breeding seasons among sympatric taxa, delay start of breeding with increasing latitude, and have an allometric relationship between adult size and egg size. Nevertheless, larger samples of breeding data, especially from some regions and taxa, such as the two “Yellow-headed Vulture” species, are still needed. We also show that breeding traits could be helpful for preventive management and conservation strategies involving both expanding and decreasing populations of vultures in the Neotropics.
... Rearrange the sequence of species in the family Phalacrocoracidae to:17.[pp. 51-53] Phylogenetic analyses of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences(Johnson et al. 2016) have shown that our current linear sequence of species in the family Cathartidae does not reflect their evolutionary relationships. These findings result in the following changes:Insertthe following Notes after the heading Family CATHARTIDAE: New World Vultures: Notes.-Linear ...
... Increasingly more researchers acknowledge that New World vultures should be recognized as their own order, Cathartiformes (Chesser et al. 2016, Mindell et al. 2018). This order is sister to Accipitriformes, and fossil calibrated phylogenetic analyses suggest that their common ancestor is as old or older than other recognized avian orders (Jarvis et al. 2014, Prum et al. 2015, Johnson et al. 2016). Lerner and Mindell (2005) established that Old World vultures are not monophyletic within Accipitridae; Palm-nut, Egyptian (Neophron percnopterus), and Bearded (Gypaetus barbatus) Vultures are separated from all other Old World vultures based on molecular phylogenetic analyses. ...
... Haemoproteus catharti was detected in TUVU at all studied US states, but no evidence of infection was detected in BLVU by either PCR assay or blood smear analysis. This difference is surprising considering that these species have a shared evolutionary history [29] and have extensive similarities in the functional ecology, as well as in morphological, physiological, and behavioural attributes [9,10]. The closest relatives of TUVU are endemic to South America, the lesser yellow-headed vulture (Cathartes burrovianus) and the greater yellow-headed vulture (Cathartes melambrotus) [8]. ...
Background:
New World vultures (Cathartiformes: Cathartidae) are obligate scavengers comprised of seven species in five genera throughout the Americas. Of these, turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) and black vultures (Coragyps atratus) are the most widespread and, although ecologically similar, have evolved differences in morphology, physiology, and behaviour. Three species of haemosporidians have been reported in New World vultures to date: Haemoproteus catharti, Leucocytozoon toddi and Plasmodium elongatum, although few studies have investigated haemosporidian parasites in this important group of species. In this study, morphological and molecular methods were used to investigate the epidemiology and molecular biology of haemosporidian parasites of New World vultures in North America.
Methods:
Blood and/or tissue samples were obtained from 162 turkey vultures and 95 black vultures in six states of the USA. Parasites were identified based on their morphology in blood smears, and sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b and nuclear adenylosuccinate lyase genes were obtained for molecular characterization.
Results:
No parasites were detected in black vultures, whereas 24% of turkey vultures across all sampling locations were positive for H. catharti by blood smear analysis and/or PCR testing. The phylogenetic analysis of cytochrome b gene sequences revealed that H. catharti is closely related to MYCAMH1, a yet unidentified haemosporidian from wood storks (Mycteria americana) in southeastern USA and northern Brazil. Haemoproteus catharti and MYCAMH1 represent a clade that is unmistakably separate from all other Haemoproteus spp., being most closely related to Haemocystidium spp. from reptiles and to Plasmodium spp. from birds and reptiles.
Conclusions:
Haemoproteus catharti is a widely-distributed parasite of turkey vultures in North America that is evolutionarily distinct from other haemosporidian parasites. These results reveal that the genetic diversity and evolutionary relationships of avian haemosporidians are still being uncovered, and future studies combining a comprehensive evaluation of morphological and life cycle characteristics with the analysis of multiple nuclear and mitochondrial genes will be useful to redefine the genus boundaries of these parasites and to re-evaluate the relationships amongst haemosporidians of birds, reptiles and mammals.
... One group that has remained relatively under studied 21,22 in terms of olfaction is the New World Vultures (Cathartidae) 23 . Both Old World and New World vultures feed almost exclusively on carrion 22 , but evolved independently of each other [23][24][25] . Old World vultures appear to rely exclusively on visual cues to find carcasses whereas species within the Cathartidae vary in the degree to which they use olfaction 8,26 . ...
The turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) is a widespread, scavenging species in the Western Hemisphere that locates carrion by smell. Scent guided foraging is associated with an expansion of the olfactory bulbs of the brain in vertebrates, but no such neuroanatomical data exists for vultures. We provide the first measurements of turkey vulture brains, including the size of their olfactory bulbs and numbers of mitral cells, which provide the primary output of the olfactory bulbs. Comparative analyses show that the turkey vulture has olfactory bulbs that are 4× larger and contain twice as many mitral cells as those of the sympatric black vulture (Coragyps atratus), despite having brains that are 20% smaller. The turkey vulture has the largest olfactory bulbs in absolute terms and adjusted for brain size among birds, but the number of mitral cells is proportional to the size of their olfactory bulbs. The combination of large olfactory bulbs, high mitral cell counts and a greatly enlarged nasal cavity likely reflects a highly sensitive olfactory system. We suggest that this sensitive sense of smell allowed the turkey vulture to colonize biomes that are suboptimal for scavenging birds and become the most widespread vulture species in the world.
We present a complete, time-scaled, evolutionary tree of the world’s bird species. This tree unites phylogenetic estimates for 9,239 species from 262 studies published between 1990 and 2024, using the Open Tree synthesis algorithm. The remaining species are placed in the tree based on curated taxonomic information. The tips of this complete tree are aligned to the species in the Clements Taxonomy used by eBird and other resources, and cross-mapped to other taxonomic systems including the Open Tree of Life (Open Tree), National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), and Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). The total number of named bird species varies between 10,824 and 11,017 across the taxonomy versions we applied (v2021, v2022 and v2023). We share complete trees for each taxonomy version. The procedure, software and data-stores we used to generate this tree are public and reproducible. The tree presented here is Aves v1.2 and can be easily updated with new phylogenetic information as new estimates are published. We demonstrate the types of large scale analyses this data resource enables by linking geographic data with the phylogeny to calculate the regional phylogenetic diversity of birds across the world. We will release updated versions of the phylogenetic synthesis and taxonomic translation tables annually. The procedure we describe here can be applied to developing complete phylogenetic estimates for any taxonomic group of interest.
Significance statement
Birds are charismatic - well loved, and highly studied. Many new phylogenies elucidating avian birds evolutionary relationships are published every year. We have united phylogenetic estimates from hundreds of studies to create a complete evolutionary tree of all birds. While a variety of resources aggregate huge collections of trait, behavior and location data for birds, previously the barriers to linking data between these data resources and bird evolutionary history have limited the opportunities to do exciting large scale analyses. We have bridged that gap, and developed a system that allows us to easily update our understanding of bird evolution as new estimates are generated. We share a workflow and the software needed to create a complete evolutionary tree for any group.
Where Did They Come From? The Origins of South American Fauna offers a fascinating journey into the origins of South American flora and fauna. Exploring life on the continent before and after the breakup of Gondwana, it delves into how creatures arrived in South America, be it through drifting across oceans or traversing land bridges. From birds and reptiles to mammals and fish, this book provides a comprehensive compendium of biological diversity, discussing their origins and evolutionary paths. Readers will gain insights into the mechanisms of animal dispersal, evolution, and the impact of the Great Biotic Interchange. The book also lists references for further exploration of the subject.
The book is structured into five parts:
Building South America: Covers tectonic movements, climate changes, and breaching isolation.
Shaping South America: Explores the landforms and diverse biomes across the continent.
Vertebrates within South America: Discusses unique amphibians, reptiles, fish, mammals, and birds that evolved on the continent.
Vertebrates immigrating to South America: Examines exotic reptiles, birds, and mammals that found their way to the continent. The author also lists the families of almost all genera of South American animals, while giving knowledge of their origins.
Recent Arrivals - the Great Biotic Interchange: Explores the significant interchange of various species that occurred later.
Ideal for students, biologists, and anyone curious about the natural world, this book is a captivating read that uncovers the incredible history of South American fauna and its evolutionary tapestry.
Archaeopteryx lived about 155 million years ago and was a descendent of a long line of dinosaur and theropod ancestors. In this chapter, I review current ideas about the evolution of birds and discuss in detail how dinosaurs eventually gave rise to birds and why birds are considered to be dinosaurs. Over millions of years of dinosaur and theropod evolution, body sizes declined and limb lengths changed and theropods became more bird-like. Factors that likely contributed to such changes are described in detail. How and why, during the evolution of birds, natural selection might have favored changes in digestive systems, including the loss of teeth, and reproductive systems is also explained. Information about the first birds, including Archaeopteryx, jeholornithids, confuciusornithids, sapeornithids, enantiornithids, and ornithuromorphs, is provided. Possible reasons why the ancestors of present-day birds survived the end-Cretaceous extinction event are also provided. Finally, I describe how birds quickly diversified after that extinction event and ultimately gave rise to the thousands of species of present-day birds.
The recently proposed concept of ´endangered living fossils’ (ELFs) integrates high-endangered status and evolutionary singularity for any species. In this review, I gathered monotypic genera (single-species genera) that satisfy the three ELF criteria: (i) scarcity and narrow distribution of populations, i.e., considering every species categorized ‘critically endangered’ or contemporary ´extinct´ by IUCN criteria; (ii) evolutionary singularity, i.e., both morphological and phylogenetic singularities of a single-species lineage as a result of a null net diversification rate; and (iii) ancient divergence, i.e., split from the closest extant relatives predating a particular geological epoch. A total of 3,706 monotypic genera of vertebrates and angiosperms were analyzed. I found 109 critically endangered and contemporary extinct genera of which 57 were ELFs. The emergent patterns are: (1) taxonomy (generic level) is a reliable first approach to identifying ELFs; (2) ´morphological singularity´ displayed by monotypic genera does not always help identify ELFs on islands; (3) species of monotypic genera tend to be more threatened than average species; (4) extinction appears to be biased against some animal and plant groups; (5) contemporary extinct genera are strongly associated with distribution on islands, particularly for flightless birds vulnerable to human prosecution; and (6) the ELF approach is a relatively quick method to identify the species of floras and faunas most urgently in need of protection in the world. This approach is complementary to any method searching for phylogenetic diversity (e. g. EDGE), which is also discussed. I argue that ELFs should be prioritized in conservation because they are the most threatened lineages representing an exceptional evolutionary heritage in the world.
The New World Vulture [Coragyps] occidentalis (L. Miller, 1909) is one of many species that were extinct by the end of the Pleistocene. To understand its evolutionary history we sequenced the genome of a 14,000 year old [Coragyps] occidentalis found associated with megaherbivores in the Peruvian Andes. occidentalis has been viewed as the ancestor, or possibly sister, to the extant Black Vulture Coragyps atratus, but genomic data shows occidentalis to be deeply nested within the South American clade of atratus. Coragyps atratus inhabits lowlands, but the fossil record indicates that occidentalis mostly occupied high elevations. Our results suggest that occidentalis evolved from a population of atratus in southwestern South America that colonized the High Andes 300 to 400 kya. The morphological and morphometric differences between occidentalis and atratus may thus be explained by ecological diversification following from the natural selection imposed by this new and extreme, high elevation environment. The sudden evolution of a population with significantly larger body size and different anatomical proportions than atratus thus constitutes an example of punctuated evolution. 14,000 year old DNA reveals the evolutionary dynamics and adaptations of South American vultures.
Due to their small population sizes, threatened and endangered species frequently suffer from a lack of genetic diversity, potentially leading to inbreeding depression and reduced adaptability.¹ During the latter half of the twentieth century, North America’s largest soaring bird,² the California condor (Gymnogyps californianus; Critically Endangered³), briefly went extinct in the wild. Though condors once ranged throughout North America, by 1982 only 22 individuals remained. Following decades of captive breeding and release efforts, there are now >300 free-flying wild condors and ∼200 in captivity. The condor’s recent near-extinction from lead poisoning, poaching, and loss of habitat is well documented,⁴ but much about its history remains obscure. To fill this gap and aid future management of the species, we produced a high-quality chromosome-length genome assembly for the California condor and analyzed its genome-wide diversity. For comparison, we also examined the genomes of two close relatives: the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus; Vulnerable³) and the turkey vulture (Cathartes aura; Least Concern³). The genomes of all three species show evidence of historic population declines. Interestingly, the California condor genome retains a high degree of variation, which our analyses reveal is a legacy of its historically high abundance. Correlations between genome-wide diversity and recombination rate further suggest a history of purifying selection against linked deleterious alleles, boding well for future restoration. We show how both long-term evolutionary forces and recent inbreeding have shaped the genome of the California condor, and provide crucial genomic resources to enable future research and conservation.
The fossil bird Dryornis pampeanus Moreno & Mercerat, is reinterpreted after examination of new referred material (humerus, coracoid, fragments of ulna, radius, scapula, sternum and tibiotarsus) from the Pliocene Chapadmalal Formation of Argentina. The current diagnosis is emended in the light of important considerations that cast doubt on the previous attribution of the taxon to condors. The phylogenetic position of D. pampeanus was tested in a series of maximum parsimony analyses that included all seven living Cathartiformes and 207 osteological characters. The phylogenetic analyses placed D. pampeanus as the sister taxon of extant vultures. An estimation of 26 kg for the mass, positions D. pampeanus as the largest cathartiform to have ever lived. The presence of this taxon in both the Monte Hermoso and Chapadmalal Formations not only extends the stratigraphic range of the species, but also supports the idea that they were partially contemporaneous during the early Pliocene. The dependence of the vultures on ephemeral carrion suggests that they have especially large ranges. The sites from which the lectotype and new material were recovered (Monte Hermoso and Chapadmalal, respectively) are only 400 km apart, suggesting that the two sites were at least partly contemporaneous.
Three species of Old World vultures on the Asian peninsula are slowly recovering from the lethal consequences of diclofenac. At present the reason for species sensitivity to diclofenac is unknown. Furthermore, it has since been demonstrated that other Old World vultures like the Cape (Gyps coprotheres; CGV) and griffon (G. fulvus) vultures are also susceptible to diclofenac toxicity. Oddly, the New World Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) and pied crow (Corvus albus) are not susceptible to diclofenac toxicity. As a result of the latter, we postulate an evolutionary link to toxicity. As a first step in understanding the susceptibility to diclofenac toxicity, we use the CGV as a model species for phylogenetic evaluations, by comparing the relatedness of various raptor species known to be susceptible, non-susceptible and suspected by their relationship to the Cape vulture mitogenome. This was achieved by next generation sequencing and assembly. The Cape vulture mitogenome had a genome size of 16,908 bp. The mitogenome phylogenetic analysis indicated a close evolutionary relationship between Old World vultures and other members of the Accipitridae as indicated by bootstrap value of 100% on the phylogenetic trees. Based on this, we postulate that the other species could also be sensitive to the toxic effects of diclofenac. This warrants further investigations.
The late Quaternary megafauna extinctions reshaped species assemblages, yet we know little about how extant obligate scavengers responded to this abrupt ecological change. To explore whether obligate scavengers persisted by depending on contemporary community linkages or via foraging flexibility, we tested the importance of the trophic interaction between pumas (Puma concolor) and native camelids (Vicugna vicugna and Lama guanicoe) for the persistence of Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) in southern South America, and compared the demographic history of three vultures in different continents. We sequenced and compiled mtDNA to reconstruct past population dynamics. Our results suggest that Andean condors increased in population size >10 KYA, whereas vicuñas and pumas showed stable populations and guanacos a recent (<10 KYA) demographic expansion, suggesting independent trajectories between species. Further, vultures showed positive demographic trends: white-backed vultures (Gyps africanus) increased in population size, matching attenuated community changes in Africa, and California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) exhibited a steep demographic expansion ~20 KYA largely concurrent with North American megafaunal extinctions. Our results suggest that dietary plasticity of extant vulture lineages allowed them to thrive despite historical environmental changes. This dietary flexibility, however, is now detrimental as it enhances risk to toxicological compounds harbored by modern carrion resources.
Chilean Flamingo Phoenicopterus chilensis, an Antshrike Thamnophilus sp., Yellow-crowned Elaenia Myiopagis
flavivertex and Red-crested Finch Coryphospingus cucullatus are each newly added to the Colombian bird checklist, based
on photographic records. Ochraceous Wren Troglodytes ochraceus is added based on a sonogram of an archived sound
recording. Red-tailed Tropicbird Phaethon rubricauda, Juan Fernandez Petrel Pterodroma externa, White-chinned Petrel
Procellaria aequinoctialis, Tahiti Petrel Pseudobulweria rostrate, Gould's Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera and Lincoln's
Sparrow Melospiza lincolnii are each added as unconfirmed based on sight records. Following new publications and a
revision, several species are removed from Colombia's checklist: South American Tern Sterna hirundinacea, Christmas
Shearwater Puffinus navitatis, White-bellied Storm-Petrel Fregetta grallaria, Bluish-fronted Jacamar Galbula cyanescens,
Black-necked Araçari Pteroglossus aracari, Undulated Antshrike Frederickena unduliger, Chestnut-shouldered Antwren
Euchrepomis humeralis, Painted Tody-Flycatcher Todirostrum pictum, Roraiman Flycatcher Myiophobus roraimae,
Couch's Kingbird Tyrannus couchii and Dotted Tanager Tangara varia. New photographic records allow White-throated
Kingbird Tyrannus albogularis and Pacific Parrotlet Forpus coelestis to be promoted from unconfirmed to confirmed status.
Short-tailed Field Tyrant Muscigralla brevicauda is returned to confirmed status based on a specimen and further supported
by new photographic records presented here. We publish sonograms of archived sound recordings so as to promote Buffthroated
Tody-Tyrant Hemitriccus rufigularis and Foothill Schiffornis Schiffornis aenea to confirmed status. Imperial Snipe
Gallinago imperialis and Beautiful Treerunner Margarornis bellulus are now known from field observations as well as
historical "Bogotá" specimens. Following status revisions, various species are downgraded to unconfirmed status, namely:
Galapagos Penguin Spheniscus mendiculus, Little Woodstar Chaetocercus bombus, Black Nunbird Monasa atra, Graychested
Greenlet Hylophilus semicinereus, Guianan Gnatcatcher Polioptila guianensis, Pirre Chlorospingus Chlorospingus
inornatus, Pine Warbler Setophaga pinus and Palm Warbler Setophaga palmarum (the latter being confirmed on San
Andrés and Providencia only, with photographs presented here). We present details of an overlooked specimen record for
Colombia and new photographic records of Cape May Warbler Setophaga tigrina and Crimson-breasted Finch
Rhodospingus cruentus as well as photographic records of White-bellied Spinetail Mazaria propinqua, Ecuadorian
Tyrannulet Phylloscartes gualaquizae and Pink-footed Shearwater Ardenna creatopus, all of which we retain as confirmed
species. We present new information on the status of the Mallard Anas platyrhynchos and Feral Pigeon Columba livia as
breeding and introduced species. Common Quail Coturnix coturnix is a newly recorded escaped species that lacks evidence
of establishment. Island Canary Serinus canaria and Zebra Finch Taeniopygia guttata are now confirmed escapees, due to
photographic records. Splits are accepted of Rufescent Antshrike Thamnistes rufescens and Choco Screech-Owl Megascops
centralis, with Bogota Sunangel Heliangelus zusii and Colombian Screech-Owl Megascops colombianus no longer
recognized as valid species. Several amendments to genus and species names, English names and linear order are made,
following recent publications. The Colombian checklist changes to 1,934 species (excluding escapees). Methods for
categorizing records and the assessment of the status of species for a national checklist are discussed, in terms of the kinds
of records (sight records, photographs, sound recordings, telemetry, specimens, etc), escaped or introduced species and
taxonomy. We discuss all identified differences between our list and another recently published checklist of Colombia's
birds.
Sexual dimorphism patterns in wing area, wing loading, and wing aspect ratio of Black Vulture (Coragyps atratus) and Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) are unknown but are of particular interest given the prevalence of these species in scavenging communities in the Western Hemisphere. I assessed these variables in sexed specimens from wintering populations in Nashville, Tennessee. Black Vultures exhibited higher wing loading and a lower wing aspect ratio than Turkey Vultures. Neither species exhibited significant age-related or sexual dimorphism in body weight, wing span, wing area, wing loading, or wing aspect ratio. The relatively low variance observed in the pooled sample of immatures (∼9-21 mo old) and adults suggests that definitive wing size and shape are acquired several years before individuals develop the bare rugose skin and head caruncles characteristic of adults. In a broader context, this study tentatively suggests that variance estimates for wing morphology obtained from unsexed vulture populations may not be unduly inflated by undetected sexual or age-related dimorphism.
Large herbivores and carnivores (the megafauna) have been in a state of decline and extinction since the Late Pleistocene, both on land and more recently in the oceans. Much has been written on the timing and causes of these declines, but only recently has scientific attention focused on the consequences of these declines for ecosystem function. Here, we review progress in our understanding of how megafauna affect ecosystem physical and trophic structure, species composition, biogeochemistry, and climate, drawing on special features of PNAS and Ecography that have been published as a result of an international workshop on this topic held in Oxford in 2014. Insights emerging from this work have consequences for our understanding of changes in biosphere function since the Late Pleistocene and of the functioning of contemporary ecosystems, as well as offering a rationale and framework for scientifically informed restoration of megafaunal function where possible and appropriate.
Although reconstruction of the phylogeny of living birds has progressed tremendously in the last decade, the evolutionary history of Neoaves-a clade that encompasses nearly all living bird species-remains the greatest unresolved challenge in dinosaur systematics. Here we investigate avian phylogeny with an unprecedented scale of data: >390,000 bases of genomic sequence data from each of 198 species of living birds, representing all major avian lineages, and two crocodilian outgroups. Sequence data were collected using anchored hybrid enrichment, yielding 259 nuclear loci with an average length of 1,523 bases for a total data set of over 7.8 × 10(7) bases. Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses yielded highly supported and nearly identical phylogenetic trees for all major avian lineages. Five major clades form successive sister groups to the rest of Neoaves: (1) a clade including nightjars, other caprimulgiforms, swifts, and hummingbirds; (2) a clade uniting cuckoos, bustards, and turacos with pigeons, mesites, and sandgrouse; (3) cranes and their relatives; (4) a comprehensive waterbird clade, including all diving, wading, and shorebirds; and (5) a comprehensive landbird clade with the enigmatic hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) as the sister group to the rest. Neither of the two main, recently proposed Neoavian clades-Columbea and Passerea-were supported as monophyletic. The results of our divergence time analyses are congruent with the palaeontological record, supporting a major radiation of crown birds in the wake of the Cretaceous-Palaeogene (K-Pg) mass extinction.
In the preceding chapter in this volume, Cracraft has posed a series of questions concerning our application of the technique of DNA—DNA hybridization to the reconstruction of the phylogenetic relationships among living birds. Our purpose is to respond to Cracraft’s questions, to correct misunderstandings, and to reaffirm our confidence in DNA hybridization as a valuable and effective method for the reconstruction of phylogenies.
To better determine the history of modern birds, we performed a genome-scale phylogenetic analysis of 48 species representing all orders of Neoaves using phylogenomic methods created to handle genome-scale data. We recovered a highly resolved tree that confirms previously controversial sister or close relationships. We identified the first divergence in Neoaves, two groups we named Passerea and Columbea, representing independent lineages of diverse and convergently evolved land and water bird species. Among Passerea, we infer the common ancestor of core landbirds to have been an apex predator and confirm independent gains of vocal learning. Among Columbea, we identify pigeons and flamingoes as belonging to sister clades. Even with whole genomes, some of the earliest branches in Neoaves proved challenging to resolve, which was best explained by massive protein-coding sequence convergence and high levels of incomplete lineage sorting that occurred during a rapid radiation after the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction event about 66 million years ago.
Copyright © 2014, American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Large‐scale poisoning events are common to scavenging bird species that forage communally, many of which are in decline. To reduce the threat of poisoning and compensate for other persistent threats, management, including supplemental feeding, is ongoing for many reintroduced and endangered vulture populations. Through a longitudinal study of lead exposure in California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) , we illustrate the conservation challenges inherent in reintroduction of an endangered species to the wild when pervasive threats have not been eliminated. We evaluated population‐wide patterns in blood lead levels from 1997 to 2011 and assessed a broad range of putative demographic, behavioral, and environmental risk factors for elevated lead exposure among reintroduced California condors in California (United States). We also assessed the effectiveness of lead ammunition regulations within the condor's range in California by comparing condor blood lead levels before and after implementation of the regulations. Lead exposure was a pervasive threat to California condors despite recent regulations limiting lead ammunition use. In addition, condor lead levels significantly increased as age and independence from intensive management increased, including increasing time spent away from managed release sites, and decreasing reliance on food provisions. Greater independence among an increasing number of reintroduced condors has therefore elevated the population's risk of lead exposure and limited the effectiveness of lead reduction efforts to date. Our findings highlight the challenges of restoring endangered vulture populations as they mature and become less reliant on management actions necessary to compensate for persistent threats.
Patrones Espaciotemporales y Factores de Riesgo por Exposición a Plomo en Cóndores de California Durante 15 Años de Reintroducción
Phylogenies are increasingly used in all fields of medical and biological research. Moreover, because of the next generation sequencing revolution, datasets used for conducting phylogenetic analyses grow at an unprecedented pace. RAxML (Randomized Axelerated Maximum Likelihood) is a popular program for phylogenetic analyses of large datasets under maximum likelihood. Since the last RAxML paper in 2006, it has been continuously maintained and extended to accommodate the increasingly growing input datasets and to serve the needs of the user community.
I present some of the most notable new features and extensions of RAxML, such as, a substantial extension of substitution models and supported data types, the introduction of SSE3, AVX, and AVX2 vector intrinsics, techniques for reducing the memory requirements of the code and a plethora of operations for conducting post-analyses on sets of trees. In addition, an up-to-date, 50 page user manual covering all new RAxML options is available.
The code is available under GNU GPL at https://github.com/stamatak/standard-RAxML.
Alexandros.Stamatakis@h-its.org.
Vultures are highly reliant on their sensory systems for the rapid detection and localization of carrion before other scavengers can exploit the resource. In this study, we compared eye morphology and retinal topography in two species of New World vultures (Cathartidae), turkey vultures (Cathartes aura), with a highly developed olfactory sense, and black vultures (Coragyps atratus), with a less developed sense of olfaction. We found that eye size relative to body mass was the same in both species, but that black vultures have larger corneas relative to eye size than turkey vultures. However, the overall retinal topography, the total number of cells in the retinal ganglion cell layer, peak and average cell densities, cell soma area frequency distributions, and the theoretical peak anatomical spatial resolving power were the same in both species. This suggests that the visual systems of these two species are similar and that vision plays an equally important role in the biology of both species, despite the apparently greater reliance on olfaction for finding carrion in turkey vultures. Anat Rec, 296:1954-1970, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Large-scale multi-locus studies have become common in molecular phylogenetics, with new studies continually adding to previous datasets in an effort to fully resolve the tree of life. Total evidence analyses that combine existing data with newly collected data are expected to increase the power of phylogenetic analyses to resolve difficult relationships. However, they might be subject to localized biases, with one or a few loci having a strong and potentially misleading influence upon the results. To examine this possibility we combined a newly collected 31-locus dataset that includes representatives of all major avian lineages with a published dataset of 19 loci that has a comparable number of sites (Hackett et al. 2008Science 320, 1763-1768). This allowed us to explore the advantages of conducting total evidence analyses, and to determine whether it was also important to analyze new datasets independent of published ones. The total evidence analysis yielded results very similar to the published results, with only slightly increased support at a few nodes. However, analyzing the 31- and 19-locus datasets separately highlighted several differences. Two clades received strong support in the published dataset and total evidence analysis, but the support appeared to reflect bias at a single locus (β-fibrinogen [FGB]). The signal in FGB that supported these relationships was sufficient to result in their recovery with bootstrap support, even when combined with 49 loci lacking that signal. FGB did not appear to have a substantial impact upon the results of species tree methods, but another locus (brain-derived neurotrophic factor [BDNF]) did have an impact upon those analyses. These results demonstrated that localized biases can influence large-scale phylogenetic analyses but they also indicated that considering independent evidence and exploring multiple analytical approaches could reveal them.
Evolutionary relationships among birds in Neoaves, the clade comprising the vast majority of avian diversity, have vexed systematists due to the ancient, rapid radiation of numerous lineages. We applied a new phylogenomic approach to resolve relationships in Neoaves using target enrichment (sequence capture) and high-throughput sequencing of ultraconserved elements (UCEs) in avian genomes. We collected sequence data from UCE loci for 32 members of Neoaves and one outgroup (chicken) and analyzed data sets that differed in their amount of missing data. An alignment of 1,541 loci that allowed missing data was 87% complete and resulted in a highly resolved phylogeny with broad agreement between the Bayesian and maximum-likelihood (ML) trees. Although results from the 100% complete matrix of 416 UCE loci were similar, the Bayesian and ML trees differed to a greater extent in this analysis, suggesting that increasing from 416 to 1,541 loci led to increased stability and resolution of the tree. Novel results of our study include surprisingly close relationships between phenotypically divergent bird families, such as tropicbirds (Phaethontidae) and the sunbittern (Eurypygidae) as well as between bustards (Otididae) and turacos (Musophagidae). This phylogeny bolsters support for monophyletic waterbird and landbird clades and also strongly supports controversial results from previous studies, including the sister relationship between passerines and parrots and the non-monophyly of raptorial birds in the hawk and falcon families. Although significant challenges remain to fully resolving some of the deep relationships in Neoaves, especially among lineages outside the waterbirds and landbirds, this study suggests that increased data will yield an increasingly resolved avian phylogeny.
Multiple episodes of rapid and gradual climatic changes influenced the evolution and ecology of mammalian species and communities throughout the Cenozoic. Climatic change influenced the abundance, genetic diversity, morphology, and geographic ranges of individual species. Within communities these responses interacted to catalyze immigration, speciation, and extinction. Combined they affected long-term patterns of community stability, functional turnover, biotic turnover, and diversity. Although the relative influence of climate on particular evolutionary processes is oft debated, an understanding of processes at the root of biotic change yields important insights into the complexity of mammalian response. Ultimately, all responses trace to events experienced by populations. However, many such processes emerge as patterns above the species level, where shared life history traits and evolutionary history allow us to generalize about mammalian response to climatic change. These generalizations provide the gr...
We report the oldest fossil condor (Vulturidae) from South America and the first from the Pisco Formation (14.0–2.0 Ma) of Peru, described herein as Perugyps diazi new genus and species. The Pisco Formation, exposed on the southern coast of Peru, has produced well-preserved and abundant marine and terrestrial vertebrate fossils from the late Miocene/early Pliocene (6.0–4.5 Ma) Montemar and Sacaco Sur localities, from where P. diazi was recovered. The new condor adds to our knowledge on the evolution and biogeographic distribution of New World vultures. The age of this new species supports the hypothesis that condors probably evolved in North America and entered South America by the late Miocene/early Pliocene. We believe it is likely that the first condors to reach South America probably did so via a coastal corridor along the western side of the Andes where they became part of the diverse coastal fauna in southern Peru.
Un Nuevo Cóndor (Ciconiiformes, Vulturidae) del Mioceno Tardío-Plioceno Temprano de la Formación Pisco, Perú
Resumen. Se reporta el cóndor más antiguo de América del Sur y el primero para la Formación Pisco (14–2 Ma), y se describe como Perugyps diazi. De esta formación, situada en la costa sur del Perú, provienen gran cantidad de aves marinas en muy buen estado de conservación, en especial de los niveles Montemar y Sacaco Sur (Mioceno tardío/Plioceno temprano, 6.0–4.5 Ma), justamente de donde procede Perugyps. Este nuevo cóndor añade importante información sobre la evolución y distribución biogeográfica de estas aves, pues su edad apoya la hipótesis de que los cóndores probablemente evolucionaron en América del Norte y entraron a América del Sur entre el Mioceno tardío y el Plioceno temprano. Sugerimos que su llegada pudo realizarse por el corredor costero del lado occidental de los Andes, en donde pasaron a formar parte de la diversa fauna del sur del Perú.
Although reconstruction of the phylogeny of living birds has progressed tremendously in the last decade, the evolutionary history of Neoaves—a clade that encompasses nearly all living bird species—remains the greatest unresolved challenge in dinosaur systematics. Here we investigate avian phylogeny with an unprecedented scale of data: >390,000 bases of genomic sequence data from each of 198 species of living birds, representing all major avian lineages, and two crocodilian outgroups. Sequence data were collected using anchored hybrid enrichment, yielding 259 nuclear loci with an average length of 1,523 bases for a total data set of over 7.8 × 10⁷ bases. Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses yielded highly supported and nearly identical phylogenetic trees for all major avian lineages. Five major clades form successive sister groups to the rest of Neoaves: (1) a clade including nightjars, other caprimulgiforms, swifts, and hummingbirds; (2) a clade uniting cuckoos, bustards, and turacos with pigeons, mesites, and sandgrouse; (3) cranes and their relatives; (4) a comprehensive waterbird clade, including all diving, wading, and shorebirds; and (5) a comprehensive landbird clade with the enigmatic hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) as the sister group to the rest. Neither of the two main, recently proposed Neoavian clades—Columbea and Passerea—were supported as monophyletic. The results of our divergence time analyses are congruent with the palaeontological record, supporting a major radiation of crown birds in the wake of the Cretaceous–Palaeogene (K–Pg) mass extinction.
The naked heads of Cathartes vultures are widely believed to be adaptations for temperature regulation and to reduce plumage fouling during carrion feeding. Bright head color and the elaborate pattern of caruncles on the head and neck skin have a likely function in intra- and interspecific signaling. These integumentary characters have been difficult to study because of extensive postmortem color fading and shrinkage in museum specimens. Here I provide the first detailed description of head color and caruncles of the Greater Yellow-headed Vulture (C. melambrotus) from freshly collected specimens and provide comparative notes on sympatric populations of the Turkey Vulture (C. aura) and Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture (C. burrovianus) from Guyana.
Similarity of two of the cathartid vultures, the Greater and Lesser Yellow-headed vultures (Cathartes melambrotus and C. burrovianus) has caused field-identification problems. The primary means of distinguishing those vultures are the different flight profiles and general habitat preferences. As part of a larger study of cathartid phylogeny, we sequenced cytochrome b for six specimens of the two species. Sequences segregate into two groups, with two of the four Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture specimens clustering with the Greater Yellow-headed specimens. This incongruence led us to reexamine the two apparently misidentified specimens. The first bird, a specimen from the Sedgwick County Zoo, Kansas, had been acquired in 1960 and identified as a yellow-headed vulture. The name on the label of this specimen was not changed after melambrotus was established as a separate species in 1964. The second specimen, from Amapá, Brazil, had been identified based on observations of habitat and flight behavior. Because this voucher specimen was available for study, we were able to reexamine the specimen and corroborate the molecular identification as a Greater Yellow-headed Vulture. Without these voucher specimens, we would have misinterpreted the results from the molecular data. This is a reaffirmation of the importance of voucher specimens for accurate scientific work.
There are multiple sources of lead in the environment. However, scientific evidence points to spent lead ammunition as the most frequent cause of lead exposure and poisoning in scavenging birds in the United States. Despite the ban on its use for waterfowl hunting, lead ammunition is still widely used for other hunting and shooting activities. Therefore, it can remain on the landscape in carcasses not retrieved and in discarded offal piles. Carcasses and gut piles can be attractive food sources to scavenging birds that can ingest bullet fragments or shot while feeding. Scavenging birds may be particularly vulnerable to exposure and effects of lead due to their foraging strategies and food preferences, physiological processes that facilitate the absorption of lead, and demographic traits. Numerous lines of evidence support ammunition as the source of exposure in the majority of lead poisoned scavenging birds and include the recovery of ingested lead fragments or shot from exposed birds, observations of birds feeding on contaminated carcasses, isotopic signatures of lead in tissue that match that found in ammunition, patterns of mortality coincident with hunting seasons, and the lack of abundant evidence for other lead sources. Lead can be replaced in ammunition by alternative metals that are currently available and present limited environmental threats.
A new genus and species of Vulturidae (Cathartidae auct.), Wingegyps cartellei, is described from Pleistocene cave deposits in the states of Bahia and Minas Gerais, Brazil. This species is closely related to condors Gymnogyps and Vultur, particularly the former, as opposed to the smaller cathartid vultures, but is much smaller, being slightly smaller than the smallest living member of the family, the Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture Cathartes burrovianus. The Vulturidae appears to consist of two basic divisions (condors vs. other vultures) that differ profoundly in the morphology of the skull. Each appears to have been more diverse in the past and to contain larger or smaller species than survived to the present.
Differences between mammalian and avian extinction suggest different causal mechanisms for each group. The avian losses appear to depend on the loss of large herbivores as scavenging species are especially affected. -after Authors
Carcasses were provided at a gallery forest site in Venezuela to compare the feeding methods of four vulture species. Turkey Vultures or Lesser Yellow-headed Vultures were always the first species to arrive. Black Vultures were most likely to arrive at large carcasses or those in open situations and were the only species to form large feeding groups. King Vultures were equally likely to arrive at small or large carcasses. There were marked differences in feeding technique, food selection, rate of feeding and bill morphology between Turkey, Black and King Vultures, and the level of aggression between species was low compared to intra-specific aggression.
Lead is a prominent and highly toxic contaminant with important impacts to wildlife. To understand the degree to which wildlife populations are chronically exposed, we quantified lead levels within American black vultures (Coragyps atratus; BLVU) and turkey vultures (Cathartes aura; TUVU), two species that are useful as environmental sentinels in eastern North America. Every individual sampled (n=108) had bone lead levels indicative of chronic exposure to anthropogenic lead (BLVU: x¯=36.99±55.21mg Pb/kg tissue (±SD); TUVU: x¯=23.02±18.77mg/kg). Only a few showed evidence of recent lead exposure (BLVU liver: x¯=0.78±0.93mg/kg; TUVU liver: x¯=0.55±0.34mg/kg). Isotopic ratios suggested multiple potential sources of lead including ammunition, gasoline, coal-fired power plants, and zinc smelting. Black and turkey vultures range across eastern North America, from Quebec to Florida and individuals may traverse thousands of kilometers annually. The extent to which vultures are exposed suggests that anthropogenic lead permeates eastern North American ecosystems to a previously unrecognized degree. Discovery of an epidemic of chronic lead exposure in such widespread and common species and the failure of soft-tissue sampling to diagnose this pattern has dramatic implications for understanding modern wildlife and human health concerns.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A series of baits was used to study the scavenging efficiency of Turkey Vultures (Cathartes aura) in tropical forest. These birds were found to rely almost entirely on their sense of smell to locate food. They could not easily find animals that had died recently, were efficient at locating one-day-old carcasses, and tended to reject meat that was rotten. Estimates of the amount of food taken from the baits showed that Turkey and Black vultures removed about 90% of the provided food supply.
We observed Andean Condors (Vultur gryphus), King Vultures (Sarcoramphus papa), Black Vultures (Coragyps atratus), Turkey Vultures (Cathartes aura), and Crested Cara-caras (Polyborus plancus) interacting at 217 animal carcasses at two sites in northern Peru. At 53 carcasses for which we knew order of arrival, Turkey Vultures usually arrived first, Black Vultures second, and condors third. On the basis of our observations of 8,066 aggressive encounters between birds, we constructed dominance hierarchies by calculating the propor-tion of encounters won by an individual of one species, sex, or age during encounters with an individual of another species, sex, or age. Within each species there was a positive rela-tionship between a bird's dominance and its age. In condors, males dominated females of the same age. Interspecific dominance was correlated positively with body mass. There are convergent similarities between the organizations of guilds of Old and New World vultures.
The New World vultures, family Cathartidae, form a heterogeneous group of large birds which is now limited in its range to the Americas. Only one member, the fossil Plesiocathartes of France, has been taken outside the Western Hemisphere. Including fossils, there have been at various times twelve genera and twenty species within the family. More than half of these are fossil; the oldest is from the Oligocene. An earlier study (in press) of the appendicular skeleton and musculature of the Recent genera indicated that the modern forms are surprisingly diverse in spite of simi-larities in locomotion in the air and on the ground, which are correlated with similari-ties in appendages. Because it was believed that the skull, especially the cranial part, is a more "stable" part of the body and less subject to adaptive change than are the appendages, this region of the skeleton was selected as the basis for a study of relation-ships. In pursuing this investigation it has been necessary, however, to examine some other skeletal parts in order to clarify questions of taxonomy. FossiL-Cathades aura, 5 crania, 2 incomplete rostra and 3 pairs.of mandibles; Coragyps occidentaZis, 8 1 crania, 18 rostra and 4 incomplete mandibles; Sarcoramphus kernensis, type humerus; Gymnogyps amplus, type tarsometatarsus, 127 crania, 67 rostra, 20 pairs of mandibles, and 100 tarsi; Breagyps clarki, 6 crania, 2 incomplete rostra and mandibular fragments.
William Bartram described the Painted Vulture (Vultur sacra) as a new species in his 1791 book on travels in Florida and other southeastern states. However, no specimen of this bird survives, and it has not been reported by any subsequent or-nithologist. Bartram's detailed description is not presently endorsed by the American Ornithologists' Union and has been widely regarded as a myth, a misdescribed King Vulture Sarcoramphus papa (Linnaeus), a misdescribed Northern Carac-ara Caracara cheriway (Jacquin), or a garbled mixture of species. In fact, his description bears almost no resemblance to a Northern Caracara, but it does match the King Vulture in all important respects except tail color (which is uniform dark brown in all ages and sexes of King Vultures but was white with a dark brown or black tip in Bartram's description). Most 20th century ornithologists commenting on Bartram's bird have been reluctant to accept his description because of the tail-color discrepancy. Only McAtee (1942) concluded that his description could be fully accurate as written, indicating a bird closely related to, but different from, a typical King Vulture. Paralleling Bartram's description is an apparently independent account and painting of a vulture of uncertain geo-graphic origin by Eleazar Albin (1734). Details of Albin's description, including tail color, are very similar to those of Bartram's description. The only discrepancies are minor differences in color of softparts and tail that seem explicable as intraspecific variation. Available evidence suggests that Bartram knew nothing of Albin's description, and if so, Albin's bird provides quite persuasive support for the validity of Bartram's bird. Equally important, none of the arguments offered historically against the validity of the Painted Vulture is persuasive when examined closely. Together, these and other fac-tors make a strong case for acceptance of Bartram's Painted Vulture as a historic resident of northern Florida and likely other adjacent regions.
The late Pleistocene extinction decimated terrestrial megafaunal
communities in North America, but did not affect marine mammal
populations. In coastal regions, marine megafauna may have provided a
buffer that allowed some large predators or scavengers, such as
California condors (Gymnogyps
californianus ), to survive into the Holocene. To track
the influence of marine resources on avifaunas we analyzed the carbon,
nitrogen, and hydrogen isotope composition of collagen from late
Pleistocene vultures and raptors, including species that survived the
extinction (condor, bald eagle, golden eagle) and extinct species
(teratorn, black vulture). At the Rancho La Brea and McKittrick tar pits
of southern California, isotope values for extinct teratorns (Teratornis
merriami , n = 10) and black vultures (Coragyps
occidentalis , n = 8) show that they fed entirely in a
terrestrial C3 ecosystem. In contrast, La Brea condors
cluster into two groups, one with a terrestrial diet (n = 4), and the
other with a strong marine influence (n = 5). At localities in the
American southwest, Texas, and Florida, where condors became extinct,
they have isotope values indicating entirely terrestrial diets (n = 10).
Our results suggest that dependence upon terrestrial megafaunal carrion
as a food source led to the extinction of inland California condor
populations and coastal populations of teratorns and black vultures at
the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary, whereas use of marine foods allowed
coastal condor populations to survive.
Vultures comprise two geographically isolated and taxonomically distinct groups, Old World accipitrids and New World vulturids, and provide a classic case of convergent evolution. In both regions, several species of vultures often feed together in large numbers on carcasses. Behavioral studies of East African and Amazonian vultures have documented parallels in apparent ecological separation within this guild of specialized scavengers. Here morphological differences in skull, beak, and manibular dimensions are compared among sympatric vultures in East Africa, South Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Amazonia, and the Pleistocene Rancho La Brea deposits in California. A discriminant function analysis based on morphological indices separates three basic feeding types: rippers, gulpers, and scrappers. Vultures of the three feeding types are present in both Pleistocene and Recent assemblages and show a similar distribution of body sizes into three size classes, suggesting that competition has favored similar pathways of ecological separation. This is true even when phylogenetic differences among some of the assemblages are partially accounted for. Comparisons between the fossil and extant New World vultures indicate that more specialized species were prone to extinction and that there has been a reduction in body size since the Pleistocene.
The fossil record of condors (Ciconiiformes: Vulturidae) in the New World is reviewed with a description of a new species of Gymnogyps from the early Pleistocene (Irvingtonian) of Florida. This new species shared a common ancestor with the California condor, G. californianus, and provides new information on the origin and evolution of condors in North America. A phylogenetic analysis of 39 cranial and postcranial characters indicates that the condors form a monophyletic assemblage with Gymnogyps as a distinct North American genus, and Vultur as a distinct South American genus. Condors probably originated in North America and may have reached South America in the mid Pliocene (Montehermosan) near the beginning of the Great American Interchange.
A new genus and species of condor-like vulture (Ciconiiformes: Vulturidae) is described from the middle Miocene (Barstovian) of North America and is the earliest condor now known in the New World. The fossil record at present indicates that the Vul- turidae originated in the Old World, but diversified in the New World. Large body size in vultures developed in North America at least 4 million years (Ma) earlier than thought previously, and the condors probably evolved in North America. Condors were most diverse in the late Pleistocene but are now near extinction. Received 16 October 1987, accepted 22 March 1988. THE family Vulturidae (Ciconiiformes), the New World vultures, consists of seven living species in North and South America. The fossil record indicates that this family was once more diverse and probably originated in Europe or Asia (Olson 1985). No fossils of vulturids youn- ger than the early Miocene (25 million years ago (Ma)) are known in the Old World (Cracraft and Rich 1972). The family has since become restricted to the New World where the earliest record is from the late Oligocene/early Mio- cene (Alvarenga 1985). Condors are large, dis- tinct vultures whose fossil history has been traced to the late Miocene of North America (Becker 1986), where they probably originated. Extant species include the Andean Condor (Vul- tur gryphus) and the California Condor (Gym- nogyps californianus); the King Vulture (Sarco- ramphus papa) is intermediate in characters between the condors and the smaller vulturids (Cathartes, Coragyps) (Fisher 1946; Emslie in press). Recently, two discoveries have increased our knowledge of the fossil history and evolution of the condors. The first was a partial skeleton of a condor closely related to the living Cali- fornia Condor, Gymnogyps californianus, from the early Pleistocene (1-1.5 Ma) of Florida (Emslie in press). The second is a single complete tar- sometatarsus from the middle Miocene of Cal-
We report the oldest fossil condor (Vulturidae) from South America and the first from the Pisco Formation (14.0–2.0 Ma) of Peru, described herein as Perugyps diazi new genus and species. The Pisco Formation, exposed on the southern coast of Peru, has produced well-preserved and abundant marine and terrestrial vertebrate fossils from the late Miocene/early Pliocene (6.0–4.5 Ma) Montemar and Sacaco Sur localities, from where P. diazi was recovered. The new condor adds to our knowledge on the evolution and biogeographic distribution of New World vultures. The age of this new species supports the hypothesis that condors probably evolved in North America and entered South America by the late Miocene/early Pliocene. We believe it is likely that the first condors to reach South America probably did so via a coastal corridor along the western side of the Andes where they became part of the diverse coastal fauna in southern Peru. Un Nuevo Cóndor (Ciconiiformes, Vulturidae) del Mioceno Tardío-Plioceno Temprano de la Formación Pisco, Perú Resumen. Se reporta el cóndor más antiguo de América del Sur y el primero para la Formación Pisco (14–2 Ma), y se describe como Perugyps diazi. De esta formación, situada en la costa sur del Perú, provienen gran cantidad de aves marinas en muy buen estado de conservación, en especial de los niveles Montemar y Sacaco Sur (Mioceno tardío/Plioceno temprano, 6.0–4.5 Ma), justamente de donde procede Perugyps. Este nuevo cóndor añade importante información sobre la evolución y distribución biogeográfica de estas aves, pues su edad apoya la hipótesis de que los cóndores probablemente evolucionaron en América del Norte y entraron a América del Sur entre el Mioceno tardío y el Plioceno temprano. Sugerimos que su llegada pudo realizarse por el corredor costero del lado occidental de los Andes, en donde pasaron a formar parte de la diversa fauna del sur del Perú.
The fossil birds of the British Upper Eocene are re-examined, further species are described, and additional material referred to existing species. Seeley's Macrornis tanaupus appears to be non-avian. Of the nine species listed by Lydekker (1891), the supposed cormorant, Actiornis anglicus, and the supposed flamingo, Elornis anglicus, appear referable to a single species of ibis under the former name; and Ibidopsis is transferred to the rails. The total number of forms now recognized consists of a diver, a cormorant, two ibises, a flamingo (based on limb shafts and unnamed), a telmabatid, a duck, a probable cathartid vulture, a hawk, an osprey, a rail and four waders. Seven new genera and seven new species are named.
Carcasses were provided at a gallery forest site in Venezuela to compare the feeding methods of four vulture species. Turkey Vultures or Lesser Yellow-headed Vultures were always the first species to arrive. Black Vultures were most likely to arrive at large carcasses or those in open situations and were the only species to form large feeding groups. King Vultures were equally likely to arrive at small or large carcasses. There were marked differences in feeding technique, food selection, rate of feeding and bill morphology between Turkey, Black and King Vultures, and the level of aggression between species was low compared to intra-specific aggression.