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Comparison Between the Kinetics of Conventional Maceration and A Cyclic Pressurization Extraction Process for the Production of Lemon Liqueur Using A Numerical Model
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare two extraction processes for the production of lemon liqueur (limoncello)—the traditional maceration of lemon peels and a cyclically pressurized extraction process also known as rapid solid‐liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE) that uses a Naviglio extractor. To evaluate the extraction efficiency of the two processes, dry matter obtained by the evaporation of the extracts was used to construct kinetics curves. The dry matter was directly proportional to the amount of the active principle (terpenes) extracted and consequently to the total concentration. Alcoholic extracts were analysed by gas chromatography (GC) to monitor the extraction kinetics for major components of the terpene fraction and for minor components of essential oils. Moreover, alcoholic extracts were analysed by UV spectrophotometry to identify the more abundant chemical species, while the organoleptic tests (i.e., a consumer test) performed on the final product (limoncello) provided an indication of the taste of the final product and revealed features undetectable with instrumental analytical techniques. To better understand the phenomenon considered, a numerical simulation was performed to evaluate and compare the matter flow of extractable compounds during the process.
Practical Applications
The mathematical model shown in this work is a scientific novelty because it is not reported in the previous literature. Indeed, the curves obtained from the kinetic analysis of the two solid‐liquid extraction procedures were interpolated to obtain a numerical model, which regulated the two extraction processes. Comparison between the kinetics of the extraction procedures showed that the rapid solid‐liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE) process was 120 times faster than maceration and had a greater efficiency in a short time. Finally, a method proposed to follow the kinetics of the dilution of alcohol by water contained in the peels using the Karl Fisher titration method was important for establishing the alcoholic content of the beverage.
... To better understand the extraction phenomenon under investigation, analytical and numerical approaches available in the current literature were considered [14][15][16][17][18][19]. ...
... Ci = C (data from experiments) on the other boundary (9) On the walls, the normal component of the concentration gradient is equal to 0. The coefficient of diffusion calculated by fitting Equation (2) to the experimental data was inputted into the software, and the equations were solved by a finite element approach to evaluate the Nodal Flux-time diagram for the component, as shown in the report by Naviglio et al. (2016) [16], where the distribution of the concentrations of each node, at one-second time steps, was evaluated. ...
... The coefficient of diffusion calculated by fitting Equation (2) to the experimental data was inputted into the software, and the equations were solved by a finite element approach to evaluate the Nodal Flux-time diagram for the component, as shown in the report by Naviglio et al. (2016) [16], where the distribution of the concentrations of each node, at one-second time steps, was evaluated. ...
In the present work, the kinetics of the extraction process from female inflorescences of Canapa sativa subsp. sativa var. sativa were studied, on the basis of determination of the content of cannabinoids: cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), before and after decarboxylation in the oven, in order to evaluate the possible use of the hemp extract obtained in the food sector. Therefore, both conventional maceration (CM) and rapid solid-liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE), also known as cyclically pressurized extraction (CPE), were carried out, using parts of the plant approximately of the same size. The alcoholic extracts thus obtained were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in order to calculate the percentages of cannabinoids present in the inflorescences and thus be able to evaluate the degree of decarboxylation. Furthermore, the extracts were dried to calculate the percentage of solid material present in it, that was made mainly by cannabinoids. The amount of substance extracted from the inflorescences was about 10% (w/w), for both cases considered. Therefore, the extraction yield was the same in the two cases examined and the final qualities were almost identical. However, the extraction times were significantly different. In fact, the maceration of hemp inflorescences in ethyl alcohol was completed in no less than 24 h, while with the RSLDE the extraction was completed in only 4 h. Finally, for a better understanding of the extraction process with cyclically pressurized extraction, a numerical simulation was carried out which allowed to better evaluate the influence of extractive parameters.
... To better understand the extraction phenomenon under investigation, analytical and numerical approaches available in the current literature were considered [14][15][16][17][18][19]. ...
... Ci = C (data from experiments) on the other boundary (9) On the walls, the normal component of the concentration gradient is equal to 0. The coefficient of diffusion calculated by fitting Equation (2) to the experimental data was inputted into the software, and the equations were solved by a finite element approach to evaluate the Nodal Flux-time diagram for the component, as shown in the report by Naviglio et al. (2016) [16], where the distribution of the concentrations of each node, at one-second time steps, was evaluated. ...
... The coefficient of diffusion calculated by fitting Equation (2) to the experimental data was inputted into the software, and the equations were solved by a finite element approach to evaluate the Nodal Flux-time diagram for the component, as shown in the report by Naviglio et al. (2016) [16], where the distribution of the concentrations of each node, at one-second time steps, was evaluated. ...
In the present work, the kinetics of the extraction process from female inflorescences of Canapa sativa subsp. sativa var. sativa were studied, on the basis of determination of the content of cannabinoids: cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), before and after decarboxylation in the oven, in order to evaluate the possible use of the hemp extract obtained in the food sector. Therefore, both conventional maceration (CM) and rapid solid-liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE), also known as cyclically pressurized extraction (CPE), were carried out, using parts of the plant approximately of the same size. The alcoholic extracts thus obtained were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in order to calculate the percentages of cannabinoids present in the inflorescences and thus be able to evaluate the degree of decarboxylation. Furthermore, the extracts were dried to calculate the percentage of solid material present in it, that was made mainly by cannabinoids. The amount of substance extracted from the inflorescences was about 10% (w/w), for both cases considered. Therefore, the extraction yield was the same in the two cases examined and the final qualities were almost identical. However, the extraction times were significantly different. In fact, the maceration of hemp inflorescences in ethyl alcohol was completed in no less than 24 h, while with the RSLDE the extraction was completed in only 4 h. Finally, for a better understanding of the extraction process with cyclically pressurized extraction, a numerical simulation was carried out which allowed to better evaluate the influence of extractive parameters.
... It is the simplest solid-liquid technique of extraction in which the plant material is covered with suitable solvent and the system is allowed to stand for a prolonged period of at least 3 days. This technique can be operated at ambient temperature, so it is a very important method for the extraction of thermolabile compounds (Naviglio et al., 2016). ...
... This prevents a local super saturation in the proximity of solid surface attained to be extract. Over saturation of the localized solvent may slow down the extraction process (Naviglio et al., 2016). ...
Multi-drugs resistance has addressed a growing trouble in the treatment of many infectious diseases caused by several kinds of bacteria and fungi. The discovery and development of effective antibacterial and antifungal agents with novel chemical structures become urgent tasks for infectious disease research programs.
In the current work, the powder obtained from crushing the seeds of Red Delicious apple was extracted by solvents of different polarities including water, methanol, chloroform, and n-hexane. The extraction was carried out via three extraction methods named kinetic maceration, ultrasound-expedited and microwave-expedited extraction techniques. For each one, the extraction was performed in three styles, which are non-serial, serial risingly- and fallingly-arranged in polarity.
The resultant extracts were submitted to the phytochemical screening tests for seeking the existence of many primary and secondary plant metabolites. The investigated phytochemicals were flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, carbohydrates, alkaloids, emodins, phenols, steroids, anthocyanins, betacyanins, amino acids, proteins, saponins, glycosides, coumarins, anthraquinones, and fixed oils.
The results acquired from the phytochemical analysis documented that coumarins could be detected in the obtained methanol and chloroform extracts. According to these results, the chloroform extract obtained from a non-serial ultrasound-expedited extraction method was selected to isolate its coumarin components.
Since the processes of separation and purification completed, four novel furanocoumarins have been acquired. Their chemical structures were illustrated by analyzing their FTIR, 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectra and corresponding their spectroscopic data with those found in the literature.
Two in vitro antimicrobial studies were verified for the isolated products via a broth dilution method; the antibacterial activity versus the following standard bacterial strains: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Haemophilus influenzae and Escherichia coli utilizing Ciprofloxacin as a reference, and the antifungal activity versus the following standard fungal strains: Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger using Nystatin as a reference. The results indicated that the isolated furanocoumarins had a promising antimicrobial activity against the test pathogens with the superior activity attributed to compound E1 ((E)-12-(2'-Chlorovinyl)bergapten) . Also, the isolated products displayed encouraging bactericidal and fungicidal activities based on their MBC/MIC and MFC/MIC values.
In the literature, there is a large number of reports which documented that the enhanced lipophilicity of the antimicrobial agent may improve its penetration into pathogenic microorganisms resulting in a better antimicrobial effect. To examine this assumption on the isolated furanocoumarins, one of them, which is compound E3 (12-(2'-chloropropan-2'-yl)-8-hydroxybergapten) was chemically modified in such a way to increase its lipophilicity. The results of testing the antimicrobial activity of this semisynthetic product revealed improvement in the activity versus the same test pathogens. Accordingly, it is concluded that it is possible to increase the antimicrobial activity of the isolated natural furanocoumarins by enhancing their lipophilicity. This may be accomplished by either introducing a non-polar functional group or modifying the currently available polar active group.
... The aim of this study is to obtain extracts of P. lividus shells using the rapid solid liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE) implemented via Naviglio Extractor®, as this technique has already successfully applied in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, herbal, food and beverage fields [9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. Here we present our results on the qualitative and quantitative analysis via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) of lipophilic components of the crude extract. ...
... The extracts analyzed in the present work were obtained by rapid solid liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE), a convenient extractive technique which is easy to implement on the base of automated devices and does not require special expertise [12][13][14]. Contrary to previous studies conducted on red (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus) and green (S. droebachiensis) sea urchins using different hard strategies to obtain extracts [39,40], RSLDE allowed us to investigate the composition of shells without using a high volume of acidic solvents. In fact, RSLDE was preferred for the extraction and detection of shell components because the solvents, such as water and ethanol, do not alter the natural composition of the shells, which might be affected by hard treatments. ...
Sea urchins (Echinodermata, Echinoidea) are good a source of bioactive compounds belonging to different classes of natural substances. The edible Mediterranean sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus is a renowned animal model for study in different fields of biology, but it is intensively harvested for high commercial value due to the delicacy of its gonads. Most studies have focused on the composition and the nutritional value of P. lividus gonads (the edible part), but little interest has been taken in the other body parts, such as the shells and spines, which are generally considered waste material. The purpose of this study was to obtain an extract from sea urchin shells, with a green methodology of extraction, and to characterize the lipophilic components for potential applications. The shells of P. lividus were extracted via a very well performing technology based on rapid solid liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE) implemented via an automated device (Naviglio Extractor®). The obtained extract shows the presence of fatty acids and their esters (methyl, ethyl and 1-glycerol esters). Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) measurements were used to determine fatty acid abundance in the chromatographic fractions of the extract. Arachidonic acid (ARA), 5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentanoic acid (EPA), and 11-eicosenoic acids and their esters are the most abundant components. The presence of many polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the extract, even in low percentages allows a future application in nutrition or medical use.
... Second phase. In the second phase of the procedure, a 200-g sample of the raw material was removed from the Naviglio extractor at the end of the extraction process and transferred to a sterile bag that was labelled to indicate the Naviglio procedure, extraction ending time, initial time, final time, product, quality, batch and date of sampling [18,19,20,21,22]. ...
... On the other hand, the RSLDE, because of its innovative technology [12], allows the extraction of plants and vegetables in a much shorter time than is allowed by current technologies such as maceration, percolation, Soxhlet, microwaves, supercritical fluids, and ASE, avoiding the thermal stress to heat-sensitive substances. As a result, its application fields range from the production of herbal products to the beverage industry, the cosmetics industry, and the food industry, among others [18,19,20,21,22,32,33,34,35,36,37,38]. In this study, the cyclically pressurized extraction process was found to significantly increase the extraction rate of the grape pieces, and the equilibrium conditions were thus attained in much shorter times than those required by other methods. ...
In the current era of high consumption and increasing waste, many products that are believed to be unusable can find a new purpose in the market. For example, the grape peel waste resulting from the production of wine contains numerous bioactive compounds. In reality, grape peels are by-products of winemaking that can be conveniently reused in many different ways, including agronomic use and cosmetic industry applications. Moreover, the by-products can also be used in the energy field as biomass for the production of biogas or in food plants for the production of energy. In this article, to extract polyphenols, grape peels were processed via a cyclically pressurized extraction method known as rapid solid-liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE), which does not require the use of any organic solvent or include heating or cooling processes that can cause the loss of substances of interest. To better understand the cyclically pressurized extraction process, a numerical simulation was performed to evaluate the exchange between the grape piece solid matrix and water during the extraction process. Furthermore, a finite element model was used to numerically determine the time-dependent concentration distribution at specific times.
... The two considered extraction processes were compared, and using the methods described in the current literature and applied successfully to other foods [35][36][37][38][39][40][41], a numerical analysis to simulate the diffusion process into the stevia matrix was performed. ...
... The coefficient of diffusion, estimated by fitting Equation (2) to the experimental data, was input into the software, and the equations were solved using a finite element approach to estimate the nodal flux-time diagrams for the components, as reported by Naviglio et al. [41], and to evaluate the distribution of the concentrations of each node, at one-second time steps. The overall concentration for a solid matrix was also calculated at the time range considered by averaging the contents of the nodes. ...
Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni is a perennial shrub belonging to the Asteraceae family. The leaves contain a mixture of steviol glycosides with extraordinary sweetening properties, among which the most important are stevioside and rebaudioside A. These components have a high sweetening power, which is about 300 times that of sucrose, and a negligible calorie content. However, their extraction and purification are not easy. In this paper, the extraction technique under cyclic pressure, known as rapid solid-liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE), was compared using a Naviglio extractor (NE) with conventional maceration. The aim was to identify an efficient and economically viable method for obtaining high amounts of steviol glycosides in a short time. Furthermore, a numerical model was set up for the solid-liquid extraction process of value-added compounds from natural sources. Several parameters must be evaluated in relation to the characteristics of the parts of the plant subjected to extraction. Therefore, since diffusion and osmosis are highly dependent on temperature, it is necessary to control the temperature of the extraction system. On the other hand, the final aim of this work was to provide a scientific and quantitative basis for RSLDE. Therefore, the results obtained from stevia extracts using the corresponding mathematical model allowed hypothesizing the application of this model to the extraction processes of other vegetable matrices.
... On the other hand, as reported in the literature, the areas of application of RSLDE are numerous and include the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, herbal, food and beverage sectors [27,28]. RSLDE can even be used for the extraction of bioactive compounds from agricultural and food waste, guaranteeing their possible reuse and reintroduction in the market as industrial by-products, according to the current eco-sustainable model of the circular economy [29]. ...
“Aging” is a practice that allows alcoholic beverages to mature and gives them particular flavors and colors. In this context, oak or durmast wooden barrels are used in this process, thus providing different types of aging. This conventional process produces a slow enrichment of organic compounds in the spirit inside the barrels. Organic substances present in the internal part of the barrels slowly undergo the phenomenon of extraction by the liquid phase (solid–liquid extraction). In this work, a new procedure based on rapid solid–liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE) was used to evaluate the potential of obtaining the effects of aging in spirits in shorter times than conventional methods. For this purpose, a comparison between two solid–liquid extraction techniques, RSLDE and conventional maceration, was made. Four water/ethanol 60:40 (v/v) model solutions were prepared and put in contact with medium-toasted chips using the two extraction procedures (conventional and non-conventional) and determining dry residue and total polyphenol content. Reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) analyses allowed the identification and quantification of furfural, ellagic acid and phenolic aldehydes (vanillin, syringaldehyde, coniferaldehyde and sinapaldehyde). The aging procedure with medium-toasted chips was tested on a young commercial grappa using maceration and RLSDE.
... This technique consists of a solid-liquid extraction at room temperature, with no change in thermolabile compounds. The solids are immersed in the liquid for a long time [15], with diffusion and osmosis occurring [16]. This technique can be easily used by local craft producers to large liquor industries. ...
Araçá (Psidium cattleianum Afzel. ex Sabine) is a tasty Brazilian fruit that can be used in the production of alcoholic beverages, such as liqueur. This study aimed to determine the phenolic, volatile, and sensory profiles, antioxidant activity and physical characteristics of hydroalcoholic extracts of Araçá, red variety, from different harvest points (unripe, ripe and, senescent fruits). For the elaboration of the extracts, Cachaça (Brazilian spirit) was used. Fifteen phenolic compounds were identified and quantified, classified between phenolic acids and flavonoids, with emphasis on 3,4-DHB, chlorogenic acid, sinapic acid, catechin, epicatechin, isoquercetrin, and quercetin. The highest antioxidant activity was for hydroalcoholic extract of unripe fruits. In the hydroalcoholic extracts, 53 volatile compounds were identified, being them: alcohols, esters, terpenes, ketones, aldehydes, and others compounds. In cachaça, 20 compounds were detected, mostly esters. For taste, senescent fruit extract differed from unripe fruit extract. The physical characteristics of the hydroalcoholic extracts were consistent with the fruit harvesting points. Hydroalcoholic extracts showed similar aroma profiles compared to Cachaça. The liqueurs, produced with the hydroalcoholic extracts of Araçá, red variety, can be a promising alternative for obtaining beverages with important compounds for human health.
... The same comparison was made for the preparation of lemon liqueur (limoncello), a typical liqueur of Campania, famous all over the world, which is made with lemon peels macerated in ethyl alcohol. In fact, the use of RSLDE makes it possible to produce limoncello in just 2 h, avoiding the long traditional maceration that takes 7-14 days [35,36]. Furthermore, the efficiency of RSLDE was compared with another extraction technique that uses supercritical fluids (SFE), to obtain the extraction of acid compounds contained in hop flowers [37]. ...
A product is characterized by low environmental impact if, during the whole process (from extraction of raw materials from solid natural matter to disposal), its negative contribution to environment modification is significantly reduced or eliminated. According to circular economy, it is important to take into consideration other aspects, such as the possibility to improve the efficiency of extraction process by modifying the principle on which it is based and allowing the recovery of not completely exhausted waste, obtaining other active ingredients, and favoring the recycling of normally eliminated materials. The purpose of this work was to propose more efficient and greener alternatives to conventional solid–liquid extraction processes. Major features are the rapidity of the process, extraction at room temperature and high yields. Rapid Solid–Liquid Dynamic Extraction (RSLDE) represents an innovative solid–liquid extraction technology that allows the solid matrices containing extractable substances in an organic or inorganic solvent and their mixtures to be exhausted in shorter time than current techniques. The principle at the basis of this novel process consists of the generation of a negative pressure gradient between the inside and the outside of the solid matrix, which induces the extraction of compounds not chemically linked to the solid matter, being insoluble in the extractant liquid. Therefore, this work focuses on how RSLDE can potentially bring several improvements in the field of solid–liquid extraction, especially for industrial applications.
... The strategy employed for the extraction of G. lucidum is a decisive factor to obtain a mixture of not altered bioactive components and, not surprisingly, the best extraction conditions were provided by RSLDE. In fact, the application of this technique permits the extraction without using high temperature and it has already been successfully applied in food, cosmetic, and resource recovery fields [32][33][34][35]. ...
Featured Application: In this study two extraction methods for Ganoderma lucidum spores were evaluated for the potential use of extracted compounds in cancer treatments. Our findings showed that the innovative Rapid Solid Liquid Dynamic Extraction (RSLDE) permits the successful extraction of compounds with antiproliferative activity against human cell lines Abstract: Background: The genus Ganoderma includes about 80 species of mushrooms. Ganoderma lucidum is the best-known fungal species in mycotherapy and likely has the highest number of studies. Numerous bioactive compounds seem to be responsible for its beneficial effects; in particular, triterpenes, peptidoglycans and polysaccharides are the main physiologically active constituents. The aim of the present work is to identify the main bioactive components in aqueous extracts of G. lucidum spores obtained by two different extraction processes. Methods: The spores were at first extracted by a Soxhlet apparatus with n-hexane and the aqueous solutions were submitted to two different procedures: hot water extraction (HWE) and rapid solid-liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE) using the Naviglio extractor. The extracts were then dialyzed to separate the compounds with higher molecular weight from polar compounds with lower molecular weight. The aqueous extracts and dialyzed fractions were tested on two human cell lines: human colonic epithelial cells (Caco-2) and human colorectal carcinoma cells (HTC-116). Results: GC-MS and NMR data revealed the presence of a mixture of glucose and mannitol in ratio 3.7:1 in the most active fraction. Conclusions: The outside dialysis phase of RSLDE extract seems to be particularly cytotoxic for HTC-116 and, interestingly, solutions with different concentrations of pure mannitol showed cytotoxic activity against this cell line too, although to a lesser extent.
... Alcoholic extracts were analyzed by gas chromatography, and alcoholic extracts were analyzed by UV spectrophotometry to identify the more abundant chemical species, while the organoleptic tests performed on the final product (limoncello) provided an indication of the taste of the final product. Results showed that the RSLDE process was 120 times faster than maceration and had a greater efficiency in a short period of time [75]. ...
Traditionally, solid-liquid extractions are performed using organic and/or inorganic liquids and their mixtures as extractant solvents in contact with an insoluble solid matrix (e.g., the Soxhlet method) or using sequential atmospheric pressure systems that require long procedures, such as maceration or percolation. The objective of this procedure is the extraction of any compounds that can be carried out from the inner solid material to the outlet, resulting in a solution containing colorants, bioactive compounds, odorous substances, etc. Over the years, in the extraction techniques sector, there have been many important changes from the points of view of production, quality, and human and environmental safety due to improvements in technology. In more recent times, the interest of the scientific community has been aimed at the study of sustainable processes for the valorization of extracts from vegetables and food by-products, through the use of non-conventional (innovative) technologies that represent a valid alternative to conventional methods, generally through saving time and energy and the formation of fewer by-products. Therefore, with the development of principles based on the prevention of pollution, on a lower risk for human health, and on a low environmental impact, new systems have been implemented to reduce extraction times and solvent consumption, to improve efficiency, and to increase the productivity of the extracts. From this point of view, rapid solid-liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE), performed using the Naviglio extractor, compared to traditional applications, is a technique that is able to reduce extraction times, generally leads to higher yields, does not require heating of the system, allows one to extract the active ingredients, and avoids their degradation. This technique is based on a new solid-liquid extraction principle named Naviglio’s principle. In this review, after reviewing the latest extraction techniques, an overview of RSLDE applications in various research and production sectors over the past two decades is provided.
... The PCSL extraction method utilises a Naviglio extractor, 31 ...
Introduction:
Artemisia annua is a small herbaceous plant belonging to the Asteraceae family declared therapeutic by the World Health Organisation, in particular for its artemisinin content, an active ingredient at the base of most antimalarial treatments, used every year by over 300 million people. In the last years, owing to low artemisinin content, research of new ways to increase the yield of the plant matrix has led to the use of the total extract taking advantage from the synergic and stabilising effects of the other components.
Objective:
In this work we evaluated and compared the content of artemisinin and scopoletin in extracts of A. annua collected in the Campania Region (southern Italy), by two different extraction processes.
Methodology:
Artemisia annua plants were extracted by traditional maceration (TM) in hydroalcoholic solution as a mother tincture prepared according to the European Pharmacopeia and by pressurised cyclic solid-liquid (PCSL) extraction, a new generation method using the Naviglio extractor.
Results:
The results showed that the PCSL extraction technique is more effective than traditional methods in extracting both phytochemicals, up to 15 times more, reducing the extraction times, without using solvents or having risks for the operators, the environment and the users of the extracts.
Conclusion:
The Naviglio extractor provides extracts with an artemisinin and scopoletin content eight times higher than the daily therapeutic dose, which should be evaluated for its stability over time and biological properties for possible direct use for therapeutic purposes.
... In the scientific literature, there are information about the analysis of liqueurs made from cherry (Ieri et al. 2012;Śliwińska et al. 2016a;Senica et al. 2016), apple (Śliwińska et al. 2016b), lemon (Schipilliti et al. 2013;Naviglio et al. 2015;Naviglio et al. 2016), melon (Hernández Gómez et al. 2009), pineapple , herb (Vázquez-Araújo et al. 2013), and walnut (Stampar et al. 2006;Jakopic et al. 2007). Most studies of these beverages are conducted using chromatography, sensory evaluation, and recently electronic sensing. ...
The “Onisiówka” nalewka liqueur is a regional Polish alcoholic beverage, which is inscribed on the list of regional and traditional products of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development in Poland. It is produced from multiflower honey, black elderberry flower syrup, and spirit. Due to fact that the “Onisiówka” nalewka liqueur has never been investigated, these studies are the foundation for further work on this regional alcoholic beverage. The main aim of this work is the authenticity assessment of the “Onisiówka” nalewka liqueurs by means of qualitative characteristics of volatile fraction and sensory evaluation. Tentative identification has been performed using two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC×GC-TOFMS). Application of GC×GC-TOFMS allowed for detection of around 350 compounds present in the volatile fraction of the “Onisiówka” from which 102 compounds were tentatively identified. PCA results showed that the first two principal components constitute 96.98% of total variance. Statistical analysis was used to visualize relations between tentatively identified compounds; therefore, it has been demonstrated that 23 chemical compounds may have significant influence on the overall flavor and taste of the “Onisiówka”. These substances belong to four chemical classes, in which the greatest number is represented by esters (13), aldehydes (6), alcohols (3), and one terpene compound. According to the sensory evaluation, the Onisiówka is characterized by sweet, honey, fruity, flowery, bitter, and spirituous flavor and taste.
... This method was also applied in other numerical simulations [32][33][34][35][36]. The experimental extraction curve was derived from the pyrethrum overall extraction curve, evaluated in this study for a 7-g sample. ...
In this work, a comparison between three extraction processes, including traditional maceration in n-hexane and ethyl alcohol, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and cyclically pressurized extraction known as rapid solid-liquid dynamic extraction (RSLDE), has been carried out for the extraction of pyrethrins, predominantly nonpolar natural compounds with insecticidal properties found in pyrethrum, an extract of certain species of chrysanthemums. Pyrethrins are often used in household insecticides and for the control of parasites on pets or livestock. Maceration is the cheapest method, but the values of the percent of extracted material compared to the weight of the dried flowers are lower. The extraction with supercritical CO2 is less efficient than the Naviglio extractor, but it has the advantage of not requiring the use of solvents. Consequently, all three techniques are valid for the extraction of compounds from pyrethrum flowers. The results obtained show that by suitably varying the parameters of the three extraction procedures, it is possible to obtain pyrethrin extracts for use in the production of low toxicity insecticides for warm-blooded animals and low pollution. In particular, extraction with supercritical CO2 presents an additional advantage; although oleoresin is a natural product, its extraction involves the use of solvents, while SFE is a highly efficient extraction process due to the use of CO2 in the supercritical phase without the use of solvents. On the other hand, the Naviglio extractor is an inexpensive technique and requires a minimum energy loss when compared to the extraction with supercritical fluids. Thus, the latter is more convenient on an industrial level but is not universally applicable. Nevertheless, the supercritical extraction can be used as a medium detergent of the oleoresin produced to avoid residues of the solvents left during the extraction process. Therefore, for demonstration purposes, for the SFE CO2 extraction process, numerical simulations have been performed, allowing for helpful results to optimize the process for further tests.
The fruit production and processing sectors produce tremendous amounts of by-products and waste that cause significant economic losses and an undesirable impact on the environment. The effective utilization of these fruit wastes can help to reduce the carbon footprint and greenhouse gas emissions, thereby achieving sustainable development goals. These by-products contain a variety of bioactive compounds, such as dietary fiber, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, antioxidants, polysaccharides, and several other health-promoting nutrients and phytochemicals. These bioactive compounds can be extracted and used as value-added products in different industrial applications. The bioactive components extracted can be used in developing nutraceutical products, functional foods, or food additives. This review provides a comprehensive review of the recent developments in fruit waste valorization techniques and their application in food industries. The various extraction techniques, including conventional and emerging methods, have been discussed. The antioxi-dant and antimicrobial activities of the active compounds extracted and isolated from fruit waste have been described. The most important food industrial application of bioactive compounds extracted from fruit waste (FW) has been provided. Finally, challenges, future direction, and concluding remarks on the topic are summarized.
The fruit production and processing sectors produce tremendous amounts of by-products and waste that cause significant economic losses and an undesirable impact on the environment. The effective utilization of these fruit wastes can help to reduce the carbon footprint and greenhouse gas emissions, thereby achieving sustainable development goals. These by-products contain a variety of bioactive compounds, such as dietary fiber, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, antioxidants, polysaccharides, and several other health-promoting nutrients and phytochemicals. These bioactive compounds can be extracted and used as value-added products in different industrial applications. The bioactive components extracted can be used in developing nutraceutical products, functional foods, or food additives. This review provides a comprehensive review of the recent developments in fruit waste valorization techniques and their application in food industries. The various extraction techniques, including conventional and emerging methods, have been discussed. The antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of the active compounds extracted and isolated from fruit waste have been described. The most important food industrial application of bioactive compounds extracted from fruit waste (FW) has been provided. Finally, challenges, future direction, and concluding remarks on the topic are summarized.
Polyphenols, phytosterols, aromatics, and essential oils are constituents that are ubiquitous in various parts of plants. Some of these compounds contribute to the distinct flavor, aroma, and color and hence impart to sensory attributes. Along with culinary appeal, these components are widely researched and consumed for their demonstrated health benefits as therapeutic and preventive agents in the treatment of various noncommunicable diseases. These components can be extracted from plant materials through conventional (solvent extraction, cold pressing) as well as green techniques (supercritical carbon dioxide, ionic liquids, pressurized liquid extraction, three-phase partitioning, ultrasonication, microwave treatment, enzymatic treatment, pulse electric field treatment, etc.). Their innate properties of solubility and stability may restrict physiological absorption upon ingestion and hence efficiency to demonstrate the desired health effects. Various forms of delivery systems such as emulsions, liposomes, solid–lipid nanoparticles, biopolymeric nanoparticles, encapsulates, coacervates, hydrogels, organogels, emulgels, bigels, inclusion complexes, and co-crystallites of these bioactive compounds have been designed, researched, and applied commercially. With the increasing consumer inclination towards plants for nutrient, nutraceutical, and culinary ingredients, this has become a rapidly growing field of research and development. This chapter provides detailed summary of work carried on ways to extract and integrate in these bioactive compounds in different food formulations.
This study aims to use power ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and maceration (ME) to valorize lemon juice processing residues (flavedo+albedo). Also, the effects of maturity stage (mature vs. immature) and drying method (freeze-drying-FD vs. oven drying-OD) on antioxidant activity, digestive enzymes inhibition, and bioactive compounds (phenolics and flavonoids) were analyzed. Besides. effects of independent parameters were elaborated through principal component analysis (PCA). According to the results, immature lemons exhibited a higher inhibition of α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and lipase by 10, 5, and 46%. Also, replacing OD with FD enhanced the antioxidant activity. HPLC identified hesperidin and sinapic acid as the most abundant bioactive compounds in all extracts and UAE enhanced their concentration by 2.3 and 1.2 times, respectively. Besides, sonication enhanced antioxidant activity and anti-diabetic effects by 1.1–5.6 times. Therefore, replacing mature peels, OD, and ME with immature peels, FD, and UAE can boost the potential health benefits of extracts.
This chapter aims to explore the classifications, origins, and characteristics of natural beverages. Beverages are liquids suitable for human consumption, and the beverage of excellence is definitively water, as this substance is more essential for life than food. Natural beverages for human consumption are divided into two main categories: (1) alcoholic beverages, mainly comprising wine, beer, and beverages with ethyl alcohol content; and (2) nonalcoholic beverages, which are distinguishable in the forms of water (drinking, mineral, and table), nervine beverages (coffee, tea, chamomile, etc.), and soft beverages (soft drinks, juices, and syrups). Two major categories of alcoholic beverages are commercially distinguishable: as low-gradation alcohols having ethyl alcohol quantities less than 21% by volume (beer or wine), and spirits, obtained from the distillation of fermented beverages (e.g., brandy from wine), having alcohol contents greater than 21% by volume.
Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni has gained increased industrial and scientific interests in the last 20 years, representing a suitable nutritional alternative to sucrose and artificial sweeteners. Moreover, this plant contains polyphenols, chlorophylls, and carotenoids that may be extracted for production of nutraceuticals and functional foods. Because of nutritional and technological advantages over sucrose, innovative approaches for the extraction of highly valued compounds from Stevia leaves have been developed and optimized. In contrast to conventional alternatives, innovative extraction methods allow higher yields in a shorter time, less usage of organic solvents, and reduced energy consumption. In this paper, the use of innovative extraction techniques: MAE, UAE, HPAE, PLE, SFE, PEF, HVED, cold plasma, and RSLDE for the recovery of non-nutrients with putative health benefits from Stevia leaves is discussed.
Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni has gained increased industrial and scientific interests in the last 20 years, representing a suitable nutritional alternative to sucrose and artificial sweeteners. Moreover, this plant contains polyphenols, chlorophylls, and carotenoids that may be extracted for production of nutraceuticals and functional foods. Because of nutritional and technological advantages over sucrose, innovative approaches for the extraction of highly valued compounds from Stevia leaves have been developed and optimized. In contrast to conventional alternatives, innovative extraction methods allow higher yields in a shorter time, less usage of organic solvents, and reduced energy consumption. In this paper, the use of innovative extraction techniques: MAE, UAE, HPAE, PLE, SFE, PEF, HVED, cold plasma, and RSLDE for the recovery of non-nutrients with putative health benefits from Stevia leaves is discussed.
Background: With this research an inertizing and cooling process for grapes cryomaceration has been set up. The process in question has been performed by an innovative plant that cooled the grapes rapidly in about 8 sec until they reached the set cryo-maceration temperature, using direct injection of liquid CO2. It works with a grape flow of approximately 2-3 tons/h, with a maximum thermal gradient of 20 K between the grape inlet and outlet temperature. For this plant a vibrating device was set up that allowed that only one grape cluster layer to be formed on the ribbon conveyor after the grapes had been put into the feedbox. A numerical model was set up for the cooling tunnel, and numerical simulations were performed to investigate the operative parameters of the machine in question. The numerical results were validated by means of experimental tests. Results: The wines obtained by using the considered plant (IW) were chemically analysed, and a comparison was performed with wines obtained with the same grape without the use of the plant (TW). All phenolic parameters were higher in IW wines, while other substances such as alcohol, reducing sugars, acids, and volatile acidity were less affected by the different winemaking technique. A deeper yellow colour was a direct consequence of the higher phenolic content of IW wines. Panelists preferred the IW wines, which had a richer, more delicate aroma. Conclusions: The study showed that careful exclusion of air combined with preventing oxidation during the cooling process, that is realized with the considered innovative cooling plant, effectively yields pleasing wines with more character.
A new kinetics model, a combined second-order-diffusional kinetics model, was developed and compared with a pseudo first-order model for the aqueous extraction of total water soluble solids (WSS) from yerba mate leaves. The model that coupled two mechanisms fits the experimental data more satisfactorily (E%=1.2 to 2.2) than the pseudo first-order model (E%=3.9 to 4.4). The second-order-diffusional model could explain the first seconds of the WSS extraction and how the different mechanisms contributed to the concentration of the extract. Temperature influenced the kinetics parameters, but the equilibrium concentrations and the extraction yield were not significantly influenced in a temperature range between 40 and 70°C.
The processing quality control of adhesively bonded joints in actual production lines is discussed in this chapter. To improve the yield ratio of products, a scientific approach based on both probabilistic design and statistical treatment is indispensable. In addition, control of environmental conditions and materials is also very important. For the purpose, a realistic trial-and-error approach should be done to meet any demands or to solve problems occurring in the production. Investigation of reasons decreasing joint strength is another key point that should be done. The strength decrease occurs often due to mechanical or chemical mismatch of adherends and adhesives. The surface treatment of adherends is important too. Inspection, which can be carried out easily, is desirable in actual production lines. Process design should be done appropriately to improve the efficiency and the economy of the lines and to increase the yield ratio of products. Parallel processes should be avoided if sequential processes can be adopted. Reduction of operator's tasks is another important issue. The concept of foolproof should be introduced in the process design. Proper adhesive selection is vitally important, not only for good strength but also for increasing operation efficiency. New types of adhesives have been available to meet the demands to control the process easily. The education and training of operators are also an essential issue. Operators should learn standard procedures to perform their work appropriately. The necessary information should be exchanged properly. © Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018. All rights are reserved.
Recently limoncello, an Italian liqueur made with lemons, has gained great popularity with rapid and unexpected diffusion. Characterisation of the product is therefore necessary so that quality and authenticity parameters can be established. The literature does not report any data on the analysis of this liqueur. Hence, in this work, in 13 samples of limoncello, chemical, physico-chemical parameters and composition of the aromatic fraction were determined. The chemical and physicochemical parameters differed considerably from sample to sample. This is probably due to the different cultivars of lemons, pedoclimatic conditions and cultivation techniques, as well as to the different procedures for preparing the liqueur. Results showed that the aromatic components present in the lemon peel undergo many changes during preparation of the liqueur and during storage, mainly catalysed by aqueous acidic medium, high temperatures and UV irradiation.
Prior to the discussion on approaches to combine irrigation scheduling and water application practices, several farm irrigation performance indicators are defined and analysed. These indicators concern the uniformity of water distribution along an irrigated field and the efficiency of on-farm water application. Then, the analysis focus is on three main irrigation systems: surface, sprinkler and microirrigation. For each of these systems, the analysis concerns the main characteristics and constraints of the systems, more relevant aspects influencing irrigation performances, and approaches which could lead to a more appropriate coupling of irrigation scheduling and water application methods. Conclusions point out on the need for combined improvements in irrigation scheduling and methods, for expanding field evaluation of irrigation in farmers fields, for improved design of on-farm systems, and for quality control of irrigation equipments and design.
For all engineers and students coming to finite element analysis or to ANSYS software for the first time, this powerful hands-on guide develops a detailed and confident understanding of using ANSYS's powerful engineering analysis tools. The best way to learn complex systems is by means of hands-on experience. With an innovative and clear tutorial based approach, this powerful book provides readers with a comprehensive introduction to all of the fundamental areas of engineering analysis they are likely to require either as part of their studies or in getting up to speed fast with the use of ANSYS software in working life. Opening with an introduction to the principles of the finite element method, the book then presents an overview of ANSYS technologies before moving on to cover key applications areas in detail. Key topics covered: Introduction to the finite element method Getting started with ANSYS software stress analysis dynamics of machines fluid dynamics problems thermo mechanics contact and surface mechanics exercises, tutorials, worked examples With its detailed step-by-step explanations, extensive worked examples and sample problems, this book will develop the reader's understanding of FEA and their ability to use ANSYS's software tools to solve their own particular analysis problems, not just the ones set in the book. * Develops a detailed understanding of finite element analysis and the use of ANSYS software by example * Develops a detailed understanding of finite element analysis and the use of ANSYS software by example * Exclusively structured around the market leading ANSYS software, with detailed and clear step-by-step instruction, worked examples, and detailed, screen-by-screen illustrative problems to reinforce learning.
In this paper, two solid–liquid extraction techniques, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with and withoutmodifiers and cyclically pressurized solid–liquid extraction with a Naviglio Extractor, were compared onthe basis of extraction of acidic compounds contained in hops flowers. The hops extracts were analyzedby electro-kinetic capillary chromatography (MECK). The results showed that the technique using super-critical carbon dioxide was more effective for the isolation of � acids; the use of ethanol as a co-solvent,as reported in the literature, produced a heterogeneous extract, while cyclically pressurized solid–liquidextraction showed a greater extraction capacity for � acids. Consequently, both techniques are valid forthe extraction of � and � acids from hops. By suitably varying the parameters of the two extractive pro-cedures, it will be possible to obtain extracts for use in the production of beer and dietary supplementsand drugs. Furthermore, based on the SFE CO2extraction process, a mathematical model was appliedto the examined process, and a numerical simulation was performed, leading to a model that providesdirection for the optimization of further experiments.
Solid–liquid extraction of anthocyanins from calyces of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. was studied to evaluate the influence of the operating parameters. Solid-to-solvent ratio and particle size had the main impact on anthocyanin extraction efficiency. Maximum yield of anthocyanins (88%) was obtained at 25 °C with the highest solid-to-solvent ratio (1/25). The decrease in the particle size of the calyces from 2 cm to 150 μm drastically reduced the extraction time. The increase of temperature reduced the extraction time by increasing the diffusion coefficient (3.9 × 10−11–1.35 × 10−10 m2 s−1 between 25 and 90 °C) but did not modify the extraction yield. A simple extraction model that integrated anthocyanin thermo-degradation kinetic was proposed. A good agreement between the predicted results of the models and experimental data was demonstrated. From a solid-to-solvent ratio of 1/5, an extraction yield of 63% and an anthocyanin concentration of 0.3 g L−1 could be obtained in less than 10 min.
Three varieties of pearl millet seed, consisting of two hybrids GHB 30 and Bajra 28–15, and one Babapuri (traditional) variety, were graded, dried to 7·4% moisture content dry basis and properties of the major fraction were determined. The average three principal dimensions were 3·12, 1·94 and 1·70 mm for GHB 30, 2·98, 1·86 and 1·82 mm for Bajra 28-15 and 3·36, 2·24 and 2·01 for Babapuri varieties. The surface area and volume of single grain were 12·5 mm2and 3·8 mm3for hybrid varieties and 16·4 mm2and 5·8 mm3for the traditional variety. Sphericity of the grain for all the varieties was 0·94 and the bulk density and the grain density were 850 and 1600 kg/m3respectively. The shape factor of the grain was 1·07 for GHB 30, 1·01 for Bajra 28-15 and 1·06 for the Babapuri varieties. The porosity of the bulk varied between 45 and 49%. The static coefficient of friction was approximately 0·25 on galvanized steel sheet and 0·26 on mild steel sheet. The angle of repose was about 23° to 25°. Hybrid seed contained about 4·5% oil and the traditional Babapuri variety 7·3%.
The traditional gravimetric and volumetric methods of measuring water imbibition were compared to a new method, water-holding capacity, to study water uptake in black bean cotyledons with and without the hard-to-cook defect. Water-holding capacity was found to be more reliable in measuring water taken up by the cotyledon since the former methods measure gross water uptake, including a layer of bulk water existing between the seedcoat and cotyledons of hard-to-cook beans. Total water uptake, as measured by the water absorption method, was greatest for hard-to-cook beans. Using the water-holding capacity method, however, hard-to-cook beans were found to bind approximately 25% less water during soaking than control beans.
Effective diffusivity of water in spring wheat cv Broom was estimated with three models employing thin layer drying data. Firstly, an isothermal model with a prescribed constant surface moisture content was utilised to determine the effect of choice of grain geometry (spherical or axisymmetric ellipsoid) on the estimated diffusivity. Air temperature and initial moisture contents ranges represented values used in wheat drying practice. The ratio of diffusivities for ellipsoids to those for spheres was found to approximate to wheat sphericity squared, and the results agreed with previous findings in hard wheat. In both, diffusivities followed an Arrhenius behaviour with temperature, with a constant activation energy around 30 kJ mol−1 and a pre-exponential factor that increases linearly with initial moisture content. Another objective was to improve prediction of shape of drying curve, especially at the beginning, where simulated moisture fell faster. Predictions with the ellipsoidal model, coupling heat and mass transfer with convective boundary conditions were not improved. More accuracy was achieved using a time-varying, prescribed surface moisture content with an isothermal model. A further improvement resulted from relating diffusivity with mean grain moisture. Thus the work clarified the relationship between diffusivity estimated from drying data using three models and has shown how values obtained from simpler geometry can be corrected to be used in two- or three- dimensional representations.
In this article, starting from a new solid–liquid extractive principle an innovative solid–liquid extractor is showed. Extractor Naviglio® works at room temperature and it does not need to heat the extractive system; this fact is important in the field of officinal plants and in many other cases when the objective of the extraction are the active principles or compounds sensible to the temperature. Experimental trials have demonstrated that two hours are sufficient to extract the more common plants like wild camomile, calendula, peppermint, tea, etc.; while more time for complete extraction of roots or cortex is requested. Extractor Naviglio® changes the philosophy of solid–liquid extraction because it does not work on diffusion and osmosis principle like the major part of actual solid–liquid extraction techniques but it works on a new extractive principle: Naviglio's Principle, based on generating of a gradient pressure between the inner and the outlet of solid matrix.
A two-dimensional finite element model was used to analyze isothermal thin layer drying of wheat representing the grains as axisymmetric ellipsoids. The effective diffusion coefficient was estimated by minimizing the sum of squares of the residuals between numerically predicted and experimental moistures. Estimations done for drying air temperatures of 35°C, 50°C, 60°C and 70°C and initial grain moistures of 0.2694, 0.2396, 0.2133 and 0.1891 d.b., were correlated by means of Arrhenius-type functions. These correlations were compared to those previously obtained with the same data by assuming grains as spheres. The results, all in the order of , indicated that the diffusion coefficients found for ellipsoidal geometry were some 9–13% lower than the values fitted for spheres. The ratio of diffusivities for ellipsoids to those for spheres was in the order of the wheat sphericity. However, further theoretical and experimental studies are required to verify this observation.
Glutinous rice (or sticky rice) has to be soaked in water over an extended period of time before cooking. Soaking provides some of the water needed for starch gelatinisation to occur during cooking. The extent of water uptake during soaking is known to be influenced by temperature. This paper explores the use of very high pressures up to 600 MPa to accelerate water uptake kinetics during soaking. Changes occurring in length, diameter and moisture content were determined as a function of soaking time, pressure and temperature. The results show that length and diameter are positively correlated with all three parameters. However, the expansion ratios are not very high: the maximum length expansion ratio observed was 1.2, while the maximum diameter expansion ratio was 1. 1. Given these low values, it was possible to model water uptake kinetics by using the well-known Fickian model applied to a finite cylinder, assuming uniform average dimensions and effective diffusion coefficient. The results showed that the overall rates of water uptake and the equilibrium moisture content increased with pressure and temperature. The effective diffusion coefficient, on the other hand, did not follow the same trend. Temperature influenced the effective diffusion coefficient below 300 MPa, but had a marginal effect at higher pressures. Moreover, the effective diffusion coefficient increased with temperature between 20 and 50 degrees C, but dropped at higher temperatures. This drop can be attributed to the gelatinisation of starch, which restricts the transport of water. Regardless, it is possible to increase the quantity of water absorbed by rice and the rate at which it is absorbed, by using high pressures and temperatures. (c) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
In this paper we present an innovative device designed and constructed to improve the fumigation process for stored foodstuffs with the use of phosphine gas in sealed chambers. The device allowed a considerable reduction in phosphine production time (from about 5 to 7 days for traditional systems to 2 days for the equipment considered), maintaining the system below the inflammability threshold, and at the same time achieving the total exhaustion of aluminum (or magnesium) phosphide so as to avoid toxic residues at the end of the process. With the standard device currently available on the market, after the normal 5-7 day fumigating period, the powder residue contains as much as 1-2% (w/w) of phosphide. Thus the residues, according to current legislation, have to be considered toxic and harmful. To overcome this disadvantage, appropriate modifications were made to the cylindrical tray used for the fumigation process: a nebulizer was installed, which has the function of increasing the moisture of the air spreading around the phosphide pellets and allowing a more rapid reaction with phosphide. Moreover, the cylindrical tray was also heated by means of an electrical resistance, and temperature was checked by a thermostat, so as to always obtain the same efficiency, independently of outside temperature, for both hot and cold periods, since reaction speed depends on the system temperature considered. In addition, a control device for air saturation allows condensation processes to be avoided. Using the modified cylindrical tray we performed tests to determine the best values of humidity and temperature for the process concerned, avoiding phosphine concentrations that might result in a fire hazard, and the remixing of phosphide pellets inside the cylindrical tray. Our experimental data allowed us to obtain a mathematical model used to gain an insight into the process in question.
The chemical composition of several commercial Italian Limoncellos, lemon-peel-based alcoholic beverages, was studied by chromatographic techniques. These methods allowed a rapid monitoring of Limoncello, giving information on quality markers and possible adulteration of the product. Quantitative data for more than 60 compounds are reported. Limoncellos were characterized by the presence of selected volatile (terpenes, aldehydes, alcohols) and nonvolatile compounds (psoralens, coumarins, phenolics, carbohydrates and acids). On the basis of their composition, the samples were grouped by PCA analysis in two sets; the first group showed a composition similar to lemon essential oils, with a high content of b-pinene, myrcene, trans-a-bergamottene, and b-bisabolene, and a low content in neral and geranial. The composition of the second group suggested the occurrence of oxidative phenomena and/or the addition of flavors. The presence of ethyl acetate, acetaldehyde, 2-methyl-1-propanol and glycerol showed that a fermentation probably occurred in the sugar syrup used to dilute the Limoncello after the extraction process.
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