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GR Focus
The Rio de la Plata craton and the adjoining Pan-African/brasiliano terranes: Their
origins and incorporation into south-west Gondwana☆
Carlos W. Rapela
a,
⁎, C. Mark Fanning
b
, Cesar Casquet
c
, Robert J. Pankhurst
d
, Luis Spalletti
a
,
Daniel Poiré
a
, Edgardo G. Baldo
e
a
Centro de Investigaciones Geológicas (CONICET-UNLP), 1900 La Plata, Argentina
b
Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
c
Departamento de Petrología y Geoquímica (Universidad Complutense), Instituto de Geociencias (CSIC, UCM), 28040 Madrid, Spain
d
Visiting Research Associate, British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, United Kingdom
e
CICTERRA (CONICET-UNC), 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
abstractarticle info
Article history:
Received 18 January 2011
Received in revised form 29 April 2011
Accepted 8 May 2011
Available online 14 May 2011
Handling Editor: M. Santosh
Keywords:
Palaeoproterozoic
Cratons
U–Pb provenance
Neoproterozoic rifting
Southwestern Gondwana assembly
The Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian amalgamation of SW Gondwana through the Brasiliano/Pan-African
orogeny is reviewed with emphasis on the role of the Río de la Plata craton of South America in the light of
new evidence from a borehole at the eastern end of the Tandilia belt (38°S). U–Pb, Hf and O isotope data on
zircon indicate that this un-reworked Palaeoproterozoic craton abuts against a distinct continental terrane to
the east (Mar del Plata terrane). The craton is bounded everywhere by transcurrent faults and there is no
evidence to relate it to the Neoproterozoic mobile belts now seen on either side. The Punta Mogotes
Formation at the bottom of the borehole contains 740–840 Ma detrital zircons that are assigned to a
widespread Neoproterozoic rifting event. The data suggest that the Mar del Plata terrane rifted away from the
southwestern corner of the Angola block at c. 780 Ma. Negative εHf
t
values and δ
18
ON6.5‰suggest derivation
by melting of old crust during a protracted extensional episode. Other continental terranes may have formed
in a similar way in Uruguay (Nico Pérez) and southeastern Brazil, where the Schist Belt of the Dom Feliciano
orogenic belt is probably a correlative of the Punta Mogotes sequence, implying that the Dom Feliciano belt
must extend at least as far as 38°S. A new geodynamic scenario for West Gondwana assembly includes at least
two major oblique collisional orogenies: Kaoko–Dom Feliciano (580–680 Ma) and Gariep–Saldania (480–
580 Ma), the latter resulting from oblique impingement of the Rio de la Plata craton against the Kalahari
craton. Assembly of this part of South-West Gondwana was accomplished before the Ordovician (to Silurian?)
siliciclastic platform sediments of the Balcarce Formation in the Tandilia Belt covered the southern sector of
Río de la Plata craton.
© 2011 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction .............................................................. 674
2. Geology ................................................................ 674
2.1. The Río de la Plata craton and its boundaries ........................................... 674
2.2. Tandilia belt and the Punta Mogotes borehole .......................................... 675
3. Geochronological and isotopic results .................................................. 677
3.1. Punta Mogotes Formation .................................................... 677
3.2. Balcarce Formation ....................................................... 677
4. Discussion .............................................................. 678
4.1. The Mar del Plata Terrane .................................................... 678
4.2. Inferred source for the Punta Mogotes Formation ......................................... 681
4.3. Relationship to the Dom Feliciano belt .............................................. 684
4.4. A geodynamic scenario ..................................................... 685
Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
☆© 2011 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All right reserved.
⁎Corresponding author. Tel.: +54 221 4215677; fax: +54 221 4827560.
E-mail address: crapela@cig.museo.unlp.edu.ar (C.W. Rapela).
1342-937X/$ –see front matter © 2011 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2011.05.001
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Gondwana Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gr
Author's personal copy
5. Conclusions .............................................................. 687
Acknowledgments .............................................................. 687
References ................................................................. 687
1. Introduction
The multi-phase Brasiliano/Pan-African African orogeny led to
amalgamation of SW Gondwana in Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian
times. The details of this complex process involving closure of the
intervening Adamastor Ocean (Hartnady et al., 1985), especially the
timing of events and the role played by neighboring cratons, remain a
matter of intense debate. This is notably the case for the Rio de la Plata
craton, which has been a cornerstone in all palaeogeographical
models of SW Gondwana amalgamation (e.g., Dalziel, 1997; Cawood
and Buchan, 2007; Li et al., 2008; Chernicoff et al., 2011; Font et al.,
2011; Tohver et al., 2011). This craton is the focus of this paper, with
the aim of fixing its boundaries and adding new constraints on its role
during the formation of SW Gondwana and its place in the overall
Brasiliano/Pan-African orogeny.
The starting point is the information gathered from drill core
samples from close to the present Atlantic coast, at the tip of the
Tandilia belt on the inferred eastern margin of the Río de la Plata
craton at 38°SL. U–Pb SHRIMP detrital zircon age patterns and
targeted Hf and oxygen isotopic analyses by LA-ICP-MS and SHRIMP,
respectively, were obtained for these critically-located sedimentary
and meta-sedimentary samples.
Together with previous work, the new results allow us: (i) to
propose a new eastern boundary for the Río de la Plata craton as a
hidden fault that separates the craton from a distinct continental block
that we call here the Mar del Plata Terrane, (ii) to state that this terrane
is the southernmost extension of the Dom Feliciano Belt, (iii) to infer
that the Mar del Plata Terrane was part of the southwestern Angola
block following the break-up of Rodinia at c. 780 Ma and became
displaced during the Dom Feliciano-Kaoko orogeny (a similar origin is
also inferred for other terranes within the Dom Feliciano belt, including
those composed of old basement reworked in the Brasiliano orogeny,
such as the Nico Pérez terrane in Uruguay), (iv) to recognize that the Río
de la Plata that was not affected by the overall Brasiliano/Pan-African
orogeny and that it is bounded on all sides by transcurrent faultsof Late
Neoproterozoic and Cambrian age, implying that the craton was
allochthonous and that it reached its present position late during the
assembly of SW Gondwana, (v) to propose a revised geodynamic model
for this region for the period between the c. 780 rifting of the Angola
Block and Kalahari cratons and 540–520 Ma when SW Gondwana was
finally assembled, distinguishing between an older Dom Feliciano–
Kaoko orogeny and a younger Gariep–Saldania orogeny within the
overall Brasiliano/Pan-African orogeny.
2. Geology
2.1. The Río de la Plata craton and its boundaries
The Río de la Plata craton is the oldest and southernmost core of
South America and is a key piece in the cratonic assemblage of SW
Gondwana (Fig. 1). It is mostly covered by a thick pile of younger
sediments, beneath which its true extent is largely inferred. However,
geophysical and deep bore-hole geochronological studies indicate
that the western edge of the craton is in sharp contact with the Early
Palaeozoic Eastern Sierras Pampeanas (Booker et al., 2004; Rapela
et al., 2007). This contact, here equated with the Córdoba Fault,
Kalahari
Craton
Angola
Block
0500 1000 Km
NN
Sam Afr
SaldaniaB
elt
Early Cretaceous
opening of the
South Atlantic Ocean
DamaraBelt
Kaoko B.
Gariep B.
ParaguayBelt
Brasilia Belt
Ribeira
Belt
Araçuai Belt
AraguaiaBelt
Zambezi Belt
Mozambique Belt
Dom Feliciano Belt
Lufilian
Belt
W.Congo Belt
E-Pampean Belt
Congo-São Francisco
Craton
Punta Mogotes
borehole
SYSZ
COSZ
SVSZ
W.Sierras Pampeanas
Arequipa--Antofalla
Amazonian
Craton
South America Megacraton
Paranapanema
Block
Nico
Pérez
Río de la
Plata Craton
?
?
?
Rio
Apa
Fig. 1. Cratonic blocks and Neoproterozoic blocks of southwestern Gondwana (modified from Frimmel et al., 2010). SYSZ =Sarandí del Yí Shear Zone, SLVF = Sierra de la Ventana
fault, CORF=Córdoba fault.
674 C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
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developed with dextral shearing, mostly during the Early (538–
528 Ma, Iannizzotto, 2010) to Late Cambrian (Verdecchia et. al., 2011).
The only exposed boundary is in central Uruguay (Fig. 2), where the
Sarandí del Yi megashear (SYSZ) separates its Palaeoproterozoic
basement unaffected by Neoproterozoic events (known here as the
Piedra Alta terrane) from (a) the complex Archaean to Mesoproter-
ozoic Nico Pérez terrane, reworked during the Neoproterozoic (Bossi
and Cingolani, 2009; Oyhantçabal et al., 2009, 2010a and references
therein), and (b) the Brasiliano/Pan-African Dom Feliciano belt
(Oyhantçabal et al., 2010a)(Fig. 3a). The Dom Feliciano belt includes
the following sequences: (i) basement inliers of Archaean to
Mesoproterozoic ages, (ii) the Schist Belt, composed of pre-collisional
Neoproterozoic metavolcanic and metasedimentary sequences at
greenschist-to-lower amphibolite grade and (iii) the Granite Belt, of
mainly Neoproterozoic calc-alkaline granitoids (Fig. 3a).
Rapela et al. (2007) included within the Río de la Plata craton (a)
2.26–2.05 Ga Palaeoproterozoic sequences unaffected by Neoproter-
ozoic magmatism and metamorphic overprint (the Piedra Alta terrane,
the Tandiliabelt and basement reached in boreholes at the western edge
of the craton), and (b) Archaean to Mesoproterozoic sequences affected
by Neoproterozoic magmatism and metamorphic overprint (the Nico
Pérez terrane and associated Rivera and Tacuarembó blocks, see yellow
dashed line in Figs. 2, 3a). Fig. 4 shows a summary of the basement
lithology and chronostratigraphy of these entities.
Recent geochronological, isotopic and geophysical evidence
suggests that the Nico Pérez terrane and associated blocks were not
part of the Río de la Plata craton and that they were probably
juxtaposed during the Neoproterozoic (Oyhantçabal et al., 2010a). In
this case the SYSZ should be regarded as the eastern margin of the
craton against both the Nico Pérez terrane and the Dom Feliciano belt
(Fig. 2, black dashed line, see also Fig. 3a). Evidence presented in this
paper is consistent with this proposition and further refines the
proposed limits of the craton (Fig. 2, red dashed line, see below).
2.2. Tandilia belt and the Punta Mogotes borehole
The Tandilia belt, located 300 km south of Buenos Aires (Figs. 1, 3b),
is a northwest–southeast trending belt that includes the southernmost
exposures of the Río de la Plata craton. The basement of the Tandilia b elt
is a Palaeoproterozoic complex of 2.26–2.07 tonalitic to granitic
gneisses, amphibolites and migmatites, thick mylonites and a 1.59
tholeiitic dyke swarm (e.g., Hartmann et al., 2002b; Pankhurst et al.,
2003; Cingolani et al., 2005, 2010). The Palaeoproterozoic basement is
covered by (i) a Neoproterozoic carbonate–siliciclastic succession
represented by the SierrasBayas Group and the Cerro Negro Formation
(Poiré and Spalletti, 2005, and references therein), and (ii) a Lower
Palaeozoic succession of quartz-arenites, kaolinite-rich mud rocks,
wackes, conglomerates and basal diamictites represented by the
Balcarce Formation (Zimmermann and Spalletti, 2009; Van Staden
et al., 2010, and references therein).
Detrital zircon ages provide important constraints on the age and
probable sources of the Neoproterozoic and Early Palaeozoic
60° W64° W56
° W52
°°°
W 48 W 44 W
30° S26° S34° S38° S42° S
500 Km
?
ARGENTINA
BOLIVIA
CHILE
PAR A GUAY
BRAZIL
Atlantic
Ocean
Pacific
Ocean
Boreholes
Outer limit of the
continental platform
North
Patagonian
Massif
Parapanema Block
1
10
2
3
5
6
Fig. 3a
7
9
4
8
Fig. 3b
Punta Mogotes
borehole
Sierra de la
Ventana
RÍO DE LA
PLATA CRATON
Y
Proposed limits of the
Río de la Plata Craton
Collage of Brasiliano
accreted terranes
Rapela et al., 2007
Oyhantçabal et al.,
2010
This paper
11
URUGUA
Fig. 2. Digital image of central South America showing different proposed limits for the Río de la Plata craton. The main Palaeoproterozoic units (2.26–2.05 Ga), that characteristically
did not undergo Neoproterozoic orogenic events are: (1) the Tandilia belt and (2) the Piedra Alta terrane. Red dots show the location of deep boreholes in the Chacoparanense basin
where similar Paleoproterozoic rocks without Neoproterozoic overprint were found (Rapela et al., 2007). Also shown are the terranes accreted to the Río de la Plata craton during
Neoproterozoic to Cambrian times: (3) Nico Pérez terrane, (4) Rivera block; (5) Tacuarembó block; (6) Asunsión Arch; (7) Punta del Este terrane, (8) Dom Feliciano belt and (9) Luiz
Alves block (see details in Fig. 3).
675C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
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successions. The zircon pattern of the Villa Mónica Formation, the
lowermost unit of the Sierras Bayas Group in the areas of Barker and
Olavarría (Fig. 3b), shows ages strongly concentrated around
2200 Ma, indicating that the siliciclastic sequence is mostly derived
from the underlying, locally exposed, basement of the craton (Rapela
et al., 2007; Gaucher et al., 2008). On the other hand, the age pattern
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3. (a) Schematic geological map of the Atlantic region in southern Brazil and Uruguay, showing the Precambrian and Neoproterozoic terranes, belts and main shear zones
(modified from Basei et al., 2008a; Bossi and Cingolani, 2009 and Oyhantçabal et al., 2009, 2010). PA = Punta Alta terrane; NP = Nico Pérez terrane; R= Rivera block;
T =Tacuarembó block. Neoproterozoic–Cambrian shear zones: SYSZ, Sarandí del Yí; SBSZ Sierra Ballena; MGSZ, Major Gercino; LRSZ, Laguna Rocha. (b) Simplified geological map of
the Tandilia belt (Iñiguez, 1999), with a reviewed lithostratigraphy from Poiré and Gaucher (2009), see Rapela et al. (2007) for further references. Inset shows the lithostratigraphy
of the Punta Mogotes borehole after Marchese and Di Paola (1975) with the location of the samples. Location of analyzed surface samples of the Balcarce Formation and the Sierras
Bayas Group (Rapela et al., 2007) are also shown. The limit of the Mar del Plata terrane is indicated according to the magnetic and gravimetric anomalies defined by Kostadinoff
(1995).
676 C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
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of the Balcarce Formation indicates a completely different source area
for the younger siliciclastic platform of the Tandilia belt —one that
supplied detrital zircons as young as c. 475 Ma as well as conspicuous
populations of “Brasiliano”(570–675 Ma, Rapela et al., 2007; Van
Staden et al., 2010), Mesoproterozoic (1170 Ma) and Late Palaeopro-
terozoic (1680–1890 Ma) ages.
Exposures of the Palaeoproterozoic basement disappear below the
Balcarce Formation some 50 km west of the coast (Fig. 3b). NNE-
trending magnetic and gravimetric anomalies occur about 20 km east
of Mar del Plata, suggesting an important change in the subsurface
basement (Kostadinoff, 1995). The only direct evidence for the rocks
beneath the quartz-arenites of the Balcarce Formation at the Atlantic
tip of the Tandilia belt comes from the 504 m deep Punta Mogotes
borehole (38°05′30″S; 57°32′42″W; Figs. 2, 3b). Petrographic and
mineralogical descriptions of the core were made by Marchese and Di
Paola (1975, see also earlier references in this paper). From the
surface to a depth of 406 m the lithology is typical of the Balcarce
Formation, dominated by quartz-rich flat-lying sandstones, which
vary from fine to coarse, with subordinate conglomerates. An
unconformity separates these from the Punta Mogotes Formation, a
low-grade metamorphic sequence dominated by meta-siltstones and
metapelites, and subordinate meta-sandstones. The total thickness
but 90 m has been proven. The meta-sandstones show a foliated fabric
defined by illite and poorly-oriented quartz grains (Fig. 4). The detrital
components are Pl–Kfs–Ms–Chl–Tu–Zr–Op and lithic fragments of
chert (mineral abbreviations, as elsewhere, after Kretz, 1983). Quartz
veins are widespread.
The illite crystallinity index indicates metamorphic conditions
between anchizone and epizone, while four K–Ar ages between 576±
13 Ma and 615± 14 Ma obtained on concentrates of clay minerals have
been interpreted as dating the last thermo-tectonic episode that
affected these rocks (Cingolani and Bonhomme, 1982).
3. Geochronological and isotopic results
U–Th–Pb analyses of zircon were made using SHRIMPs RG and I at the
Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University,
Canberra, Australia, following the methods of Williams (1998, and
references therein) as in our previous work (e.g., Rapela et al., 2007). Data
were reduced using the SQUID Excel macro of Ludwig (2001).Probability
density plots with stacked histograms, Tera–Wasserburg and Wetherill
Concordia plots were carried out using ISOPLOT/Ex (Ludwig, 2003). Prior
to plotting, analyses that were b90% concordant and with N2.5%
206
Pb
of common origin were removed. For grains with ages above 1.0 Ga
the
207
Pb/
206
Pb age was plotted, whereas for grains less than 1.0 Ga
the
206
Pb/
238
Pb was chosen.
Lu–Hf and oxygen isotopic analyses were also performed at the
Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University.
After selecting zircon populations of known age, and re-polishing the
epoxy mounts, oxygen analyses were carried out using SHRIMP II,
while Lu–Hf analyses were performed on a Neptune MC-ICPMS
coupled with a HelEx 193 μm ArF Excimer laser ablation system,
following procedures described in Munizaga et al. (2008). Full
analytical results are presented as a Supplementary Appendix to
this paper.
Five samples from the borehole core were analyzed. Two samples
from below 410 m belong to the Punta Mogotes Formation, while the
remaining samples from depths of 406 m, 339 m and 233 m belong to
the Balcarce Formation. U–Pb data are shown in Figs. 5 and 6.Lu–Hf
and oxygen data were also obtained for three of these samples (Fig. 8).
3.1. Punta Mogotes Formation
Both samples of the Punta Mogotes Formation are green to pale
brown low-grade meta-siltstones and fine grained meta-sandstones,
with a weak S1 foliation formed by oriented clay minerals and quartz
(Fig. 4) Sample PMOG-441 was recovered from a depth of 441 m in
the borehole, while PMOG is a composite sample formed of meta-
siltstone chips from 415, 427 and 451 m.
The detrital age patterns of the two samples are complex but
remarkably similar (Fig. 6), suggesting a similar source for at least the
upper section of the Punta Mogotes Formation. The most significant
characteristic is a conspicuous younger peak at about 770 Ma, defined
by concordant igneous grains in the range of 740–840 Ma (17–22%
of the total analyses). The majority of the older detrital ages are
concentrated in two intervals: a Mesoproterozoic group at 940–
1330 Ma (20–27%, with peaks at 1250 and 1270 Ma) and a Late
Palaeoproterozoic group at 1710–2030 Ma (25%, with peaks at 1735
and 1835 Ma). The remaining detrital ages can be subdivided in three
distinct sub-populations, which are also important for identification
of the probable sources: (i) 1420–1560 Ma Mesoproterozoic zircons
(7–15%), (ii) Early Palaeoproterozoic and Archaean zircons (3–7%) at
2420–2480, 2660–2670 and 2850–2870 Ma, and (iii) a small (5–6%)
subpopulation in the range 2069–2202 Ma.
δ
18
O and εHf
t
values for the detrital zircons (the latter calculated to
the time of zircon crystallization) show an enormous range of values
of +3.7‰to +11.8‰and −25 to + 20 respectively, indicating
polygenetic protoliths. The 740–840 Ma group of detrital grains has
predominantly negative εHf
t
(down to −25) and, with the exception
of two grains, δ
18
ON6.5‰; the data depart considerably from
depleted mantle values in terms both parameters (Fig. 8). Comparison
with analyses of 770 and 840 Ma A-type granites from the Western
Sierras Pampeanas, for which U–Pb ages were published by Baldo
et al. (2006) and Colombo et al. (2009), shows a clear difference in
both parameters (Fig. 9), ruling out the possibility of derivation of the
detrital grains from this igneous province.
3.2. Balcarce Formation
A well-constrained detrital age pattern for the lower and middle
sectors of the overlying BalcarceFormation is demonstrated in Fig. 7c–e.
Analyses of two surface samples, at the type section in Balcarce (sample
FBA-264, Rapela et al., 2007) and at the Sierra del Volcán (diamictite,
Van Staden et al., 2010), are shown for comparison in Fig. 7a, b. Samples
PMOG-406 and PMOG-233 are quartz arenites with a marked uniform
texture, composed of monocrystalline and equidimensional quartz
grains cemented by syntaxial quartz and less commonly by kaolinite.
Most quartz grains show trains of fluid inclusions, and rapid to wavy
extinction. Polycrystalline quartz grains are less frequent, and they are
formed of inequigranular crystals with sutural contacts. Among the
heavy mineral population, greenish-brownish tourmaline and zircon
grains prevail. Sample PMOG-339 is similar to previously described
Fig. 4. Photomicrograph of sample PMOG-441, a very low-grade quartz-rich
metasandstone from the Punta Mogotes Formation. Foliation S1 is defined by the
preferred orientation of white mica (WM =Illite,) and the long axis of quartz grains.
677C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
Author's personal copy
samples, though its matrix proportion is higher (c. 10%). The
distribution of the fine-grained material is not uniform, since it appears
as patches of diagenetically-deformed and crushed aggregates of
sericite-kaolinite, strongly suggestingthat the fine-grained components
are muddy intraclasts (pseudomatrix).
All samples of the Balcarce Formation show peaks at 505–560 Ma
and 635–670 Ma, whereas the conspicuous c. 770 Ma peak of the
Punta Mogotes Formation is absent or poorly defined. In the sample
for which O and Hf data were obtained (PMOG-233), both δ
18
O and
εHf
t
values are highly variable, ranging from +3.8‰to +10.6‰and
−14 to +11, respectively. Within this range, the 635–670 Ma detrital
grains also show a wide range of isotopic compositions, with δ
18
Oof
both c. +4.5‰and 6.8–8.2‰and εHf
t
of +5 to −15, suggesting
provenance from a mixture of mantle and crust-derived rocks (Fig. 8).
The youngest detrital zircons in the sample located in the uppermost
part of the sequence indicate that the Balcarce Formation cannot be
older than Early Ordovician (475 Ma, sample FBA-264, Fig. 7a). The
youngest detrital peaks in the Punta Mogotes borehole samples and
the Sierra del Volcán diamictite vary in age from 505 to 540 Ma
(Fig. 7b–e), indicating that the lower part of the Balcarce sequence
cannot be older than Middle to Early Cambrian. These youngest grains
in PMOG-233 have εHf
t
of 0 to -9 and δ
18
ON7.7‰, suggesting a crust-
dominated source.
There are conspicuous Palaeoproterozoic peaks at 2155 Ma and
2160 Ma in samples PMOG-406 and PMOG-233 (20–32%), not seen in
PMOG-339 and FBA-264. Discordia lines calculated for the Palaeo-
proterozoic grains in PMOG-406 and PMOG-233 define upper
intercepts at 2149 Ma and 2168 Ma (Fig. 7c,e), indicating a Pb-loss
episode affecting the source area of the Palaeoproterozoic zircon
grains. Late Palaeoproterozoic (1730–2000 Ma, 7–12%%) and Meso-
proterozoic (c. 1040 Ma, 7–9%) peaks are observed in all samples. All
the analyzed Mesoproterozoic grains and most of the Palaeoproter-
ozoic ones show positive εHf
t
, suggesting provenance from predom-
inantly juvenile sequences (Fig. 8).
4. Discussion
4.1. The Mar del Plata Terrane
Oyhantçabal et al. (2010a) have recently proposed re-definition of
the Río de la Plata craton as a Palaeoproterozoic continental block that
did not undergo rejuvenation during the Brasiliano/Pan-African
orogeny. These authors identify the eastern limit of the craton in
Uruguay as the SYSZ (Fig. 3a), based on the contrasting geological
history between the Punta Alta and Nico Pérez terranes. The same
authors extrapolated the SYSZ southwards as far as the off-shore limit
Fig. 5. Comparison of the detrital ages determined in the Punta Mogotes Formation with the magmatic and metamorphic ages of the basement blocks underlying the Neoproterozoic
mobile belts in south-eastern South America and south-western Africa. These basement blocks are inferred to be the main sources for the Neoproterozoic belts during the assembly
of southwestern Gondwana. Most of the quoted age intervals are from U–Pb ages. Ages from the Río de la Plata craton (Tandilia belt and Piedra Alta terrane), the Nico Pérez terrane
and Tacuarembó block and the Dom Feliciano belt have been recently reviewed by Rapela et al. (2007), Oyhantçabal et al. (2009, 2010), Bossi and Cingolani (2009) and Gaucher et al.
(2010), to which the reader is addressed for detailed references. Ages of the basement and Neoproterozoic magmatism and metamorphism from the Kaoko and Gariep belts are
from: Reid (1979), Reid et al. (1987), Seth et al. (1998, 2005), Frimmel et al. (2001, 2010), Frimmel and Frank (1998), Robb et al. (1999),(Hanson, 2003), Goscombe et al. (2005),
Gray et al. (2006, 2008), Goscombe and Gray (2007), Becker et al. (2005, 2006),; Kröner et al. (2004), Eglington (2006) and Konopásek et al. (2008).
678 C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
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of the continental platform (Fig. 2). The new results on the Punta
Mogotes borehole indicate, however, that the eastern limit of the Río de
la Plata craton is located inland, c. 20 km west of the cityof Mar del Plata.
The supracrustal rocks of the Punta Mogotes Formation and its inferred
underlying basement must be part of a different continental block, here
named the Mar del Plata terrane (Fig. 3b). Evidence supporting the
existence of the Mar del Plata terrane is summarized below:
a) NNE-trending magnetic and gravimetric anomalies show con-
trasting behavior of the rocks beneath the modern cover com-
pared to the typical Palaeoproterozoic rocks of the Tandilia belt
(Kostadinoff, 1995).
b) The c. 600 Ma K–Ar ages for low-grade meta-siltstones of the Punta
Mogotes Formation (Cingolani and Bonhomme, 1982), have no
equivalents in the Tandilia Belt, nor is there evidence of Neoproter-
ozoic metamorphic overprinting of the Palaeoproterozoic basement
and its sedimentary cover.
c) The detrital zircons of the Punta Mogotes Formation are dominantly
derived from lithologies not observed in the Río de la Plata craton
(Figs. 4, 5). Palaeoproterozoic detrital zircons that might be
considered within the range of the craton constitute only 5–6% of
the population (Fig. 6).
d) The average thickness of the Early Palaeozoic Balcarce Formation
covering the Tandilia belt is c. 150 m (Zimmermann and Spalletti,
2009), but this increases to c. 400 m in the Punta Mogotes borehole
at the Atlantic coast (Fig. 3b), suggesting an abrupt, fault-controlled,
change in palaeotopography at the eastern limit of the Tandilia belt.
These contrasts in characteristics between the Mar del Plata terrane
and the adjacent Tandilia belt are very similar to those observed across
the SYSZ in Uruguay between the Piedra Alta terrane and the Nico Pérez
terrane/Dom Feliciano belt (Fig. 2). The SYSZ is here tentatively
extrapolated to the west of Mar del Plata and the left-lateral
displacement of the Río de la Plata craton along this shear zone is
considered to have occurred at 584 ±13 Ma, based on a Pb–Pb isochron
for synkinematic granites emplaced in the fault (Oyhantaçabal et al.,
2007, 2009). This movement wasprobably coeval with thelast, sinistral,
displacement on the Sierra Ballena Shear Zone (SBSZ, Fig. 3a), which
occurred at 586 to 576 Ma (Oyhantçabal et al., 2010c). Therefore the
eastern limit of the Río de la Plata craton may well be a fault where the
SYSZ and the SBSZ merge. This would explain why the Nico Pérez
terrane disappears to the south.
In summary, the Río de la Plata craton is bounded by late
Neoproterozoic to early Palaeozoic megashears that are responsible
for its translation from a missing root in the west (present co-
ordinates) and for the final involvement of the craton in the closure of
southern Adamastor Ocean. The effects of these shear zones and faults
(Fig. 1) were the following: a) in the north and northeast the late
Neoproterozoic SYSZ displaced the craton clockwise for a probable
length of several hundred kilometers, b) in the west the Córdoba fault
juxtaposed the craton and the Pampean orogenic belt in the middle to
late Cambrian (Rapela et al., 2007; Iannizzotto, 2010; Verdecchia et al.,
2011,), and c) in the south the Sierra de la Ventana fault juxtaposed
the craton and the Brasiliano/Pan-African basement, implying a large
right-lateral displacement. Later on, this fault controlled a late
400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200
207Pb/235U
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
9 pts define Concordia Age
of 783 +/- 6 Ma
MSWD =0.1
3000
2600
2200
1800
1400
1000
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6 3000
2600
2200
1800
1400
1000 9 pts define Concordia Age
of 767 +/- 6 Ma
MSWD =1.2
780
1855
Preferred Age (Ma)
760, 790
1735
1250
206Pb/238U
206Pb/238U
Frequency/Relative Probability
n= 61/70
n= 61/69
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
4812 16 20
0
(a) Punta Mogotes
Formation
PMOG-441
1270
1560
1760 2170
(b) Punta Mogotes
Formation
PMOG
1100 1420
1540
1870
1990
Río de la Plata
Eburnean
Namaqua-Natal
W Kaoko
Rifting
Brasiliano
Angola Block - western Kalahari
Fig. 6. Detrital zircon data from metasedimentary samples from the Punta Mogotes Formation in the lower part of the Punta Mogotes borehole (Fig. 2a). The right-hand column
shows U–Pb provenance patterns as histograms and relative probability curves (Ludwig, 2001), based on preferred ages derived from individual measurements. For ages less than
1000 Ma, the
238
U–
206
Pb is preferred after correction for initial common Pb using the
207
Pb measurements; for ages of 1000 Ma and more, the
204
Pb-corrected
207
Pb/
206
Pb age is
preferred. Wetherill Concordia plots for the same samples are shown in the left-hand column. To demonstrate concordance, plotted data are corrected for common Pb as in Table 1
except for the white-filled symbols, where the statistics of the
204
Pb measurement are considered to be too poor for a meaningful correction. The younger ages, where based on
207
Pb-corrected data, cannot be shown in the Wetherill plots. A few very discordant points are omitted in some cases. The vertical bands represent nominal age ranges for the
potential provenance areas based on published data summarized in Fig. 4.
679C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
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Frequency/Relative Probability
207Pb/235UPreferred Age (Ma)
22 ptsdefine discordiawith
an Upper Intercept of
2149 +/- 11 MaMSWD =3.1
3000
2600
2200
1800
1400
1000
3000
2600
2200
1800
1400
1000
Upper Intercept of 9 points
2168+/- 13Ma
MSWD=1.1
3000
2600
2200
1800
1400
1000
540
2160
505
2
4
6
8
535
660
2155
n= 54/68
n= 68/72
n= 66/70
2
10
14
4
6
8
12
2
3
5
6
1
4
7
8
9
1040
2080
2080
(d)
Balcarce Formation
Punta Mogotes borehole
PMOG-339
(c)
Balcarce Formation
Punta Mogotes borehole
PMOG-233
~1700
1040
1760
(e)
Balcarce Formation
Punta Mogotes borehole
PMOG-406
400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 32004812 16 200
3000
2600
2200
1800
1400
1000
530
700
2090 - 2160
n= 53
2
6
4
8
1760
2035
(b)
Balcarce Formation
Sierra del Volcan diamictite
10
2250
from Von Staden et al. (2010)
206Pb/238U
206Pb/238U
206Pb/238U
206Pb/238U
206Pb/238U
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
3000
2600
2200
1800
1400
1000
475
560
2540
n= 38/60
2
6
4
1
10301690
675
(a)
Balcarce Formation
FBA-264
from Rapela et al. (2007)
5
3
~1150
1890
1975
635
(2 points at 200 Ma)
1040
Río de la Plata
Eburnean
Namaqua-Natal
W Kaoko
Rifting
Brasiliano
Angola Block - western Kalahari
Fig. 7. U–Pb provenance patterns and Concordia plots for sedimentary rocks of the Ordovician Balcarce Formation (Fig. 2a). (a) and (b) show data from surface samples from the
literature while (c), (d) and (e) are new SHRIMP data from different levels of the Punta Mogotes borehole (where the numbers after the PMOG acronym indicate depth in meters).
See caption of Fig. 5 for details of age calculation and graphical presentation.
680 C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
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Cambrian rift, which evolved into a sedimentary basin active
throughout the Palaeozoic until its inversion in the Permian during
the Gondwanan orogeny (Rapela et al., 2003).
4.2. Inferred source for the Punta Mogotes Formation
In Fig. 9, the combined detrital pattern of the Punta Mogotes
Formation is compared with patterns reported from Neoproterozoic
and Early Palaeozoic sedimentary sequences of southeastern South
America (Tandilia belt, Piedra Alta terrane and Dom Feliciano belt,
Fig. 2), and the Kaoko and Gariep belts of southwestern Africa (Figs. 1,
10). The concordant detrital grains in the range 740–840 Ma that are
the main feature of the Punta Mogotes Formation (Fig. 10a) but which
are absent from the Neoproterozoic successions of the Río de la Plata
craton (Fig. 10f, g, h), define a maximum age for the siliciclastic
succession. Further constraints on the age of the Punta Mogotes
Formation are the c. 600 Ma K–Ar metamorphism that limits the
minimum age, and the absence of Brasiliano/Pan-African detrital
zircon ages (560–690 Ma), despite the fact that they represent a
widespread event in southwestern South America and are observed in
all samples of the overlying early Palaeozoic Balcarce Formation
(Fig. 7). This suggests that the sequence is older than about 680 Ma
and younger than about 720 Ma (the youngest individual concordant
detrital zircon).
In the Gariep, Damara and Kaoko belts of southwestern Africa,
the entire time span from c. 728 to c. 840 Ma is characterized by
widespread extension and rifting (Fig. 11,Jacobs et al., 2008),
associated with alkaline igneous plutons, carbonatites and felsic
magmatism (Miller, 1983; Hoffman et al., 1996; Frimmel et al., 2001;
Jacobs et al., 2008; Konopásek et al., 2008; Master, 2009 and
references therein). In the Gariep belt, the record of alkaline events
started with granitic-to-syenitic belts at 833± 3 Ma and was followed
by intrusion of bostonitic dykes and related volcanic rocks at 801 ±
8 Ma. Rifting continued at 771± 6 Ma along a southwest–northeast
linear trend, and ended with rift sediment deposition and felsic
volcanism at 741± 6 Ma (Frimmel et al., 2001). Both juvenile and
crust-derived melts resulting from continental stretching and mantle
upwelling are often observed in Neoproterozoic rift systems of the
Congo and Kalahari cratons. The palaeogeographic arrangement
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
Depleted Mantle
<6.5
6.5-7.5
7.5-8.5
8.5-9.5
>9.5
δO
εHft
εHft
εHft
Western
Sierras Pampeanas
A-type
Igneous Rocks
PMOG-233
Balcarce Formation
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
<6.5
6.5-7.5
7.5-8.5
8.5-9.5
>9.5
δO
PMOG-441
Punta Mogotes Formation
Age (Ma)
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
<6.5
6.5-7.5
7.5-8.5
8.5-9.5
δO
PMOG
Punta Mogotes Formation
Typical 2σ
uncertainty
Rodinia
rifting
interval
Fig. 8. εHf
t
vs U–Pb SHRIMP crystallization age for detrital grains from the Punta
Mogotes and Balcarce formations. Oxygen isotope composition is shown as intervals of
δ
18
O in each sample. The depleted mantle curve is derived from chondritic values
(Bouvier et al., 2008) and the present-day depleted mantle value (Vervoort and
Blichert-Toft, 1999). Note that most of the 740–840 Ma grains from the Punta Mogotes
Formation show negative εHf
t
and high δ
18
O indicating derivation from a crustal source.
5
10
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Western
Sierras Pampeanas
700 - 850 Ma A-type
Igneous Rocks
Punta Mogotes Fm
(700 - 850 Ma grains only)
Number
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
700 750 800 850 900
PMOG+PMOG-441
WSP 700-850 Ma
A-type granites
TDM(2)
(Ga)
Crystallization Age (Ma)
(a)
(b)
εHft
Fig. 9. a) Histogram of the εHf
t
contrasting the isotopic signature of the 740–840 Ma
detrital zircons of the Punta Mogotes, with that of the 770 and 840 Ma A-type granites
of the Western Sierras Pampeanas (Baldo et al., 2006; Colombo et al., 2009), which are
dominated by juvenile mantle components (Rapela and Pankhurst, unpublished data).
b) Model T
DM
ages of the Punta Mogotes detrital zircons are Palaeoproterozoic,
suggesting derivation from old crustal rocks. In contrast the mantle derived A-type
granites of the Western Sierras Pampeanas have Mesoproterozoic model ages.
681C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
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Preferred Age Ma (<10% discordant)
TANDILIA BELT
Sierras Bayas
Group
Villa Mónica Fm.
FSB 260; n= 54
5
10
15
20
25
30
TANDILIA BELT
Sierras Bayas
Group
Cerro Largo Fm.
06-FS-06
n= 110
5
10
15
20
(f)
(g)
Relative probability
Relative probability
Relative probability Relative probability
Number
Number
Number
Number
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
(d)
GARIEP BELT
Group
n=17
1
2
3
4
5
(h)
PIEDRA ALTA
TERRANE
Piedras de
Afilar Fm.
PAF2; n=91
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
(e)
KAOKO BELT
Hartman Group
(Damara
sequences)
n=40
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
(Basei et al., 2005)
(Goscombe et al., 2005)
(Gaucher et al., 2008)
(Gaucher et al., 2008)
(Rapela et al., 2007)
GARIEP BELT
Stinkfontein
Subgroup
n=21
1
2
3
4
(c)
(Basei et al., 2005)
(b)
DOM FELICIANO BELT
Schist Belt
n= 98
2
8
6
4
(Basei et al., 2008)
(a)
MAR DEL PLATA
TERRANE
Punta Mogotes Fm.
n=129
5
10
15
20
25
(this paper)
625
805
1020
1260
1770
1910
1010
1250
1500
1780
2070
2240
1160
1240 1560
2000
2152
2470
1950
1230
1760
1440
1005
1150-1280
1860-1910
1690 2020
1200
610
1500
1850
2780
3000
765
1100
1250
1550
1740
2180
Río de la Plata
Eburnean
Namaqua-Natal
W Kaoko
Rifting
Brasiliano
Angola Block - western Kalahari
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Río de la Plata
Eburnean
Namaqua-Natal
W Kaoko
Rifting
Brasiliano
Angola Block - western Kalahari
Oranjemund
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between the two cratons during the Neoproterozoic–Early Palaeozoic
interval has been a long debated topic (see Johnson et al., 2005; Gray
et al., 2008; Frimmel et al., 2010 as examples of different approaches).
However, recent results show that while the timing of rift magmatism
was roughly coeval in the Gariep, Damara and Kaoko belts, in theCongo
craton this occurred as early as 880–920 Ma, as recorded in the Lufilian,
West Congo and Araçuaí belts (Frimmel et al., 2010). There is an
increasing amount of evidence indicating that the Angola block, located
to the north ofthe Damara belt, was a separate plate that was not part of
the Congo craton (Porada and Berhorst, 2000); Heilbron et al. (2008 and
references therein). Furthermore, the coeval Neoproterozoic rifting of
the Damara,Kaoko and Gariep belts and their parallel tectonic evolution
suggest that at that time the Angola block was attached to the Kalahari
rather than the Congo craton(Gaucher et al., 2008; Frimmel et al., 2010).
This hypothesis is adopted here and shown in Fig. 11, where there is a
single connected rift affecting the Kalaharicraton and the Angola block.
Rift-related alkaline magmatism often shows mantle-dominated
signatures. For example the syn-rift 700–800 Ma detrital zircons in the
internal part of the Damara orogen show positive εHf
t
values
(Newstead et al., 2009). On the other hand, addition of mantle-derived
melts to the crust should lead to an elevated crustal geotherm, and
high-T, low-P metamorphism should be expected in the lower crust at
such time (Warren and Ellis, 1996). Evidence for such metamorphism
in an extensional regime related to the Neoproterozoic continental
breakup is found in the Zambezi belt and the western sector of the
Namaqua metamorphic belt (Robb et al., 1999 and Vinyu et al., 1999).
The timing of these events in the Angola block and Kalahari craton is
essentially the same as the 740–840 Ma detrital zircon age range
observed in the Punta Mogotes Formation (Figs. 4, 5, 9a) and is a strong
argument for connecting these sediments with the Neoproterozoic
rifting in the Kalahari craton and the Angola block.
Neoproterozoic pre-rift, syn-rift and post-rift sedimentary sequences
were deposited on the Angola block and western Kalahari passive
margins, in the Kaoko, Damara and Gariep belts (Fig. 11). Protracted late
Neoproterozoic to Cambrian deformational, metamorphic and ma gmatic
events reworked these sequences (Goscombe et al., 2005 and references
therein). When comparing the detrital patterns of Neoproterozoic
sequences from these belts, they show some similarities reflecting the
influence of widespread igneous–metamorphic events and large
provinces characteristic of the African cratons (e.g., the 1700–2000
Eburnean event and the 1000–1370 Natal-Namaqua province).
However, there are significant differences in basement composi-
tion and age between the Kaoko and the Gariep belts (Fig. 5). The
Kaoko belt is dominated by major strike-slip shear zones within high-
grade amphibolite facies turbidites of the Damara Supergroup,
incorporating basement slivers and sheared Pan-African granitoids
(Dürr and Dingeldey, 1996; Konopásek et al., 2005; Gray et al., 2006;
Goscombe and Gray, 2008 and references therein). The basement
slivers include sectors with granitoid gneisses of c. 2.59–2.65 Ga, c.
1.96–2.03 Ga, c. 1.68–1.78 Ga, c. 1.45–1.52 Ga (Seth et al., 1998;
Kröner et al., 2004) and c. 1.2 Ga (Frimmel et al., 2010). Arc-related
granites and migmatitic gneisses of 1.73–1.87 Ga have been reported
in the pre-Damaran basement of northern Namibia while to the north
of the Kaoko belt, there is robust geochronological evidence indicating
that Eburnean igneous and metamorphic rocks were affected by a
1320–1340 Ma upper amphibolite facies metamorphism (Seth et al.,
2005; Frimmel et al., 2010 and references therein). The detrital zircon
age pattern of Neoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks from the
Rehoboth
Subprovince
Adamastoria:
Angola Block and
Kalahari rifted
terranes
Kaapvaal
Craton
500 km
N
Saldania Belt
Khomas Ocean
Namaqua
Belt
Natal
Gariep
Belt
Southern Adamastor
Ocean
EWM
KB
Z
Grunehogna
Craton
c. 780 Ma
Rifting of Angola Block and Kalahari craton
Rift and post-rift sedimentary sequences
Angola
Block
East
Antarctica
coveroutcrop
Outline of Archaean and
Palaeoproterozoic core of Kalahari
Margin of Late Neoproterozoic -
Early Palaeozoic overprint of Kalahari
Rift & post-rift sediments: Kaoko, Damara,
Gariep & Saldania belts (0.78 - 0.45 Ga):
Rift-related sediments and extensional basins
developed on Adamastoria (0.78 - 0.74 Ga):
ANGOLA BLOCK:
outcrop subsurface
mostly unexposed
KALAHARI CRATON:
Archaean & Palaeoproterozoic (>1.75 Ga)
Richtersveld Terrane (1.7-2.0 Ga)
1.35 - 1.0 Ga crustal additions:
mostly exposed
FB
F/MB
H
Kaoko Belt
?
?
Damaran margin
Northern
Adamastor
Ocean
?
?
?
?
?
Fig. 11. Inferred rifting of the Kalahari craton and the Angola block at c. 780 Ma, showing the rift and post-rift sedimentary sequences. The geometry of the rift has been modified
from Jacobs et al. (2008). Locations of the Falkland/Malvinas block (F/MB), the Ellsworth-Whitmore Mountains (EWM), Haag Nunataks (H) and the Filschner crustal block (FB) are
after Flowerdew. et al. (2007). The sketch shows a hypothetical microcontinent (Adamastoria), rifted from the western Damara triple point and consisting of continental basement
rocks from western Angola and northwest Kalahari.
Fig. 10. Comparison of U–Pb provenance patterns for sedimentary and metasedimentary samples from Neoproterozoic belts: (a) the Punta Mogotes Formation (this paper); (b) Dom
Feliciano belt (Schist Belt); (c) Stinkfontein Subgroup, Gariep belt; (d) Oranjemund Group, Gariep belt; (e) Hartman Group, Kaoko belt; (f) Sierras Bayas Group, Villa Mónica
Formation; (g) Sierras Bayas Group, Cerro Largo Formation, (h) Piedras de Afilar Formation, Piedra Alta terrane. See caption of Fig. 5 for details of age calculation and graphical
presentation.
683C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
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Orogen Core of the Kaoko belt exhibits variable proportions of all
these components, grouping at 1950, 1230, 1760, 1440, 1005 and
2510 Ma, given in decreasing relative abundance (Goscombe et al.,
2005)(Fig. 10e). It must also be observed here that the ages of several
lithological units observed in the basement of the Kaoko Belt, have
also been recognized in the Nico Pérez terrane (Fig. 3a), including the
Neoarchaean thermal reworking and the rather uncommon 1.4–
1.5 Ga magmatic episode (Fig. 5). In contrast, the Gariep belt (Fig. 11)
is mostly of low metamorphic grade, consisting of stacked oceanic
thrust-sheets, including mélange, metagreywacke turbidites and
metabasalts, thrust over the passive continental margin of the
Kalahari craton (Frimmel, 1995, 2000; Hälbich and Alchin, 1995;
Gray et al., 2006 and references therein). The basement on which the
Gariep belt was developed is relatively simple compared with that of
the Kaoko (see summary in Fig. 5). Archaean rocks are not exposed,
only occurring far to the east in the Kaapvaal craton (Fig. 11). The
basement geology is dominated by the c. 1.0–1.25 Ga high-grade
metamorphic rocks of the Namaqualand metamorphic complex
(Bushmanaland Subprovince, Robb et al., 1999; Eglington, 2006),
which occurs within the Richtersveld terrane, consisting in turn of
juvenile 1.7–1.9 Ga granites of the Vioolsdrift suite (Reid, 1979) and
1.9–2.0 Ga metavolcanic rocks of the Orange River Group (Reid et al.,
1987). The influence of this basement is observed in the fluvio-deltaic
sediments of the Stinkfontein Subgroup, which accumulated in the
740–770 Ma continental rift on the western margin of the Kalahari
craton (Frimmel and Frank, 1998). These sediments show a bi-modal
detrital pattern defined by concordant grains at c. 1000–1300
(Namaqua component) and c. 1700–2000 Ma (Richtersveld compo-
nent), with a minor peak at 820 Ma (Basei et al., 2005)(Fig. 10c). The
same dominant peaks are observed in siliciclastic sediments of the
Oranjemund Group of the Gariep belt (Fig. 10d) and the Rocha basin
in Uruguay (Fig. 3a), which are interpreted as having been deposited
in the same back-arc basin (Basei et al., 2005). In the latter cases the
Richtersveld and Namaqua components are accompanied by a
conspicuous c. 620 Ma Brasiliano/Pan-African peak (Fig. 10d). The
absence of Archaean and 1420–1560 Ma Mesoproterozoic ages in the
Gariep belt, both in the basement (Fig. 5) and as a detrital zircon
component in Neoproterozoic sequences (Fig. 10c, d), is the most
important difference with the Kaoko belt. This notable lack of
Mesoproterozoic igneous rocks older than 1.4 Ga in the northwestern
sector of the Kalahari craton has been ascribed to post-1.49 Ga
convergence with the Angola block (Becker et al., 2006).
On the other hand, the basement of the Río de la Plata craton only
consists of 2.05–2.26 Ga Palaeoproterozoic igneous–metamorphic
complexes, intruded by 1.6–1.7 Ga tholeiitic dyke swarms (Fig. 5).
Flat-lying sedimentary sequences covering the craton show either
dominant or significant detrital peaks within these ranges, but in some
cases also important late Mesoproterozoic and Archaean peaks,
suggesting provenance from outside the craton (Rapela et al., 2007;
Gaucher et al., 2008)(Fig. 10f, g, h). Neoproterozoic detritalzircons are
absent fromall these sequences cropping out near the eastern side of the
craton and they lack evidence of any Neoproterozoic metamorphic
overprint. This seems best explained if the whole region of the Río de la
Plata craton was located far away from the influence of the Brasiliano/
Pan-African event i.e., as it would have been prior to the left-lateral
displacement along the SYSZ at c. 580 Ma. The only alternative
explanation is that the Sierras Bayas Group and the Cerro Negro
Formation are older than Neoproterozoic, which is not consistent with
the combined evidence inferred from trace fossils, C–Ochemostrati-
graphy and Sr isotopes for at least theupper part of these two sequences
(Gómez Peral et al., 2007; Gaucher et al., 2009; Poiré and Gaucher,
2009).
In either case, the sedimentary rocks overlying the craton must
have been deposited before the displacement of the craton along the
SYSZ, i.e., they must be older than c. 580 Ma. Moreover, the transport
direction of these clastic sedimentary rocks was from the northwest
(Dalla Salda and Iñiguez, 1979; Gaucher et al., 2008), which
strengthens the idea that source areas were different from those of
sedimentary rocks involved in the Dom Feliciano orogeny.
An important conclusion from the above discussion is that detrital
age groups observed in the Punta Mogotes Formation (Fig. 10a) closely
match the main events in the basement of the Kaokobelt (Angola block)
and in the Nico Pérez terrane (Fig. 5). Most of these peaks are also
observed in detrital zircon patterns for the Neoproterozoic Damara
sequence in the Kaoko belt (Fig. 10e) and in the Damara orogen, where
the 700–800 Ma peak is well developed (Newstead et al., 2009). Not
only are the typical Eburnean and Namaqua components present in the
Punta Mogotes pattern, but also the 1420–1560 Ma interval, which is
not common inAfrica, with a possible igneous protolith of this age only
known in thebasement of the western and central Kaoko belt (Kröneret
al., 2004)(Fig. 10a). Metavolcanic rocks at 1429± 21 Ma and metagab-
bros at 1492± Ma have been also identified in the Nico Pérez terrane
(Oyhantaçabal et al., 2005; Gaucher et al., 2010) and in the Betara region
of southwestern Brazil (1.50–1.45 Ga, Siga et al., 2011), strengthening
the proposed correlation.
The similarities described here are considered important evidence
for the Angola block being the area source for the Punta Mogotes
metasedimentary rocks, while the conspicuous 840–740 Ma detrital
zircon peak (Fig. 10a) correlates with the widespread rift magmatism
of the Angola block, western Kalahari and Dom Feliciano basement
inliers (see below). The Nico Pérez terrane is also considered as
derived from the western edge of the Angola block during the c.
780 Ma Neoproterozoic rifting (Fig. 11). The stacking of lithotectonic
assemblages of the Nico Pérez terrane, which includes Archaean,
Palaeoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic units, took
place during the Neoproterozoic to early Palaeozoic Brasiliano/Pan-
African oblique collision (Mallmann et al., 2007); this corresponds to
the southwestern sector of the Adamastor Orogen of Goscombe and
Gray (2008). To describe the initial rifting scenario, a new term
Adamastoria is introduced to include all the continental terrane
fragments formed after the opening of the Northern Adamastor
Ocean, as shown in Fig. 11. The possibility that the basement inliers of
the Dom Feliciano belt, such as the Punta del Este terrane and the
Encantadas complex (Leite et al., 2000; Saalmann et al., 2010 and
references therein), as well as the exotic Luis Alves microplate (Fig. 2;
Basei et al., 2009) and the Betara region in southwestern Brazil (Siga
et al., 2011) were all part of the same collage is a hypothesis well
worth testing in future studies.
4.3. Relationship to the Dom Feliciano belt
The detrital age pattern of the Schist Belt presented here (Fig. 10b)
is a composite result that includes data from the three main segments
of the belt: Brusque, Porongos and Lavalleja (Fig. 3a) (Basei et al.,
2008a). Data from the metavolcano–sedimentary Porongos Group
contain a Neoproterozoic fraction indicating a post-620 Ma deposi-
tional age for these rocks (Basei et al., 2008a), which conflicts with the
c. 780 Ma age inferred for the succession (Saalmann et al., 2010).
Nevertheless, this composite Schist Belt detrital pattern is important
because it shows Mesoproterozoic (1200 and 1500 Ma), Late
Palaeoproterozoic (1800–1900 Ma) and Archaean zircon populations,
which are also present in the Punta Mogotes Formation (Fig. 10a, b).
The 840–740 Ma detrital interval is not conspicuous as in the Punta
Mogotes Formation, that might be related with the reduced number of
zircons analyzed per sample (n=20, Basei et al., 2008a).
Until recently, the paucity of early Neoproterozoic ages in the Dom
Feliciano belt prevented comparison with the widespread rifting
event of the Angola block and western Kalahari sectors (e.g., Kröner
et al., 2004). This has been largely overcome by new geochronological
data for Neoproterozoic extensional magmatism in the Dom Feliciano
Schist Belt (Oyhantçabal et al., 2009; Saalmann et al., 2010 and
references therein). Most of these magmatic rocks are felsic; some
684 C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
Author's personal copy
show intraplate signatures (838±9 Ma, mylonitic A-type granite,
Brusque Group, Basei et al., 2008b), but many are acid metavolcanic
rocks intercalated with the metasedimentary rocks of the Schist Belt
(783± 6 Ma to 789 ±7 Ma, Porcher et al., 1999; Chemale, 2000;
Saalmann et al., 2010). This volcanism shows Palaeoproterozoic to
Neoarchaean Nd T
DM
model ages as well as negative εNd (t= 780 Ma),
suggesting re-melting of the basement during the extensional basin
formation (Chemale, 2000; Saalmann et al., 2007, 2010).
Basement inliers of the Dom Feliciano Belt, such as the Punta del Este
Terrane (Fig. 3a), contain 761 ±8 Ma to 776 ±12 Ma orthogneisses,
with inherited 1.94–2.06 Ga and 1.07 zircon cores (U–Pb SHRIMP,
Hartmann et al., 2002a; Oyhantçabal et al., 2009; Basei et al., 2010),
inferred tobe rift-related and correlated with the Coastal terrane of the
Kaoko belt (Goscombe et al., 2005; Goscombe and Gray, 2007, 2008;
Oyhantçabal et al., 2009) or the Namaqua complex of the Gariep Belt
(Basei et al., 2010). As noted above, 740–840 Ma igneous detrital zircon
grains of the Punta Mogotes Formation have negative εHf
t
, positive δ
18
O
and Palaeoproterozoic to Archaean Hf T
DM
model ages, suggesting that
the early Neoproterozoic rocks were formed by melting of old crustal
rocks (Figs. 7, 8), as were the felsic rocks of the Dom Feliciano Schist Belt.
We conclude that the Punta Mogotes Formation is probably one of the
southernmost exposures of the Schist Belt.
Assuming that the Mar del Plata terrane (Fig. 3b) belongs to the
southernmost sector of the Dom Feliciano belt, the W–E spatial
distribution of units observed along the entire length of the latter
(Fig. 3a) would be expected to continue off-shore, east of Mar del
Plata. It is therefore predicted that the continental shelf at 38°S is
composed, from West to East, by the Río de la Plata craton, a southern
extension of the Sarandí del Yí+ Sierra Ballena shear zones, the Schist
Belt (Punta Mogotes Formation, Mar del Plata terrane), a southern
extension of the Granite Belt, and probably equivalents of the Punta
del Este and Rocha terranes (Fig. 3a). The Rocha Group low-grade
metasediments have Neoproterozoic (Brasiliano) detrital zircon age
peaks, and are therefore younger, but also show detrital patterns
indicating derivation from the basement of the Gariep belt, i.e., the
Namaqua complex and the Richtersveld terrane. The Rocha Group is
correlated with the Oranjemund Group of the Gariep belt (youngest
detrital zircon c. 610 Ma, Basei et al., 2005), whose deposition
preceded the eastward transport of the oceanic rocks of the Marmora
terrane ca. 575 Ma (Frimmel et al., 2010 and references therein). For
all these reasons, the Punta Mogotes Formation cannot be correlated
with the Rocha Group, contrary to suggestions by Bossi and Cingolani
(2009) and Cingolani (2010).
A test of the above hypothesis on the composition of the continental
shelf is provided by the detrital zircon patterns of the Late Cambrian to
Ordovician/Silurian (?) Balcarce Formation that covers the fault
between the Río de la Plata craton and the Mar del Plata terrane
(Figs. 3b, 7). All samples show Mesoproterozoic (c. 1030–1150 Ma) and
Late Palaeoproterozoic (c. 1700–2000 Ma) peaks, similar to the
Namaqua and Richtersveld terrane of the Gariep belt (Figs. 7, 10c, d).
In contrast to the Punta Mogotes Formation (Fig. 6), the Balcarce
sediments show (i) typical Brasiliano/Pan-African components, (ii)
absence of Mesoproterozoic components in the range 1420–1560 Ma.
This indicates that the Balcarce Formation is not only younger, but that
its sources were different; suitable candidates are the Dom Feliciano
Granite belt and the basement of the Gariep belt.
4.4. A geodynamic scenario
Detrital zircons age patterns from the Punta Mogotes borehole
provide important new constraints on the role played by the Río de la
Plata craton at the time of SW Gondwana amalgamation in the late
Neoproterozoic to the early Cambrian. We present here a new
geotectonic model for the overall Brasiliano/Pan-African orogenic
realm with emphasis on the Rio de la Plata craton (see Fig. 12).
The model combines our results with those of recent contributions
(e.g., Goscombe and Gray, 2008; Gaucher et al., 2009; Frimmel et al.,
2010; Oyhantçabal et al., 2010b; Saalmann et al., 2010).
The starting point is that the ages of basement complexes and zircon
detrital patterns of Neoproterozoic successions in Uruguay, Argentina
and southeastern Brazil are remarkably similar to those of the Angola
block, suggesting that they were conjugate margins of the northern
Adamastor Ocean. Opening of this ocean took place between 740 and
840 Ma (Figs. 10, 12a) probably along the NW–SE rifted arm of a triple
point west of the present Damara orogen (Goscombe et al., 2005 and
references therein). A second NE–SW rifted arm developed along the
edge of the Kalahari craton(Jacobs et al., 2008)(
Fig. 11). The continental
mass that drifted away from both the Angola block and northwestern-
most Kalahari craton is called here Adamastoria (see above).
At 700–750 Ma another oceanic terrane existed west of Adamas-
toria. It is called the São Gabriel Ocean and involved a juvenile intra-
oceanic arc (São Gabriel juvenile block, Hartmann et al., 2011 and
references therein) (Figs. 3a and 12a). The arc was accreted at c.
700 Ma to the Paranapanema block soon after the São Gabriel Ocean
closed, leading to docking of Adamastoria and the Paranapanema
block (Fig. 12b).
Closure of the northern Adamastor Ocean started at c. 680 Ma
(Gray et al., 2006) and involved oblique displacement of the now
welded Paranapanema and Adamastoria block relative to the Angola
block. Sinistral collision took place between 600 and 640 Ma,
producing a doubly-vergent orogenic belt with eastward thrusting
and folding in the Coastal terrane of the Kaoko belt and westward
thrusting and folding in the Dom Feliciano belt, with a magmatic arc in
between (Goscombe and Gray, 2007, 2008)(Fig. 12b). The clockwise
P-T path inferred for the mafic granulites and migmatites of the Punta
del Este terrane (Dom Feliciano belt), is consistent with a history of
crustal thickening (7–10 kbar) followed by rapid exhumation in the
600–650 Ma interval (Gross et al., 2009). This metamorphic event has
been correlated with a similar one observed in the Kaoko belt (Gross
et al., 2009; Oyhantçabal et al., 2009). Deformation subsequent to
collision in the Kaoko and Dom Feliciano belts at 580–550 Ma was
accommodated by sinistral transpression recorded in shear zones
(Oyhantçabal et al., 2010b)(Fig. 12b). This suggests that the Damara
belt was bounded to the west by transcurrent sinistral zones
(Goscombe and Gray, 2008).
NW-directed indentation of the Kalahari craton led to progressive
closure of the southern Adamastor Ocean. The estimated c. 580Ma age
of left-lateral displacement of the Río de la Plata craton along the SYSZ
shear zone is probably coincident with the onset of subduction of the
southern Adamastor Ocean, with simultaneous subduction-related
metamorphism at c. 580 Ma in the Marmora terrane of the Gariep belt
(Frimmeland Frank, 1998; Rozendaal et al., 1999). Thefact that the SYSZ
megashear juxtaposes terranes affected by the Brasiliano/Pan-African
orogeny and the un-rejuvenated Río de la Plata craton suggests that
tectonismafter 580 Ma in the southern Adamastor realm, i.e.,to the east
of the Punta del Este terrane (Figs. 3, 11b), constituted a different
orogeny. Closure of the southern Adamastor Ocean at c. 545 Ma
(Fig. 12c) produced the Gariep belt and migrated southward into the
Saldanian belt, which records orogenic ensialic arc magmatism (the
Cape Granite Suite) until c. 520 Ma.
Subduction of the southern Adamastor Ocean was towards the
northwest whereas folding and thrusting in the Gariep was opposite,
i.e., towards the east and southeast (Frimmel and Frank, 1998),
implying that a magmatic arc existed to the west of the southern
Adamastor suture, the latter indicated by the Marmora terrane in the
Gariep belt. This arc might correspond to the Cape Granite Suite
intruding the Tygerberg and Swartland terranes in the Saldania belt
(Chemale et al., 2010). The juvenile Bridgetown Formation separating
the Swartland and Boland terranes might then correspond to the
suture (Rozendaal et al., 1999).
The basementrocks of the Sierra dela Ventana, which is the southern
boundary of the Rio de la Plata craton, include Dom Feliciano age (570–
685C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
Author's personal copy
610 Ma) crustal granites, 530–520 Ma calc-alkaline and A-type granites
and 510 Ma peralkaline rhyolites (Rapela et al., 2003; Tohver et al.,
2011). The granitic suite of this basement has been correlated with the
Cape Granite Suite in southern Africa (Rapela et al., 2003). As a working
hypothesis, it is considered here that the basement of the Sierra de la
Ventana basement was probably dextrally transported from the
Saldania Belt to its present position at some moment between of the
end of orogenic magmatism and the age of the first overlying sediments
that contain Río de la Plata-sourced zircons (La Mascota Formation, Late
Cambrian, R.J. Pankhurst, unpublished).
Two different orogenies are thus envisaged within the overall
Brasiliano/Pan-African orogeny: the Dom Feliciano–Kaoko orogeny
(regarded as part of a more extensive Adamastor orogen by Goscombe
and Gray, 2008) and the Gariep–Saldania orogeny. The latter was partly
coincident with the Damara orogeny. The metamorphic peak in the
Punta del Este terrane and the Kaoko belt were roughly coeval at c.
650 Ma (Goscombe et al., 2005; Gray et al., 2006; Gross et al., 2009;
Oyhantçabal et al., 2009), whereas those in the Gariep and Saldania belts
in southwestern Africa (Fig. 11) are considerable younger (c. 545 Ma;
Frimmel and Frank, 1998; Armstrong et al., 1998; Da Silva et al., 2000).
(a)
ca. 750 Ma
(b)
ca. 580Ma
(c)
ca. 520 Ma
Fig. 12. Schematic 2D plate reconstruction throughout the Neoproterozoic and the Early Cambrian of the evolution of the Adamastor Ocean realm. The figures are focused to
summarize the geotectonic history and to show the role of the Rio de la Plata craton relative to the Kalahari and Angola cratons, constrained by new U–Pb SHRIMP provenance data of
Neoproterozoic successions: (a) c. 750 Ma. Ongoing intracratonic rifting along the southern margin of the Angola block (Damara passive margin, opening of the Khomas Ocean), the
southwestern margin of the Angola block and the western edge of the Kalahari craton (opening of the Adamastor Ocean). An aulacogenic triple junction probably existed at the
western edge of Damara rifting. Continental terranes inferred to have rifted away from the western edge of the Angola block and the western edge of the Kalahari craton are
collectively embraced in the general term Adamastoria. The São Gabriel Ocean on the west separated the Paranapanema block from Adamastoria. (b) The São Gabriel Ocean closedat
ca. 700 Ma. Southward displacement of the now welded Paranapanema and Adamastoria blocks between 640 and 600 Ma led to a highly oblique collision with the Angola block
(Kaoko belt), producing an overall sinistral, transpressional, doubly-vergent belt with eastward thrusting and folding in the Coastal terrane of the Kaoko belt and westward thrusting
and folding in the Dom Feliciano belt (Goscombe and Gray, 2007). Widespread transpressional, crust-dominated, Brasiliano magmatism took place in the Dom Feliciano belt at
c. 600 Ma. The figure represents the situation at c. 580 Ma when left-lateral displacement of the Río de la Plata craton along the Sarandí del Yí Shear Zone took place and subduction
started in the southern Adamastor Ocean under a hypothetical active margin to the northwest (c) Subduction of the southern Adamastor Ocean towards the northwest eventually
led to obduction of the oceanic rocks of the Marmora terrane in the Gariep belt. The active arc evolved into a magmatic arc (Cape Granite Suite, 540–520 Ma) that was eventually
accreted to the Kalahari margin as a component of the Saldania belt. This figure shows the final configuration of the Brasiliano/Pan African realm resulting from protracted collisions
between cratons for over 300 Ma. Cratons and continental blocks: A, Angola block; K, Kalahari; RPC, Río de la Plata; LA, Luiz Alves. See text for references.
686 C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
Author's personal copy
The Río de la Plata craton thus remains a large craton that was
tectonically emplaced against the Dom Feliciano–Gariep belt in
Ediacaran times, i.e., after the main orogenic events (folding, thrusting,
metamorphism and magmatism) but very close to the onset of the
Gariep–Saldania orogeny. The craton was derived from an unknown
region in the west and carried a sedimentary cover older than c.
580 Ma, with detrital zircon sources different from those of the
Adamastoria Neoproterozoic sediments.
Note that the model described above differs in several key issues
from the Arachania arc/terrane model of Gaucher et al. (2009) and
Frimmel et al. (2010). The latter considered that the Western Kalahari
and the Río de la Plata cratons were juxtaposed, and started to rift
apart at 770–720 Ma. They also enlarge the Río de la Plata craton by
including terranes here considered as derived from either the Angola
block or from basement areas affected by the 770–720 Ma rifting
between northwestern Kalahari craton and Adamastoria.
5. Conclusions
The Río de la Plata craton at the latitude of the Tandilia belt (c. 38°S)
is separated by an important fault from a distinct continental terrane
(Mar del Plata terrane).
On all sides the boundaries of the Río de la Plata craton are
transcurrent faults of late Neoproterozoic to early Palaeozoic age.
The Precambrian Punta Mogotes Formation of the Mar del Plata
terrane is correlated with the Schist Belt of the Dom Feliciano belt of
south-eastern Brazil and Uruguay.
740–840 Ma detrital zircons of the Punta Mogotes formation show
negative εHf
t
values and δ
18
O values N6.5‰suggesting derivation by
melting of Palaeoproterozoic to Archaean crust. Rocks forming the off-
shore continental platform at c.38°S are probably part of the Dom
Feliciano belt.
The detrital zircon pattern of the Punta Mogotes Formation is
compatible with a source for the Mar del Plata terrane close to the
Angola block, from which it rifted away during opening of the
northern Adamastor Ocean at 760–780 Ma. Other continental ter-
ranes in Uruguay, such as the Nico Pérez, Encantadas and Punta
del Este terranes, and others in southeastern Brazil could have
been formed in a similar way. All are embraced here within the
Adamastoria continent.
The formation of West Gondwanaincluded at least two major overall
transpressional orogenies: the Kaoko–DomFeliciano (580–680 Ma) and
the Gariep–Saldania (520–580 Ma). Siliciclastic platform sediments
such as the Balcarce Formation in the Tandilia belt and the Table
Mountain Group in the western Cape region of southern Africa, were
laid down after the amalgamation of SW Gondwana.
Supplementary materials related to this article can be found online
at doi:10.1016/j.gr.2011.05.001.
Acknowledgments
Financial support for this paper was provided by Argentine public
grants CONICET PIP 02340, FONCYT PICT 2006–1009, and Spanish
grants CGL2009-07984 and GR58/08 UCM-Santander. Federico Isla
(University of Mar del Plata-CONICET) kindly provided the sample
PMOG, while SEGEMAR allowed the study of the Punta Mogotes
borehole. Norberto Malumian (SEGEMAR-CONICET) is specially
thanked for his help with the drill core samples. José Kostadinoff
and Pedro Oyhantçabal made useful comments on the geophysical
anomalies in the Mar del Plata-Balcarce area and the mylonitic belts of
southern Uruguay respectively. A. Benialgo helped with the digital
images and A. Metetiero with the drawing of some figures. Eric Tohver
and an anonymous reviewer are thanked for their constructive
suggestions.
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Carlos Washington Rapela has been a Professor in Advance
Geochemistry at the UniversidadNacional de La Plata (UNLP,
Argentina) since 1986, a Career Investigator of the National
Research Council of Argentina (CONICET) since 1979,
Director of the Centre of Scientific and Technological
Research (CONICET–La Plata) since 2009 and is a Member
of the National Academies of Sciences (Córdoba and Buenos
Aires). He obtained a degree in Geochemistry and a PhD in
Natural Sciences from UNLP in 1970 and 1975, respectively,
and then worked as a Post-doctoral Fellow at McMaster
University, Canada, from 1977 to 1979. His interests are in
the geochemistry and isotope geology of magmas, geochro-
nology and tectonics. He has edited books for the Geological
Society of America and the Geological Society, London, and has authored or co-authored
more than130 articles in specialistjournals. He was the jointleader of two IGCP projectsof
the International Union of Geological Sciences and UNESCO, both focused on Andean
geology.He has served asa member of the IGCP Boardin Paris (1995–1999),Directorof the
Centro de Investigaciones Geológicas (CONICET–UNLP, 2003–2009) and a member of the
executive board of CONICET (2003–2008). He has received many named prizes and
awardsfor his contributionsto geology:Storni (GeologicalAssociationof Argentina,1976),
Bernardo Houssay (CONICET, 1987),Strobel (Universidadde Buenos Aires, 2001), KONEX
(2003), Houssay (2004, SECYT), Geological Association of Argentina (AGA 2007).
C. Mark Fanning is a Senior Fellow at the Research School of
Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra,
Australia. He is the Manager of Prise, a research group that
provides external access to the Research School's equipment
and expertise in the areas of isotope geochemistry and
geochronology. He is a graduate of the University of Adelaide
(BSc HONS 1975). He is a Fellow of the Geological Society of
America and has over 30 years experience in radiogenic isotope
systems, predominantly U–Pb on zircons. More recently he has
been involved with oxygen isotope analyses of U–Pb dated
zircons (SHRIMP), coupled with LA MC ICPMS Lu–Hf isotopic
analyses. His interests are in the application of these microbe-
am techniques to the solution of geological problems, in
particular tracing the source of magmatic rocks and identifying possible sediment sources.
Recent collaborations have led to field work in the Transantarctic Mountains, Antarctica
Peninsula, Sierras Pampeanas, Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego and central Chile. He has been
involved in the publication of numerous papers and a number of book chapters.
Cesar Casquet is a Professor in the Faculty of Geology at
Universidad Complutense in Madrid, Spain, where he
received the title of Doctor of Geology in 1980. He has
focused on diverse issues in metamorphic and igneous
petrology, as well as geochronology and isotope geology, in
several regions of the Iberian Peninsula and South America,
particularly in the Argentine pre-Andean basement since
1993. He has also devoted work to ore petrology processes,
particularly to hydrothermal replacements and their struc-
tural controls, geochronology, the source of metals, and
fluid–rock interaction. He is an Associate Editor of both the
Journalof South America Earth Sciencesand Andean Geology
and member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Iberian
Geology and Revista de la Sociedad Geológica de España. He has collaborated with
geoscientists in Spain, Argentina,UK, Chile, Brazil and Australiaand has been the leader of
several large scale publicly-funded research projects.He has been involved as authorand
editor in numerous published papers and several special publications.
Robert (Bob) Pankhurst is a Visiting Research Associate at
the British Geological Survey, having worked for 26 years in
the NERC Isotope Geosciences Laboratory carrying out
geochronological and isotope research on behalf of the
British Antarctic Survey (BAS). He has undertaken extensive
fieldwork in West Antarctica and southern South America,
concentrating on the latter since official retirement in 2002.
He holds the Polar Medal (1987) and is a Corresponding
Memberof both Chilean andArgentine Academiesof Science,
and of the Argentine Geological Association. He is the Chief
Books Editor for the Geological Society, London, and
Associate Editor for the Journal of South American Earth
Sciences. He graduated from the University of Cambridge
(B.A. 1964, M.A. 1967) where he also holds the title of Doctor of Science (Sc.D. 1998). He
received a Diploma in Geochemistry (1965) and a D.Phil. (1968) from the University of
Oxford, staying as Research Fellow on projects in Scotland, West Greenland and Iceland
before joining BAS in 1976. His main interests are in isotope dating and geochemistry
applied to igneous petrogenesis, metamorphism and sediment provenance in relation to the
tectonicevolution of WestGondwana. He hasactively collaborated with geoscientists in
Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, New Zealand, Spain, and the USA, and has been
involved in numerous published papers and several books.
689C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
Author's personal copy
Luis Antonio Spalletti is a Professor of Sedimentology at
the Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP, Argentina)
and Superior Researcher of the National Research Council
of Argentina (CONICET), based at the Centro de Investi-
gaciones Geológicas (UNLP–CONICET). He obtained his
degree in Geology (1966) and his PhD (1971) at UNLP. He
is Member of the National Academy of Sciences of
Argentina (since 2001). He has published over 190 articles
in peer-reviewed scientific literature, and has acted as
editor and co-editor of 10 thematic books and special
issues of journals. Among several awards, Dr. Spalletti was
nominated as an Honorary Member of the Asociación
Argentina de Sedimentología (2000), Honorary Member of
the International Association of Sedimentologists (2001), and Honorary Chairman of
the 18th International Sedimentological Congress (2010). His research interest
primarily involves the sedimentology and stratigraphy of siliciclastic and mixed
(carbonate/siliciclastic) successions. At present, his work focuses mainly on sequence
stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits of the
Neuquén Basin of Argentina.
Daniel Gustavo Poiré is a Full Professor of the Universidad
Nacional de La Plata (UNLP) and Career Researcher of the
National Research Council of Argentina (CONICET), and
works at the Centro de Investigaciones Geológicas (UNLP–
CONICET). He was born in La Plata, where he took a degree
in Geology in 1979 and obtained a PhD in Natural Sciences
(Geology, UNLP) in 1987. He moved to the University of
Liverpool, UK for postdoctoral experience before returning
to La Plata. He was the first Chief Editor of the Latin
American Journal of Sedimentology and Basin Analysis
(LAJSBA) for the Argentine Association of Sedimentology.
His main interests are modern and ancient organic
sedimentary structures (trace fossils, stromatolites and
microbial mats). He has actively collaborated with geologists and microbiologists in
Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, Bolivia, England, Wales, South Africa and USA, and has been
involved in numerous published papers and several books. He has given postgraduate
courses on the sedimentological significance of trace fossils and stromatolites in
Argentine universities and in the University of Barcelona, Spain.
Edgardo G. A. Baldo is a Full Professor of Introduction to
Geology at the Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Argen-
tina (UNC, 1980–present), a Career Investigator of the
National Research Council of Argentina (CONICET, 1994–
present), Director of PhD Graduate Studies in Geological
Sciences at UNC (2009–present). He obtained a degree in
Geology (1982) and PhD in Geological Sciences (1992) at
UNC. His main interests are in metamorphic petrology,
geochronology and tectonics of the Sierras Pampeanas,
Argentina. He has co-authored over 50 articles in scientific
journals.
690 C.W. Rapela et al. / Gondwana Research 20 (2011) 673–690
