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Raw Veganism: The Philosophy of the Human Diet

February 2020

February 2020

DOI:10.4324/9781003003960

ISBN: 9781003003960

Authors:

Carlo Alvaro

New York City College of Technology

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Raw Veganism

Human beings are getting fatter and sicker. As we question what we eat and why

we eat it, this book argues that living well involves consuming a raw vegan diet.

With eating healthfully and eating ethically being simpler said than done, this

book argues that the best solution to health, environmental, and ethical

problems concerning animals is raw veganism—the human diet. The human

diet is what humans are naturally designed to eat, and that is, a raw vegan diet

of fruit, tender leafy greens, and occasionally nuts and seeds. While veganism

raises challenging questions over the ethics of consuming animal products,

while also considering the environmental impact of the agriculture industry,

raw veganism goes a step further and argues that consuming cooked food is also

detrimental to our health and the environment. Cooking foods allows us to eat

food that is not otherwise ﬁt for human consumption and in an age that

promotes eating foods in ‘moderation’and having ‘balanced’diets, this raises

the question of why we are eating foods that should only be consumed in

moderation at all, as moderation clearly implies they aren’t good for us. In

addition, from an environmental perspective, the use of stoves, ovens and

microwaves for cooking contributes signiﬁcantly to energy consumption and

cooking in general generates excessive waste of food and resources. Thus, this

book maintains that living well and living a noble life, that is, good physical

and moral health, requires consuming a raw vegan diet.

Exploring the scientiﬁc and philosophical aspects of raw veganism, this novel

book is essential reading for all interested in promoting ethical, healthful, and

sustainable diets.

Carlo Alvaro is Adjunct Assistant Professor of Philosophy at New York City

College of Technology, USA. He is the author of Ethical Veganism, Virtue

Ethics, and the Great Soul (2019).

Routledge Studies in Food, Society and the Environment

Localizing Global Food

Short Food Supply Chains as Responses to Agri-Food System Challenges

Edited by Sophia Skordili and Agni Kalfagianni

Seafood Supply Chains

Governance, power and regulation

Miriam Greenwood

Civil Society and Social Movements in Food System Governance

Edited by Peter Andrée, Jill K. Clark, Charles Z. Levkoe and Kristen Lowitt

Voice and Participation in Global Food Politics

Alana Mann

Plant-Based Diets for Succulence and Sustainability

Edited by Kathleen May Kevany

Sustainable Food System Assessment

Lessons from Global Practice

Edited by Alison Blay-Palmer, Damien Conaré, Ken Meter, Amanda Di Battista and

Carla Johnston

Raw Veganism

The Philosophy of the Human Diet

Carlo Alvaro

The Bioeconomy Approach

Constraints and Opportunities for Sustainable Development

Udaya Sekhar Nagothu

For more information about this series, please visit: http://www.routledge.com/

books/series/RSFSE/

Raw Veganism

The Philosophy of the Human Diet

Carlo Alvaro

First published 2020

by Routledge

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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Alvaro, Carlo, 1974- author.

Title: Raw veganism : the philosophy of the human diet / Carlo Alvaro.

Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2021. |

Series: Routledge studies in food, society and the environment |

Includes bibliographical references and index. |

Identiﬁers: LCCN 2019048492 | ISBN 9780367435028 (hardback) |

ISBN 9780367435394 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003003960 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Veganism--Philosophy. | Raw foods. | Nutrition. |

Diet--Moral and ethical aspects. | Food of animal origin--Moral

and ethical aspects.

Classiﬁcation: LCC HV4711 .A293 2021 | DDC 179/.3–dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019048492

ISBN: 978-0-367-43502-8 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-43539-4 (pbk)

ISBN: 978-1-003-00396-0 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo

by Taylor & Francis Books

For Malaika

Contents

Preface viii

Acknowledgements x

Introduction 1

1 The ethics of veganism 6

2 There is more than animal suﬀering 28

3 In vitro meat 43

4 Ethical veganism: What it is, what it is not, and what it should be 60

5 Raw veganism: The human diet 69

6 Education and abolition 89

7 Raw veganism and children 107

8 Conclusion 126

References 130

Index 145

Preface

When I wrote the initial draft of my ﬁrst book, Ethical Veganism, Virtue Ethics,

and the Great Soul, I expressly intended it for an academic audience. Proud of

my scholarly work, I sent the manuscript to my publisher—and they told me

that it was not academic enough. Between my initial draft and the process of

academization, it took me two years to complete the book. I did enjoy the

process, though those two years were possibly the most intense of my life.

While I was writing the book, I was also writing several articles, teaching full-

time, and I was (and still am) a full-time dad.

So, at the end of the spring semester of 2018, after completing my book, I

decided to take a break. A philosopher’s break, mind you, does not mean not

writing at all; it just means writing articles and reading a million books. One of

the articles I was working on is about the signiﬁcance of animal suﬀering or, to

be more precise, the idea that all philosophers writing in defense of animals end

up grounding their respective arguments on the notion of animal suﬀering.

That is, eating animals is wrong. Why? Because they suﬀer. Using animals for

scientiﬁc research is wrong. Why? Because they suﬀer. Go vegan! Why?

Because—you guessed it—animals suﬀer. I do believe that animals suﬀer. But

animal suﬀering, believe it or not, is not the principal reason why I do not eat

animals. What are these reasons, then? Well, I don’t want to spoil it for you. I

explain these reasons in “There is more than animal suﬀering,”which is

Chapter 2 of this book.

Also, I was writing another article, which deals with evolution of our species

and human diet. This paper turned out to be longer than a normal paper, and it

became “Raw veganism: The human diet”, the central chapter of this book.

Again, I do not want to spoil it for you. This paper was the impetus to the

ideas that culminated in the creation of this book, Raw Veganism: The Philoso-

phy of the Human Diet.

At this point, I was still enjoying my philosopher’s break, though I started

considering writing a new book on raw veganism. This time, I did not want to

write a book for academics. I wanted to speak to a wider audience and tell

them about my experience as a raw vegan, and the moral, environmental, and

dietary beneﬁts of raw veganism. I wanted to write a popular book. So I did

(or at least I thought I did). I sent the proposal to my publisher—and they told

me that it was too academic!

Well, ecce libro. This time I wrote a scholarly book that also speaks to a larger

audience. Raw Veganism contains provocative discussions about the abolition of

animal products, veganarchism, animal ethics, food ethics, environmental

ethics, nutrition, and evolutionary biology that may be of interest to physicians,

nutritionists, policy makers, and philosophers. Raw Veganism shows that, con-

trary to what most people believe, cooking food hinders, rather than promotes,

good health. Also contrary to popular belief, our ancestors did not feast upon

animal ﬂesh. And no, the fact that we have canine teeth means nothing.

Humans are fruit eaters—that’s the human diet. Moreover, eating fruit is what

made our brains grow larger and made us humans. Cooking food, especially

animal-derived, is one of the worst incidents that happened to humanity.

All animal species that exist, or have existed, have a speciﬁc diet, a diet on

which a species is adapted to thrive. Well, you can see where this is going.

Where is the evidence? There is tons of evidence. The problem is that the

notion of eating a diet of fruit and salad is so wacky and foreign to humans

today that scientists have overlooked the evidence or have not connected the

dots or have deliberately avoided connecting the dots, or all of the above.

There is too much interest in maintaining the status quo. Although I consider

myself an optimist, I don’t have high hopes for a raw vegan world. But my job

as a philosopher is the search for truth, regardless of how wacky of uncomfor-

table the truth may be. And the truth is that cooking food and eating animals

are mistakes. Our species-speciﬁc food is fruit.

We can run from the truth, but we can’t hide—cooked food, especially

animal-based, grains, soda, oil, alcoholic beverages, coﬀee, sugar, and salt are

not human food. The human diet is fresh, uncooked, unprocessed fruit, with

the addition of tender, leafy greens and a handful of nuts and seeds. Cooked

food is dead. Cooking food denatures food. The human body requires water-

rich and live food. The human diet provides all the nutrients that the human

body requires. Why would it not? Our ancestors thrived on such a diet for

millions of years prior to agriculture, cooking, and hunting.

The human diet makes the question of sustainability redundant. It avoids

violence toward animals. It improves the digestion. It makes obesity unheard

of. It confers mental clarity and physical strength. It extends life. It avoids the

excessive use of detergents and disinfectants. It avoids the use of natural gas as a

fuel to cook. It avoids zoonoses, infectious diseases caused by bacteria and

parasites that spread between animals and humans. It can bring us back to

nature and make us appreciate its beauty and importance. It makes us see the

wrongness of killing animals and polluting the environment. My hope, there-

fore, is that this book will inspire people and make them seriously consider raw

veganism.

Preface ix

Acknowledgements

First, I would like to thank my editor, Hannah Ferguson, for embracing the

vision of this book, and for choosing its beautiful cover. Also, the staﬀat

Routledge, particularly John Baddeley, have been wonderful. I owe a very

special thanks to Jan Deckers. Thank you for your valuable work in environ-

mental ethics, and thank you for taking the time to read through the manu-

script and oﬀering thoughtful criticisms and suggestions for improvement. I am

exceedingly grateful to Robert C. Jones for taking an interest in my ideas, for

giving me helpful feedback, and for being supportive of my career. Thanks,

Cheryl Abbate and Laura Wright, for your contributions to animal ethics and

to veganism. Thank you, Gregory Tague, for giving me a platform to speak

and for sharing my ideas and for being so supportive. I thank Rocco Alvaro for

our discussions about Stoicism, life, and raw veganism. Finally, my greatest

thanks, as always, are to my family. I am thankful to my wife Malaika for her

loving support over the years, and for reading and discussing my project and

giving me helpful comments and ideas. And I am thankful to my sons George

and Jon and my daughter Valentina. You are a constant inspiration, and the

living proof that being vegans since birth is not hard, and it is a healthful and

moral way to live.

Introduction

Recent reports on world population health are both alarming and disheart-

ening. To put it candidly and succinctly, human beings are getting fatter and

sicker. Considering my beloved country, for example, The National Health

and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) reports that obesity rates

among US adults in 2015–2016 was a frightening 39.8%.

Since 1999, when

the ﬁgure was 30.5%, obesity rates have been progressively increasing—and

it does not look like they are going to get any lower any time soon. A

recent study estimates that there will be “65 million more obese adults in

the USA and 11 million more obese adults in the UK by 2030.”

Equally

alarming (though not surprising), according to the American Heart Associa-

tion’s Heart and Stroke Statistics nearly half of US adults suﬀer from some

form of cardiovascular disease.

An interesting fact is that while humans are

getting sicker and sicker, wild animals do not have any obesity or cardio-

vascular problems.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),

Americans are eating more calories than they did 40 years ago. This steady

increase in calories, CDC suggests, is due to an increased availability of food,

especially high-calorie foods. “The increase in calories is mainly due to an

increase in carbohydrate consumption.”

A worrisome fact is that most Amer-

icans do not eat enough fruit and vegetables;

and meat consumption is also

steadily increasing in the USA (also in other countries).

I don’t believe it is

diﬃcult to infer the conclusion to this argument, although many researchers

and the public constantly deny it. But if I have to state it clearly, human beings

eat the wrong food.

Due to many factors, from historical reasons to psycho-

logical ones, human beings have abandoned their natural way of living and

eating. The term ‘natural’is a dangerous and contentious word in philosophy. I

don’t want to be accused of the naturalistic fallacy here. I am not using the

term to make a deep philosophical point. I simply want to suggest that, after all,

living a simpler life, exercising more, and being in contact with nature is more

beneﬁcial to humans than the stress, processed food, and pollution of modern

life. Why believe that humans should have a natural diet? Simply put, all

animal species that exist and ever have existed on Earth have their respective

natural diet. They consume as much as they want and do not get sick. In fact,

only pets and liminal animals can suﬀer from obesity.

Again, the explanation is

that those animals consume food that is not optimal to them. It is true that

humans can survive on diﬀerent diets. However, I believe that there are com-

pelling reasons—beginning with the frightening reports just mentioned

above—to show that cooked diets in general, especially meat-based diets, are

not optimal human diets. What is the human diet? It is what humans are

naturally designed to eat, and that is, a raw vegan diet of fruit, tender leafy

greens, and occasionally nuts and seeds.

Consuming cooked food, especially animal-based, have rendered human

beings sick. I predict resistance here. Some may argue, “No, no, no, it is not

cooking food or eating animal products that make us sick and fat.”What is it

then? Why is the world population health declining? Surely, people are not

eating enough fruits and vegetables, they eat cooked diets, including junk food

(which is cooked food), and most people in the world eat meat and animal

products. What causes humans to get sicker and sicker, then? Is it the fruit and

vegetables? Obviously, it is not that. It is cooking food, because cooking food

increases its calories and the variety of food that can be eaten.

Moreover,

cooking enables humans to eat food that is not ﬁt to human consumption.

This, of course, has helped many humans survive through scarcity. But that is

what cooked food essentially is, starvation food. One group of foods in

particular that has taken a toll on human health is starches. As a group of

researchers notes,

Growing evidence shows that many of the chronic health conditions in

developed countries could be prevented or moderated by dietary changes.

The most common starchy foods in the United States diet, including white

bread, cakes, and noodles, consist of a large percentage of highly digestible

starch. There is concern that such rapidly digested starches may contribute

to chronic disease in people and animals.

Sure, the immediate objection is that it is the reﬁned grains that are unhealth-

ful, but whole grains are healthful. While it is generally true that some studies

purport to show that consuming whole grains can be beneﬁcial, the point is

that all grains, including whole grains, are deﬁcient in a number of important

nutrients. The nutrition proﬁle of whole grains (and cooked foods in general) is

no match for fresh, uncooked fruit and greens, which “have the highest nutri-

ent density score.”

Also, in order to be digested, whole grains must be

cooked, which further destroys any nutritional value. They are hard to digest

and can damage the intestinal tract. Most importantly, all types of grains are

virtually tasteless, and hence require the addition of sugar, salt, and fats.

Another immediate objection is that we do not need to resort to a raw diet

to ﬁght obesity and other chronic diseases. We can have a “balanced”diet or

eat cooked food in moderation (oh, if only I had a nickel for every time I

heard that!). But that begs the question. What is a balanced diet and what

does “moderation”mean? With their ring of truth, these clichés have

2Introduction

persuaded many people. Many things are harmful even in moderation.

Should we use drugs in moderation? And regarding a balanced diet, do ele-

phants, rabbits, or zebras eat a balanced diet and in moderation? It is evident

that when animals eat their proper diet, the questions of moderation balance

are moot. Such labels make nutrition more complicated than it actually is. I

ﬁnd the recommendation to eat in moderation quite suspicious. Why should

anyone eat food that must be consumed in moderation? Most animals eat in

abundance (when they can manage to ﬁnd food). That is because they eat

their speciﬁc food. If we are told that we have to consume certain foods in

moderation, it follows that those foods are not entirely beneﬁcial to our

health. Cooked food is high in calories and low in nutrients. It seems quite

obvious that processing food by cooking it cannot be as beneﬁcial as con-

suming fresh, whole fruit, and tender leafy greens.

Furthermore, human diets generate moral issue involving our treatment of

animals and nature. Anyone who is even remotely concerned about nature

knows that animal agriculture is a leading cause of tremendous environmental

degradation. Thus, many have suggested as a solution to global health and

environmental problems a move in the direction of ethical veganism. While I

agree that embracing ethical veganism is more ethical and more environmen-

tally friendly than using animals for food, still it is not the most ethical and the

most environmentally friendly approach. After all, cooking requires the use of

ovens, stovetops, microwave ovens, which use coal, wood, gas, and electricity.

Not to mention that production of food in factories also requires energy con-

sumption. Compare that with raw vegan diets, which require no cooking, little

to no dishwashing as well as the use of detergents. Furthermore, eating raw

diets generates mostly organic, biodegradable waste that can be used as natural

fertilizer. Thus, in this book I argue that the best solution to health, environ-

mental, and ethical problems concerning animals is raw veganism—the human

diet. I discuss the human diet from the point of view of nutrition science and

evolution. I argue that living well and living a noble life, that is, good physical

and moral health, require consuming a raw vegan diet.

In Chapter 1, I examine some moral approaches to ethical veganism. His-

torically, various forms of utilitarianism and deontological ethics have been used

to frame the discussion and to defend veganism and vegetarianism. What I

suggest in this chapter is that starting from a preferred moral theory (especially

a theory that oﬀers a certain procedure to determine what to do) and moving

to the conclusion of veganism or vegetarianism is not the best option. I suggest

that the most promising way to embrace veganism is to live a virtuous life. By

virtuous life I mean cultivating moderation, courage, integrity, a sense of aes-

thetic, and the avoidance of violence. Using animals for food is antithetical to

such virtues. An individual who possesses such virtues is one who lives simply

and refuses violence, un-aesthetic values, and self-deception.

Animal rights advocates argue that eating animals is wrong because animals

suﬀer. I agree that animals suﬀer and causing gratuitous suﬀering is wrong. But

what if we discovered that animals do not suﬀer at all? What if Descartes was

Introduction 3

right in saying that animals behave like, but are not, sentient creatures? This is

where my attitude toward nature diﬀers from the attitude of many animal

ethicists. I do believe that sentience is important, but it’s not the principal

factor. I would not eat or use animal products even if it were discovered that

animals do not feel pain. Rather, I would still avoid such products because the

actions and practices required to produce them are bloody, violent, unneces-

sary, intemperate, unaesthetic, and deleterious to our health. The foregoing are

the themes of Chapter 2.

Modern life has alienated us from nature. In Chapter 3, I discuss the project

of in vitro meat. In vitro meat, a.k.a. lab-grown meat, a.k.a. synthetic meat,

and many other monikers, is believed by some to be the solution to our

environmental problems. Here I discuss how the project of producing in vitro

meat in fact stems from lack of moderation, and clear understanding of the role

of food in human life. Furthermore, as I point out, even if in vitro meat

researchers could overcome several diﬃculties involved in the production of

synthetic meat, it would still be necessary to raise animals in order to produce

animal byproducts. Ultimately, I point out that the project of in vitro meat is

destined to be yet another option on the meat menu, and it will help more

company proﬁt than the environment.

Naturally, since the human diet is a diet devoid of animal products, another

main theme of this book is ethical veganism. There are several books that discuss

veganism as a dietary approach, and a handful others that discuss it as an ethical

practice or philosophy. In Chapter 4, I discuss the notion of veganism: What it is,

what it isn’t, and what it should be. I argue that veganism should be an expres-

sion of virtue. The acquisition of certain basic virtue, such as nonviolence,

moderation, and aesthetic sense lead to the embracement of the human diet, that

is, a raw vegan diet, which is optimal for all humans.

In Chapter 5, I discuss some compelling evidence, including nutritional and

evolutionary evidence, that a raw vegan diet is humans’ideal diet. Eating directly

the food that nature produces is the best possible diet for human beings. What I

mean by human diet is a diet that emphasizes fresh fruit, with the addition of

tender leafy greens, some nuts and seeds, and excludes of tea, coﬀee, alcohol, salt,

and sugar, and all cooked and processed food. Cooking food changes its mole-

cular structure—and not for the better. It destroys nutrients, creates acrylamides

and other carcinogenic substances, and denatures proteins, which can lead to

many problems. Just to mention one problem: Leukocytosis is an increase in the

body of white blood cells. This occurs as a reaction to inﬂammations or infec-

tions. In other words, when the body detects a threat, as a response it produces

more white blood cells. This obviously does not happen when we eat fruit and

salad. However, it does happen whenever we consume any type of cooked food.

There is a wealth of scientiﬁc research showing that cooked food—vegan or

not—shortens our lives.

Another interesting fact is to consider that humans have been around for

about 150–200,000 years (not to mention that human-like creatures have been

around for millions of years). During this time, no signiﬁcant change occurred

4Introduction

to our digestive system that equipped us for digesting cooked food. Thus,

considering that human beings are evolved creatures, adapted to their envir-

onment, it is obvious that there is a diet that is speciﬁc and optimal for our

species. Cooking food is a relatively new practice for humans. For the longest

time, humans have eaten fruit and tender leafy greens. This is a scientiﬁcally

documented fact—humans are frugivores. Consequently, cooking food is in no

way beneﬁcial to human health. The only beneﬁt is that it provides easy cal-

ories by heat-processing food that otherwise would be indigestible.

In Chapter 6, I propose a valiant solution to the environmental issues in the

way of moral education and environmental awareness and a qualiﬁed ban on

animal-based products. In Chapter 7, I discuss the social and health implications

of raising children on a raw vegan diet. Here I argue that veganism is not just

nutritionally adequate, but rather nutritionally optimal for children. I especially

discuss some of the health concerns regarding micronutrient deﬁciencies (B12,

D, and more). Also, I show that the social lives of vegan children are in no way

damaged by being vegans.

Notes

1National Obesity Rates & Trends, NHANES, 2019. www.stateofobesity.org/obe

sity-rates-trends-overview/

2Y.C. Wang, K. McPherson, T. Marsh, S.L. Gortmaker and M. Brown, “Health and

economic burden of the projected obesity trends in the USA and the UK.”Lancet,

378(9793), 2011. doi:815–82521872750

3American Heart Association, “Nearly half of all adult Americans have cardiovascular

disease.”ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/01/190131084238.htm

4Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), “Calorie consumption on the

rise in United States, particularly among women.”2014. www.cdc.gov/nchs/

pressroom/04news/calorie.htm

5J. Ducharme, “About 90% of Americans don’t eat enough fruits and vegetables.”

Time, 2017. https://time.com/5029164/fruit-vegetable-diet

6H. Ritchie, “Which countries eat the most meat?”BBC News, 2019. www.bbc.

com/news/health-47057341

7B. Swinburn, G. Sacks and E. Ravussin, “Increased food energy supply is more than

suﬃcient to explain the US epidemic of obesity.”The American Journal of Clinical

Nutrition, 90(6), 2009: 1453–1456 https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.28595

8A. J. German et al. “Dangerous trends in pet obesity.”The Veterinary Record, 182(1),

2018: 25. doi:10.1136/vr.k2

9H. A. Raynor and L. H. Epstein, (2001). “Dietary variety, energy regulation, and

obesity.”Psychological Bulletin, 127(3): 325–341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/

0033-2909.127.3.325

10 D. F. Birt, T., Boylston, S. Hendrich, J.-L. Jane, J. Hollis, L. Li. J. McClelland, S.

Moore G. J. Phillips, M. Rowling, K. Schalinske, M. P. Scott, and E. M. Whitley,

“Resistant starch: Promise for improving human health.”Advances in Nutrition, 4(6),

2013: 587–601, https://doi.org/10.3945/an.113.004325

11 N. Darmon, M. Darmon, M. Maillot and A. Drewnowski, “A nutrient density

standard for vegetables and fruits: Nutrients per calorie and nutrients per unit cost.”

J Am Diet Assoc, 105, 2005: 1881–1887.

Introduction 5

Notes

Introduction

1National Obesity Rates & Trends, NHANES, 2019. www.stateofobesity.org/obe

sity-rates-trends-overview/

2Y.C. Wang, K. McPherson, T. Marsh, S.L. Gortmaker and M. Brown, “Health and

economic burden of the projected obesity trends in the USA and the UK.”Lancet,

378(9793), 2011. doi:815–82521872750

3American Heart Association, “Nearly half of all adult Americans have cardiovascular

disease.”ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/01/190131084238.htm

4Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), “Calorie consumption on the

rise in United States, particularly among women.”2014. www.cdc.gov/nchs/

pressroom/04news/calorie.htm

5J. Ducharme, “About 90% of Americans don’t eat enough fruits and vegetables.”

Time, 2017. https://time.com/5029164/fruit-vegetable-diet

6H. Ritchie, “Which countries eat the most meat?”BBC News, 2019. www.bbc.

com/news/health-47057341

7B. Swinburn, G. Sacks and E. Ravussin, “Increased food energy supply is more than

suﬃcient to explain the US epidemic of obesity.”The American Journal of Clinical

Nutrition, 90(6), 2009: 1453–1456 https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.28595

8A. J. German et al. “Dangerous trends in pet obesity.”The Veterinary Record, 182(1),

2018: 25. doi:10.1136/vr.k2

9H. A. Raynor and L. H. Epstein, (2001). “Dietary variety, energy regulation, and obesity.”

Psychological Bulletin, 127(3): 325–341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.3.325

10 D. F. Birt, T., Boylston, S. Hendrich, J.-L. Jane, J. Hollis, L. Li. J. McClelland, S.

Moore G. J. Phillips, M. Rowling, K. Schalinske, M. P. Scott, and E. M. Whitley,

“Resistant starch: Promise for improving human health.”Advances in Nutrition, 4(6),

2013: 587–601, https://doi.org/10.3945/an.113.004325

11 N. Darmon, M. Darmon, M. Maillot and A. Drewnowski, “A nutrient density

standard for vegetables and fruits: Nutrients per calorie and nutrients per unit cost.”

J Am Diet Assoc, 105, 2005: 1881–1887.

Chapter 1

1Olivia Goldhill. “Scientists say your ‘mind’isn’t conﬁned to your brain, or even

your body.”Quartz, 2016. https://qz.com/1102616/an-oxford-philosophers-moral-

crisis-can-help-us-learn-to-question-our-instincts/

2See Peter Singer’sAnimal Liberation. HarperCollins, 1975.

3Regan, Tom. The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley, CA: University of California

Press, 1983.

4Rosamund Raha, “Animal liberation: An interview with Professor Peter Singer,”

The Vegan, Autumn 2006: 19.

5See Mary Temple Grandin, www.templegrandin.com

6Lawrence Finsen and Susan Finsen, The Animal Rights Movement in America: From

Compassion to Respect, New York: Twayne Publishers, 1994: 186.

7Personal e-mail to Peter Singer, March 29, 2016.

8In Peter Singer (ed.), In Defense of Animals, New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985: 13.

9Mary Anne Warren, “Diﬃculties with the strong animal rights position,”Between

the Species, 2(4), 1987: 434.

10 Ibid.: 436.

11 Carl Cohen, “The case for the use of animals in biomedical research.”The New

England Journal of Medicine, 315, 1986: 865.

12 See Michael Murray, Nature Red in Tooth and Claw: Theism and the Problem of Animal

Suﬀering, Oxford University Press, 2008.

13 Ibid.

14 Clare Palmer, Animal Ethics in Context, Columbia University Press, 2010: 14, 18.

15 Ibid.: 12.

16 Jan Deckers, Animal (De)liberation: Should the Consumption of Animal Products Be

Banned, London: Ubiquity Press, 2016: 70.

17 Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, Part II: 178.

18 Mark Rowlands, Can Animals Be Persons? Oxford University Press, 2019: 38.

19 Ibid.: 41.

20 Ibid.: 46.

21 Mouat, M. J. and Prince, R. “Cultured meat and cowless milk: On making markets

for animal-free food.”J. Cultural Econ., 11, 2018: 315–329. doi:10.1080/

17530350.2018.1452277

22 Singer, Utilitarianism and vegetarianism, Philosophy & Public Aﬀairs, 9(4), 1980: 325.

23 Ibid.: 326.

24 Ibid.: 326.

25 Dien Ho, “Making ethical progress without ethical theories.”AMA Journal of Ethics,

17(4), 2015: 290.

26 R. Lawlor, “Moral theories in teaching applied ethics.”Journal of Medical Ethics,33

(6), 2007: 370.

27 Russ Shafer-Landau, The Ethical Life: Fundamental Readings in Ethics and Contemporary

Moral Problems, 4th edn. Oxford University Press, 2018: 7.

28 Brad Hooker, Intuitions and moral theorizing. In Stratton-Lake, P. (ed.) Ethical

Intuitions and Moral Theorizing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002: 182.

29 For a discussion on the decline and revival of virtue ethics see Daniel C. Russell’s“Virtue

ethics in modern moral philosophy,”and Dorothea Frede’s“The historic decline of virtue

ethics”in The Cambridge Companion to Virtue Ethics, Cambridge University Press, 2013.

30 Aristotle, 2002: 1109a 21f.

31 Rosalind Hursthouse, On Virtue Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999: 28.

32 Aristotle, 2002: III. 6–v.

33 J. Kawall, “In defense of the primacy of the virtues.”Journal of Ethics and Social Phi-

losophy, 3(2), 2009: 4.

34 Julia Annas, “Virtue ethics and the charge of egoism.”In P. Bloomﬁeld (ed.) Mor-

ality and Self-Interest. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007: 205.

35 Aristotle, 2002: II. 5.

36 Aristotle, 2002: II. 6.

37 Aristotle, III. 1.

38 Q. Gong and L. Zhang, “Virtue ethics and modern society –A response to the thesis of

the modern predicament of virtue ethics.”Frontiers of Philosophy in China, 5(2), 2010: 255.

39 C. Swanton, “The deﬁnition of virtue ethics.”In Russell, Daniel C. (ed.) The

Cambridge Companion to Virtue Ethics. Cambridge University Press, 2013.

40 Rosalind Hursthouse, On Virtue Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991: 8.

41 A. Comte-Sponville, A Small Treatise on the Great Virtues: The Uses of Philosophy in

Everyday Life. Metropolitan Books, 2001.

42 Philippa Foot, Natural Goodness. Oxford University Press, 2001: 44.

43 Aristotle, VI. 1.

44 Aristotle, VI. 2.

45 Aristotle, VI. 5.

46 Aristotle, VI. 5.

47 Peter Geach, The Virtues. Cambridge University Press, 1977: 17.

48 Aristotle, VI.I.2.

49 L. Ross and R. E. Nisbett, The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psy-

chology. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991: 2.

50 G. Harman, “The nonexistence of character traits.”Proceedings of the Aristotelian

Society, 100, 2000: 223–226

51 See for example John M. Doris, Lack of Character: Personality and Moral Behavior.

Cambridge University Press, 2002.

52 Miguel Alzola, “The possibility of virtue.”Business Ethics Quarterly, 22(2), 2012: 387

53 Aristotle, 1105a-b.

54 E. L. Pincoﬀs, “Two cheers for Meno: The deﬁnition of the virtues.”In Shelp E. E. (ed.)

Virtue and Medicine. Philosophy and Medicine, vol. 17. Dordrecht: Springer, 1985: 114.

55 Alzola, 2012: 396.

56 Peter Singer, “Utilitarianism and vegetarianism.”Philosophy & Public Aﬀairs, 9(4),

1980: 325–337.

57 John McDowell, “Virtue and reason.”The Monist, 62, 1979: 331–350; John

McDowell, “Two sorts of naturalism.”In Altham, J. and Harrison, R. (eds), Virtues

and Reasons: Phillipa Foot and Moral Theory, 1995: 149–179. New York: Oxford

University Press.

58 McDowell, 1979: 336.

59 D. Koehn, “A role for virtue ethics in the analysis of business practice.”Business

Ethics Quarterly, 5, 1995: 534.

60 J. Dancy, Ethics without Principles. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004: 133.

61 R. Solomon, Ethics and Excellence: Cooperation and Integrity in Business. New York:

Oxford University Press, 1992: 114.

62 I. Kant, 1929. Critique of Pure Reason. New York: St. Martin’s Press; I. Kant, 1991.

Metaphysics of Morals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chapter 2

1The respective relevant works I refer to are the following: Tom Regan, The Case for

Animal Rights. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1983; Richard Ryder,

Speciesism: The Ethics of Vivisection. Scottish Society for the Prevention of Vivisection,

1974; Richard Ryder, Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes towards Speciesism.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989; Richard Ryder, Painism. A Modern

Morality. Open Gate Press, 2003; Richard Ryder, “Painism.”In M. Bekoﬀ(ed.),

Encyclopedia of Animal Rights and Animal Welfare (pp. 402–403). Santa Barbara, Cal.

[etc.]: Greenwood Press, 2010; Peter Singer, Animal Liberation: A New Ethics for our

Treatment of Animals, New York Avon Books, 1975; James Rachels, Created from

Animals: The Moral Implications of Darwinism. Oxford University Press, 1990.

2Gary Francione, Rain without Thunder: Ideology of the Animal Rights Movement. Phi-

ladelphia: Temple University Press, 1996: 224.

3Mary Midgley, “Biotechnology and monstrosity: Why we should pay attention to

the ‘yuk factor’,”Hastings Center Report 30(5), 2000: 7.

4Midgley, 2000: 8.

5J. R. Kunst and S. M. Hohle, “Meat eaters by dissociation: How we present, pre-

pare and talk about meat increases willingness to eat meat by reducing empathy and

disgust.”Appetite, 105, (2016): 758–774.

6G. Kuehn, “Dining on Fido: Death identity, and the aesthetic dilemma of eating

animals.”In E. McKenna and A. Light (eds), Animal Pragmatism: Rethinking Human-

Nonhuman Relationships, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004: 228–247.

7A. G. Holdier, “The pig’s squeak: Towards a renewed aesthetic argument for

veganism.”Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 29(4), 2016: 631–642.

8Ibid., 631.

9Ibid., 633.

10 H. A Chapman and A. K. Anderson, “Trait physical disgust is related to moral

judgments outside of the purity domain.”Emotion, 14(2), 2014: 341–348.

11 Brian Luke, “Justice, caring and animal liberation.”Between the Species, 8(2), 1992.

12 Josephine Donovan, “Feminism and the treatment of animals: From care to dialo-

gue.”Signs 31(2), 2006: 323.

13 J. Carol Adams, The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory.

Bloomsbury Academic, 2015: 47.

14 Bibi Van Der Zee, “What is the true cost of eating meat?”www.theguardian.com/

news/2018/may/07/true-cost-of-eating-meat-environment-health-animal-welfare

15 See Melanie Joy, Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows: An Introduction to

Carnism. Conari Press, 2011; and Melanie Joy, “Dis-ease of the heart: The psy-

chology of eating animals.”Forks Over Knives, May 23, 2012. www.forksoverknives.

com/dis-ease-of-the-heart-the-psychology-of-eating-animals/#gs.=G3q7lw

16 D. Pimentel and M. Pimentel, “Sustainability of meat-based and plant-based diets

and the environment.”The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78(3), 2003: 660S–

663S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/78.3.660S

17 For an in-depth discussion of why animal-based food is not necessary to good

health, see Stephen Patrick Kieran Walsh, “Why foods derived from animals are not

necessary for human health.”In Linzey, C. (ed.) Ethical Vegetarianism and Veganism.

Oxon: Routledge, 2018: 19–33. doi:10.4324/9780429490743–2

18 Felicity Carus, “UN urges global move to meat and dairy-free diet.”The Guardian,

2010. www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/jun/02/un-report-meat-free-diet

19 B. Walsh, “The triple whopper environmental impact of global meat production.”

Time, 2013. http://science.time.com/2013/12/16/the-triple-whopper-environm

ental-impact-of-global-meat-production/

20 Women Champion Peace and Justice through Nonviolence. (n.d.). www.library.

georgetown.edu/exhibition/women-champion-peace-justice-through-nonviolence

21 Timothy Pachirat, Every Twelve Seconds: Industrialized Slaughter and the Politics of Sight.

Yale University Press, 2011.

22 Jan Deckers, Animal (De)liberation: Should the Consumption of Animal Products Be

Banned. London: Ubiquity Press, 2016.

23 Aquinas, 2016, I-II 99: 1.

24 Immanuel Kant, Lecture on Ethics, 1963: 24.

25 Watts, S. (2018). “First they tortured animals, then they turned to humans.”A&E.

www.aetv.com/real-crime/ﬁrst-they-tortured-animals-then-they-turned-to-humans

26 E. Anderson and L. Barrett, “Aﬀective beliefs inﬂuence the experience of eating

meat.”PLoS ONE, 11(8), 2016: e0160424. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0160424

27 Anderson and Barrett, 2016: 16.

28 Allen W. Wood, Kantian Ethics. Cambridge University Press, 2008: 1.

Chapter 3

1Many terms are used to denote synthesized meat: lab-grown, test-tube meat, clean

meat, synthetic meat, in vitro meat, and more.

2Gretchen Vogel, “Organs made to order.”Smithsonian Magazine, 2010. www.smith

sonianmag.com/science-nature/organs-made-to-order-863675/

3Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, “Health & environmental

implications of U.S. meat consumption & production.”www.jhsph.edu/resea

rch/centers-and-institutes/johns-hopkins-center-for-a-livable-future/projects/mea

tless_monday/resources/meat_consumption.html

4“The Einstein God,”Reddit. www.reddit.com/user/the_einsteinian_god

5Ibid.

6Arielle Duhaime-Ross, “Test-tube burger: Lab-cultured meat passes taste test (sort of).”

www.scientiﬁcamerican.com/article/test-tube-burger-lab-culture/ Also “World’sﬁrst

lab-grown burger is eaten in London.”www.bbc.com/news/science-environm

ent-23576143

7“Livestock and Climate Change.”Worldwatch Institute, www.worldwatch.org/

node/6294

8The following is a list of sources: Mario Herrero et al., “Biomass use, production,

feed eﬃciencies, and greenhouse gas emissions from global livestock systems.”Pro-

ceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(52), 2013: 20888–20893.

doi:10.1073/pnas.1308149110 ; Richard Oppenlander, “Freshwater abuse and loss:

Where is it all going?”2013. www.forksoverknives.com/freshwater-abuse-a

nd-loss-where-is-it-all-going/#gs.xz97at; Mesﬁn M. Mekonnen and Arjen Y.

Hoekstra, “A Global Assessment of the Water Footprint of Farm Animal Products.”

Ecosystems, 15(3), 2012: 401–415. doi:10.1007/s10021-011-9517-8; P. W. Gerbens-

Leenes, M. M. Mekonnen, and A. Y. Hoekstra, “The water footprint of poultry,

pork and beef: A comparative study in diﬀerent countries and production systems,”

Water Resources and Industry, Water Footprint Assessment (WFA) for Better Water Gov-

ernance and Sustainable Development,1–2, 2013: 25–36. doi:10.1016/j.

wri.2013.03.001 ; Pete Smith, Mercedes Bustamante et al., “Agriculture, Forestry

and Other Land Use (AFOLU).”www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_

wg3_ar5_chapter11.pdf ; Philip Thornton, Mario Herrero, and Polly Ericksen,

“Livestock and Climate Change.”International Livestock Research Institute, 2011. http

s://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/10601/IssueBrief3.pdf; Richard

Oppenlander, Food Choice and Sustainability: Why Buying Local, Eating Less Meat, and

Taking Baby Steps Won’t Work Minneapolis, MN: Langdon Street Press, 2013;

Sérgio Margulis, “Causes of deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon.”World Bank

Working Paper, no. 22. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2004;

Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium. “What causes ocean ‘dead zones’?”Sci-

entiﬁc American, 2016; Environmental Protection Agency. “What’s the problem?

Animal Waste Region 9 US EPA.”https://www3.epa.gov/region9/water/; Hen-

ning Steinfeld et al., “Livestock’s Long Shadow.”World Wildlife Fund. www.

europarl.europa.eu/climatechange/doc/FAO%20report%20executive%20summary.

pdf; Center for Biological Diversity. “How Eating Meat Hurts Wildlife and the Planet.”

Take Extinction oﬀYour Plate (n.d.).

9Hanna L. Tuomisto, and M. Joost Teixeira de Mattos, “Environmental impacts of

cultured meat production,”Environmental Science & Technology 45(14) (July 15,

2011): 6117–23, doi:10.1021/es200130u.

10 Henceforth, I will use the terms lab-grown meat or cultured meat or other such

equivalent terms interchangeably.

11 Alok Jha, “Synthetic meat: How the world’s costliest burger made it on to the

plate,”The Guardian, August 5, 2013; Nick Collins, “Test tube hamburgers to be

served this year.”The Telegraph, February 19, 2012; Carolyn S. Mattick et al.,

“Anticipatory life cycle analysis of in vitro biomass cultivation for cultured meat

production in the United States.”Environmental Science & Technology, 49(9), 2015:

11941–11949; Carolyn Mattick et al., “The problem with making meat in a

factory,”Slate, 2015. https://slate.com/technology/2015/09/in-vitro-meat- proba

bly-wont-save-the-planet-yet.html

12 Ibid.

13 Collins, 2012.

14 “Why cultured meat.”http://whyculturedmeat.org/essays/animal-rights/is-it-anima

l-rights/; Notaro, K. “The crusade for a cultured alternative to animal meat: An

interview with Nicholas Genovese, PhD PETA.”2011. https://ieet.org/index.php/

IEET2/more/notaro20111005; “New Harvest –FAQ.”New Harvest. http://why

culturedmeat.org/faq/

15 Carlo E. A. Jochems et al., “The use of fetal bovine serum: Ethical or scientiﬁc

problem?”Atla-Nottingham, 30(2), 2002: 219–228.

16 Ibid.

17 Betti M. I. Datar, “Possibilities for an in Vitro Meat Production System.”Innovative

Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 1, 2010: 13–22, doi:10.1016/j.ifset.2009.10.007

18 Charlotte Hawks, “How close are we to a hamburger grown in a lab?”CNN.

www.cnn.com/2018/03/01/health/clean-in-vitro-meat-food/index.html

19 M. Specter, “Test-tube burgers.”The New Yorker. www.newyorker.com/magazine/

2011/05/23/test-tube-burgers

20 D. M. Fessler et al., “Disgust sensitivity and meat consumption: A test of an emo-

tivist account of moral vegetarianism.”Appetite, 41, 2003: 31–41 ; Diana Fleisch-

man, “Lab Meat: Survey Results.”The Vegan Option Radio Show and Blog, May 16,

2012. https://theveganoption.org/2012/05/16/lab-meat-survey-results/; Wim

Verbeke et al., “Would You Eat Cultured Meat? Consumers Reactions and Atti-

tude Formation in Belgium, Portugal and the United Kingdom.”Meat Sci., 102,

2015: 49–58. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.11.013.

21 Carolyn Mattick, and Brad Allenby, “The future of meat: Issues in science and

technology.”Issues in Science and Technology, 30(1), 2013.

22 Jasmijn de Boo, “The future of food, why lab grown meat is not the solution.”

Huﬀpost, September 10, 2013. www.huﬃngtonpost.co.uk/jasmijn-de-boo/la

b-grown-meat_b_3730367.html

23 See many arguments oﬀered in favor of cultured meat by Why Cultured Meat,

http://whyculturedmeat.org/essays/animal-rights/is-it-animal-rights/

24 University of Southern California. “Meat and cheese may be as bad for you as

smoking.”ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/03/140304125639.htm

25 Z. Bhat, S. Kumar and H. Fayaz, “In vitro meat production: Challenges and bene-

ﬁts over conventional meat production.”Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 14, 2014:

241. doi:10.1016/s2095-3119(14)60887-x

26 https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/chapter-2/current-eating-pa

tterns-in-the-united-states/

27 Ibid.

28 Ibid.

29 www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/vegetables-and-fruits/

30 D. C. Gajdusek and V. Zigas, “Degenerative disease of the central nervous system in

New Guinea. The endemic occurrence of “kuru”in the native population.”New

England Journal of Medicine, 257, 1957: 974–978.

31 G. O. Schaefer and J. Savulescu, (2014). “The ethics of producing in vitro meat.”

Journal of Applied Philosophy, 31(2), 2014: 188–202. doi:10.1111/japp.12056

32 Martha Nussbaum, “Danger to human dignity: The revival of disgust and shame in

the law.”The Chronicle of Higher Education, 50(B6), 2004.

33 Kass, Leo. “The wisdom of repugnance.”The New Republic, 216(22), 1997, p. 20.

34 Carlo Alvaro, “Ethical veganism, virtue, and greatness of the soul.”J. Agric. Environ.

Ethics, 30, 2017: 765. doi:10.1007/s10806-017-9698-z; Carlo Alvaro, “Veganism as

a Virtue: How compassion and fairness show us what is virtuous about veganism.”

Future of Food: Journal of Food, Agriculture and Society, 5(2), 2017.

35 https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=4704447&page=1.

36 J. F. Hocquette, “Is in vitro meat the solution for the future?”Meat Science, 120,

2016: 8.

37 Ibid.: 9.

Chapter 4

1Marryn Somerset Webb, “The veganism boom does more for food company proﬁts

than the planet.”Financial Times, February 22, 2019. www.ft.com/content/79c2aa

16-35f1-11e9-bb0c-42459962a812

2The Vegan Society. “Deﬁnition of veganism.”www.vegansociety.com/go-vegan/

deﬁnition-veganism.

3PETA. “Is it OK to eat eggs from chickens I’ve raised in my backyard?”www.peta.

org/about-peta/faq/is-it-ok-to-eat-eggs-from-chickens-ive-raised-in-my-backyard/

4V. Bouvard, D. Loomis, K. Z. Guyton et al., “Carcinogenicity of consumption of

red and processed meat.”The Lancet Oncology, 16, 2015: 1599. doi:10.1016/s1470-

2045(15)00444–00441

5T. Saukkonen, S. Virtanen, M. Karppinen et al., “Signiﬁcance of cow’s milk protein

antibodies as risk factor for childhood IDDM: Interactions with dietary cow’s milk

intake and HLA-DQB1 genotype.”Diabetologia, 41, 1998: 72. doi:10.1007/

s001250050869

6“What are proteins and what do they do?”U.S. National Library of Medicine,

2019. https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/howgeneswork/protein

7National Research Council (US). Subcommittee on the Tenth Edition of the Recom-

mended Dietary Allowances. Recommended Dietary Allowances, 10th edn. Washington,

DC: National Academies Press, 1989. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234922/

8“Amino acids.”U.S. National Library of Medicine. MedlinePlus (n.d.). https://m

edlineplus.gov/ency/article/002222.htm

9H. Ito, H. Ueno and H. Kikuzaki, “Free amino acid compositions for fruits.”J.

Nutr. Diet. Pract., 1, 2017: 1–5.

10 R. H. Liu, “Health beneﬁts of fruit and vegetables are from additive and synergistic

combinations of phytochemicals.”Am J Clin Nutr, 78, 2003: 517S-520S.

11 W. J. Craig, and A. R. Mangels, “Position of the American Dietetic Association:

Vegetarian diets.”American Dietetic Association, 109(7), 2009: 1266–1282.

12 M. J. Albert, V.I. Mathan and S. J. Baker, “Vitamin B12 synthesis by human small

intestinal bacteria.”Nature 283, 1980: 781–782.

13 “Omega-3 fatty acids: Does your diet deliver? Most Americans don’tgetthe

recommended amount of these potentially heart-protecting fats.”Harvard

Medical School, 2016. www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/omega-3-fatty-a

cids-does-your-diet-deliver

14 “Vitamin D.”National Institutes of Health, 2019. https://ods.od.nih.gov/fa

ctsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/

Chapter 5

1E. Meyer-Renschhausen and A. Wirz, “Dietetics, health reform and social order: vege-

tarianism as a moral physiology. The example of Maximilian Bircher-Benner (1867–

1939).”Medical History, 43(3), 1999: 323–341. doi:10.1017/s0025727300065388

2K. M. Cummings and R. N. Proctor, “The changing public image of smoking in

the united states: 1964–2014.”Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Pub-

lication of the American Association for Cancer Research, 23(1), 2014: 32–36.

doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-13-0798; J. Blocker et al. Alcohol and Temperance in

Modern History, Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2003: xxxi-xiv.

3M. Fitzgerald, Diet Cults: The Surprising Fallacy at the Core of Nutrition Fads and Guide

to Healthy Eating for the Rest of US. Pegasus Books, 2014: 31–33.

4Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, “Introduction to Human Evolu-

tion.”2019. http://humanorigins.si.edu/education/introduction-human-evolution

5G. Lawton, “Every human culture includes cooking –this is how it began.”New Sci-

entist, 2016. www.newscientist.com/article/mg23230980-600-what-was-the-ﬁrst-coo

ked-meal/, para. 6.

6K. Fonseca-Azevedo and S. Herculano-Houzel, “Metabolic constraint imposes tra-

deoﬀbetween body size and number of brain neurons in human evolution.”Pro-

ceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(45), 2012: 18571–18576.

doi:10.1073/pnas.1206390109

7Leslie C. Aiello and Peter Wheeler. “The expensive-tissue hypothesis: The brain

and the digestive system in human and primate evolution.”Current Anthropology,36

(2), 1995: 199.

8Cornélio, A. M., de Bittencourt-Navarrete, R. E., de Bittencourt Brum, R.,

Queiroz, C. M. and Costa, M. R. “Human brain expansion during evolution is

independent of ﬁre control and cooking.”Frontiers in Neuroscience, 10, 2016: 167.

doi:10.3389/fnins.2016.00167: 1.

9Cornélio et al., 2016.

10 R. N. Carmody, G. S. Weintraub and R. W. Wrangham, “From the cover: Ener-

getic consequences of thermal and nonthermal food processing.”Proc. Natl. Acad.

Sci. U.S.A., 108, 2011: 19199–19203. doi:10.1073/pnas.1112128108

11 R. N. Carmody and R. W. Wrangham, “The energetic signiﬁcance of cooking.”J.

Hum. Evol., 57, 2009: 379–391. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.02.011

12 O. Fedrigo, A. D. Pfeﬀerle, C. C. Babbitt, R. Haygood, C. E. Wall and G. A.

Wray, “A potential role for glucose transporters in the evolution of human brain

size.”Brain Behav. Evol. 78, 2011: 315–326. doi:10.1159/000329852

13 Cornélio et al., 2016: 9.

14 Cornélio et al., 2016: 7.

15 Cornélio et al., 2016: 8.

16 Katherine D. Zink and Daniel E. Lieberman, “Impact of meat and Lower Palaeo-

lithic food processing techniques on chewing in humans.”Nature 531(24) March: 3.

17 Aiello and Wheeler, 1995: 199.

18 A. R. DeCasien, S. A. Williams and J. P. Higham, “Primate brain size is predicted

by diet but not sociality.”Nat Ecol Evol, 1, 2017: 0112.

19 DeCasien et al., 2017: 1.

20 Rami Najjar, Carolyn E. Moore and Baxter D. Montgomery, “Adeﬁned, plant-

based diet utilized in an outpatient cardiovascular clinic eﬀectively treats hypercho-

lesterolemia and hypertension and reduces medications.”Clin. Cardiol., 41, 2018:

313.

21 F. J. He, C. A. Nowson, M. Lucas and G. A. MacGregor, “Increased consumption

of fruit and vegetables is related to a reduced risk of coronary heart disease: meta-

analysis of cohort studies.”J. Hum. Hypertens, 21, 2007: 717–728.

22 He et al., 2007: 728.

23 “Tasty foods you can feed squirrels and what to avoid.”Feeding Nature, 2014. https://

feedingnature.com/tasty-foods-you-can-feed-squirrels-and-what-to-avoid/

24 Alexander Q. Vining and Charles L. Nunn. “Evolutionary change in physiological

phenotypes along the human lineage.”Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health, 2016

(1), 2016: 312–324. doi:10.1093/emph/eow026

25 Frank Rühli, Katherine van Schaik and Maciej Henneberg, “Evolutionary medi-

cine: The ongoing evolution of human physiology and metabolism.”Physiology,31

(6), 2016: 392.

26 Stephen Jay Gould, “The spices of life: An interview with Stephen Jay Gould.”

Leader to Leader, 15, The Unoﬃcial Stephen Jay Gould Archive, 2000: 14–19.

www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_spice-of-life.pdf, 19.

27 My using the term “designed”is not meant in a religious or mystical sense, nor do I

exclude those meanings. Rather, I merely acknowledge that humans and their

digestive system are the products of evolution.

28 Katherine Milton, “Nutritional characteristics of wild primate foods: Do the nat-

ural diets of our closest living relatives have lessons for us?”Nutrition, 15(6), 1999:

488–498.

29 Katherine Milton, “Back to basics: Why foods of wild primates have relevance for

modern human health.”Nutrition, 16, 2000a: 481–483; Katherine Milton, “Hunter-

gatherer diets: A diﬀerent perspective.”American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 71,

2000b: 665–667.

30 Milton, 1999: 488.

31 Hans Georg Dehmelt, “What is the optimal anthropoid primate diet?”2001. doi:

arXiv:physics/0112009; Hans Georg Dehmelt, “Healthiest diet hypothesis.”Medical

Hypotheses, 64(4), 2005.

32 Nelson G. Chen et al. “Transient model of thermal deactivation of enzymes.”Biochi-

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38 I. Rehman and S. Botelho, Biochemistry, secondary protein structure. In StatPearls.

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39 B. Alberts, A. Johnson, J. Lewis et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th edition. New

York: Garland Science; 2002. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/

NBK21054/

40 Nahid Tamanna and Niaz Mahmood, “Food processing and Maillard Reaction

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41 Samantha A. Vieira et al. “Challenges of utilizing healthy fats in foods.”Advances in

Nutrition, 6(3) 2015: 309S-17S. doi:10.3945/an.114.006965

42 Marta Cuenca-Sánchez et al. “Controversies surrounding high-protein diet intake:

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43 L. Fontana, J. L. Shew, J. O. Holloszy and D. T. Villareal, “Low bone mass in sub-

jects on a long-term raw vegetarian diet.”Arch Intern Med., 165(6), 2005: 684–689.

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44 J. Chan, K. Jaceldo-Siegl and E. G. Fraser, “Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status of

vegetarians, partial vegetarians, and nonvegetarians: The Adventist Health Study-2.”

The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 2009: 1686S–1692S. doi:10.3945/

ajcn.2009.26736X

45 C.Koebnick,C.Strassner,I,Hoﬀmann, and C. Leitzmann, “Consequences of a long-

term raw food diet on body weight and menstruation: Results of a questionnaire

survey.”Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 43, 1999: 69–79. https://doi.org/10.1159/

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46 Paul Kouchakoﬀ,“The inﬂuence of food on the blood formula of man.”1st

International Congress of Microbiology II. Paris: Masson & Cie, 1930: 490–493.

47 L. B. Link and J. D. Potter, “Raw versus cooked vegetables and cancer risk.”Cancer

Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., 13, 2004: 1422–1435.

48 “Top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018.”The British Dietetic Association (BDA),

2017. www.bda.uk.com/news/view?id=195

49 W. Schlörmann, M. Birringer, V. Bohm, K. Lober, G. Jahreis, S. Lorkowski, A. K.

Muller, F. Schone and M. Glei, “Inﬂuence of roasting conditions on health-related

compounds in diﬀerent nuts.”Food Chem., 180, 2015: 77–85.

50 Cuenca-Sánchez, 2015; Ioannis Delimaris, “Adverse Eﬀects Associated with Protein

Intake above the Recommended Dietary Allowance for Adults.”ISRN Nutrition,

2013(126929), 2013. doi:10.5402/2013/126929

51 Dhandevi Pem and Jeewon Rajesh, “Fruit and vegetable intake: Beneﬁts and pro-

gress of nutrition education interventions-narrative review article.”Iranian Journal of

Public Health, 44(10), 2015: 1309–1321.

52 Robert Ladouceur, Paige Shaﬀer, Alex Blaszczynski and Howard J. Shaﬀer,

“Responsible gambling: a synthesis of the empirical evidence.”Addiction Research &

Theory, 25(3), 2017: 225–235.

53 Alexandra Deabler, “Arby’s creates ‘megetables’in response to fake meat trend:

‘Why not meat-based plants?”Fox News, June 26, 2019. www.foxnews.com/food-

drink/arbys-megetables-response-fake-meat-trend

Chapter 6

1Hannah Delvin, “Rising global meat consumption ‘will devastate environment’.”

The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jul/19/rising-global-meat

-consumption-will-devastate-environment

2Oxfam. “Extreme Carbon Inequality.”https://www-cdn.oxfam.org/s3fs-public/

ﬁle_attachments/mb-extreme-carbon-inequality-021215-en.pdf

3World Health Organization. “Availability and changes in consumption of animal

products.”2015. www.who.int/nutrition/topics/3_foodconsumption/en/index4.

html

4Jan Deckers, Animal (De)liberation: Should the Consumption of Animal Products Be

Banned. London: Ubiquity Press, 2016.

5R. Goodland, “Environmental sustainability in agriculture: Diet matters.”Ecological

Economics, 23,1997: 189–200. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(97)

00579-X

6Brad Plumer. “Study: Going vegetarian can cut your food carbon footprint in half.”

Vox, 2016. www.vox.com/2014/7/2/5865109/study-going-vegetarian-could-cut-

your-food-carbon-footprint-in-half

7Jan Deckers, 2016: 17–21.

8T. F. Landers, B. Cohen, T. E. Wittum and E. L. Larson, “A review of antibiotic

use in food animals: Perspective, policy, and potential.”Public Health Rep., 127(1),

2012: 4–22. doi:10.1177/003335491212700103.

9Global Environmental Change and Human Health. Science Plan and Implementation

Strategy. 2019.

10 H. Steinfeld, P. Gerber, T. Wassenaar, V. Castel, M. Rosales and C. de Haan,

“Livestock’s long shadow: Environmental issues and options.”Rome: FAO, 2006.

www.faostat.fao.org (accessed January 19, 2017).

11 R. Goodland and J. Anhang, “Comment to the editor.”In Herrero et al. “Live-

stock and greenhouse gas emissions. The importance of getting the numbers right.”

Animal Feed Science and Technology, 172, 2012: 252–256. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.

1016/j.anifeedsci.2011.12.028

12 Michael Lebwohl, “Call to action: Psychological harm in slaughterhouse workers.”

The Yale Global Health Review, 2016. https://yaleglobalhealthreview.com/2016/01/

25/a-call-to-action-psychological-harm-in-slaughterhouse-workers/

13 E. Gorodetsky and M. Roberts, My Tongue is Meat, episode from Two and a Half

Men. Los Angeles: CBS, 2006.

14 Josephine Donovan, “Feminism and the treatment of animals: From care to dialo-

gue.”Signs, 31(2), 2006: 306

15 Lori Gruen, “Empathy and Vegetatian Commitments.”In The Feminist Tradition in

Animal Ethics, Columbia University Press, 2007: 333–344.

16 I. Gordon, Reproductive Technologies in Farm Animals. CABI, 2004.

17 Donovan, 2006: 308.

18 Karen Warren, “The promise and power of ecofeminism.”Environmental Ethics,12

(2), 1990: 126.

19 Andree Collard and Joyce Contrucci, Rape of the Wild: Man’s Violence Against Ani-

mals and the Earth. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989.

20 Ted Nugent, Twitter Post, January 12, 2014. https://twitter.com/tednugent/status/

422456432 856809472

21 Carol J. Adams, The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory.

Bloomsbury Academic, 2015: 47.

22 The following three objections are also addressed by Deckers, 2016: 118–128. I add

further comments to them.

23 John Parker, “The year of the vegan: Where millennials lead, businesses and gov-

ernments will follow.”The Economist, 2019 (accessed September 3, 2019).

24 E. Anderson and L. Barrett “Aﬀective beliefs inﬂuence the experience of eating meat.”

PLoS ONE, 11(8), 2016: e0160424. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0160424 www.unep.

fr/shared/publications/pdf/dtix1262xpa-priorityproductsandmaterials_report.pdf

25 Errico Malatesta, “Towards anarchism.”Marxists Internet Archive. www.marxists.

org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm

26 B. Franks, Anarchism and the virtues. In Franks B. and Wilson M. (eds) Anarchism

and Moral Philosophy. Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2010.

27 Élisée Reclus, “On Vegetarianism.”TheAnarchistLibrary.org, 2009. https://theana

rchistlibrary.org/library/elisee-reclus-on-vegetarianism

28 Brian A. Dominick, Animal Liberation and Social Revolution: A Vegan Perspective on

Anarchism or an Anarchist Perspective on Veganism. Syracuse: Critical Mass Media,

1995: 5.

29 Dominick, 1995: 10.

30 Dominick, 1995: 8.

Chapter 7

1Marcus William Hunt, “Veganism and children: Physical and social well-being.”

Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 32, 269, 2019. https://doi.org/10.

1007/s10806-019-09773-4. 269.

2Hunt, 2019: 269.

3W. J. Craig and A. R. Mangels, “Position of the American Dietetic Association:

Vegetarian diets.”American Dietetic Association, 109(7), 2009: 1266–1282; Vesanto

Melina, Winston Craig, Susan Levin et al. “Position of the academy of nutrition and

dietetics: vegetarian diets.”Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 116(12),

2016: 1970–1980.

4Sílvia Castañé and Antón Assumpció, “Assessment of the nutritional quality and

environmental impact of two food diets: A Mediterranean and a vegan diet.”Journal

of Cleaner Production, 167(1), 2017: 929–937. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.04.121

5Oﬃce of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP). Dietary Guidelines

2015–2020, n.d. https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/chapter-2/

current-eating-patterns-in-the-united-states/: para. 1.

6ODPHP, n.d.: para. 1.

7Hunt, 2019: 271.

8Ibid.

9J. McBride, (2000). “B12 deﬁciency may be more widespread than thought.”

United States Department of Agriculture Agric. Res. Service, 2000. www.ars.usda.

gov/news-events/news/research-news/2000/b12-deﬁciency-may-be-more-widesp

read-than-thought/

10 J. Higdon, Linus Pauling Institute, Micronutrient Information Center. (2000). http

s://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins/vitamin-A

11 Jennifer Rooke, “Do carnivores need Vitamin B12 supplements?”Baltimore

Post-Examiner, 2013. https://baltimorepostexaminer.com/carnivores-need-vitam

in-b12-supplements/2013/10/30

12 Rooke, 2013, para. 4.

13 A. Jabbar, A. Yawar, S. Waseem, S. et al. “Vitamin B12 deﬁciency common in

primary hypothyroidism.”[Published correction appears in J. Pak. Med. Assoc., 59

(2), 2009: 126]. J. Pak. Med. Assoc., 58(5), 2008: 258–261.

14 M. P. Vanderpump and W. M. Turnbridge, “Epidemiology and prevention of

clinical and subclinical hypothyroidism.”Thyroid, 12, 2002: 839–847.

15 A. Ulvik, S. E. Vollset, G. Hoﬀand P. M. Ueland, “Coﬀee consumption and cir-

culating b-vitamins in healthy middle-aged men and women.”Clin. Chem., 54,

2008: 1489–1496.

16 M. Wacker and F. M. Holick, “Sunlight and Vitamin D.”Dermato-Endocrinology,5

(1), 2013: 51–108. doi:10.4161/derm.24494

17 J. Chan, K. Jaceldo-Siegl and E. G. Fraser, “Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status of

vegetarians, partial vegetarians, and nonvegetarians: The Adventist Health Study-2.”

The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 2009: 1686S–1692S. doi:10.3945/

ajcn.2009.26736X

18 National Institute of Health. “Iodine.”2016. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iodi

ne-Consumer/#h5

19 Hunt, 2019: 271.

20 Mayo Clinic. Patient Care and Health Info. Nutrition and Healthy Eating, 2018.

www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/

vegetarian-diet/art-20046446

21 R. Lourenco and M. E. Camilo, “Taurine: a conditionally essential amino acid in

humans? An overview in health and disease.”Nutricion hospitalaria, 17(6), 2002: 262–270.;

Greenhaﬀ,L.P.“The nutritional biochemistry of creatine.”The Journal of Nutritional

Biochemistry, 8(11), 1997. doi:10.1016/S0955-2863(97)00116–00112

22 Julieanna Hever and Raymond J. Cronise. “Plant-based nutrition for healthcare pro-

fessionals: implementing diet as a primary modality in the prevention and treatment of

chronic disease.”Journal of Geriatric Cardiology: JGC vol. 14,5 (2017): 355–368.

doi:10.11909/j.issn.1671–5411.2017.05.012.

23 Roman Leischik and Norman Spelsberg, “Vegan Triple-Ironman (raw vegetables/

fruits).”Case Reports in Cardiology, 2014, 2014: 317246. doi:10.1155/2014/317246

24 Luciana Baroni et al. “Vegan nutrition for mothers and children: Practical tools for

healthcare providers.”Nutrients, 11(1), 2018: 5. doi:10.3390/nu11010005

25 Cancer Council NSW (n.d.). Meat and Cancer. www.cancercouncil.com.au/21639/

cancer-prevention/diet-exercise/nutrition-diet/fruit-vegetables/meat-and-cancer/

26 S. M. Favid, “Red meat consumption and breast cancer risk.”Harvard School of

Public Health, 2014. www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/features/red-meat-consumption-a

nd-breast-cancer-risk/

27 Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine (n.d.). “Health concerns about

dairy: Avoid the dangers of dairy with a plant-based diet.”www.pcrm.org/good-

nutrition/nutrition-information/health-concerns-about-dairy

28 C. Stripp, K. Overvad, J. Christensen, B. L. Thomsen, A. Olsen, S. Møller et al.

“Fish intake is positively associated with breast cancer incidence rate.”The Journal of

Nutrition, 133(11), 2003: 3664–3669. doi:10.1093/jn/133.11.3664

29 G. Turner-McGrievy, T. Mandes and A. Crimarco, “A plant-based diet for over-

weight and obesity prevention and treatment.”Journal of Geriatric Cardiology, 14(5),

2017: 369–374. doi:10.11909/j.issn.1671-5411.2017.05.002: 369.

30 C. Daniel, A. Cross, C. Koebnick and R. Sinha, “Trends in meat consumption in

the USA.”Public Health Nutrition, 14(4), 2011: 575–583. doi:10.1017/S1368980010

002077: 1.

31 M. J. Orlich, P. N. Singh, J. Sabaté, K. Jaceldo-Siegl, J. Fan, S. Knutsen and G. E.

Fraser, “Vegetarian dietary patterns and mortality in Adventist Health Study 2.”JAMA

Internal Medicine, 173(13), 2013: 1230–1238. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.6473

32 V.W. Zhong, L. Van Horn, M. C. Cornelis, J. T. Wilkins, H. Ning, M. R. Carnethon,

P. Greenland, R. J. Mentz, K. L. Tucker, L. Zhao, A. F. Norwood, D. M. Lloyd-Jones

and N. B. Allen, “associations of dietary cholesterol or egg consumption with incident

cardiovascular disease and mortality.”JAMA, 19(11), 2019: 1081–1095. doi:10.1001/

jama.2019.1572

33 V. L. Fulgoni, D. R. Keast, R. L. Bailey and J. Dwyer, “Foods, fortiﬁcants, and

supplements: Where do Americans get their nutrients?”The Journal of Nutrition, 141

(10), 2011: 1847–1854. doi:10.3945/jn.111.142257

34 J. D. Grant, “Time for change: Beneﬁts of a plant-based diet.”Canadian Family

Physician Medecin de famille canadien, 63(10), 2017: 744–746.

35 Hunt, 2019: 275.

36 D. Hancox, “The unstoppable rise of veganism: how a fringe movement went

mainstream.”The Guardian, 2018. www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/apr/

01/vegans-are-coming-millennials-health-climate-change-animal-welfare

37 Moran E. Barwick, “Bite size vegan. Are vegan kids social outcasts? Parents

answer.”2016. www.bitesizevegan.org/bite-size-vegan-nuggets/qa/are-vegan-kids-

social-outcasts-parents-answer/

38 Hunt, 2019: 277.

39 Ibid.

40 K. M. Hussar and P. L. Harris, “Children who choose not to eat meat: A study of

early moral decision‐making.”Social Development, 19, 2010: 627–641. doi:10.1111/

j.1467-9507.2009.00547.x

41 Hunt, 2019: 281 & 287.

42 Ibid.: 286.

43 Ibid.: 286.

44 Ibid.: 287.

45 D. Wicks, “Silence and denial in everyday life: The case of animal suﬀering.”Ani-

mals: An Open Access Journal from MDPI, 1(1), 2011: 186–199. doi:10.3390/

ani1010186

46 J. Cameron and A. S. Cameron, “Animal agriculture is choking the Earth and

making us sick. We must act now.”The Guardian, 2017. www.theguardian.com/

commentisfree/2017/dec/04/animal-agriculture-choking-earth-making-sick-clima

te-food-environmental-impact-james-cameron-suzy-amis-cameron; G. Koneswaran

and D. Nierenberg, “Global farm animal production and global warming: Impacting

and mitigating climate change.”Environmental Health Perspectives, 116(5), 2008: 578–

582. doi:10.1289/ehp.11034

47 Tuomisto, L. H. Importance of considering environmental sustainability in dietary

guidelines. The Lancet Planetary Health. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/

S2542-5196(18)30174–8.

48 S. M. Alshahrani, Gary E. Fraser, J. Sabaté, R. Knutsen, D. Shavlik, A. Mashchak, J.

I. Lloren and Michael J. Orlich, “Red and processed meat and mortality in a low

meat intake population.”Nutrients 11(3), 2019: 622. doi:10.3390/nu11030622;

Stripp et al., 2003; Zhong et. al., 2019.

49 “When do kids realize that eating meat involves killing animals?”Quora. www.

quora.com/When-do-kids-realize-that-eating-meat-involves-killing-animals

50 Brian Luke, “Justice, caring, and animal liberation.”Between the Species, 8(2), 1992,

Article 13.

51 Josephine Donovan, “Feminism and the treatment of animals: From care to dialo-

gue.”Signs, 31(2), 2006: 305–329.

Conclusion

1Sara Arganda et al., “Parsing the life-shortening eﬀects of dietary protein: Eﬀects of

individual amino acids.”Proceedings. Biological Sciences, 284(1846), 2017: 20162052.

doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.2052

2Zumin Shi et al., “Food habits, lifestyle factors and mortality among oldest old

Chinese: The Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS).”Nutrients,

7(9), 2015: 7562–7579. doi:10.3390/nu7095353

3Donald S. Coﬀey, “Similarities of prostate and breast cancer: Evolution, diet, and

estrogens.”Urology, 57, 2001: 31–38.

4Heidi Lynch et al., “Plant-based diets: considerations for environmental impact,

protein quality, and exercise performance.”Nutrients, 10(12), 2018: 1841.

doi:10.3390/nu1012184

5H. Steinfeld, P. Gerber, T. Wassenaar, V. Castel, M. Rosales, M. and C. de Haan,

“Livestock’s long shadow: Environmental issues and options.”Rome: FAO, 2006.

www.faostat.fao.org.

6M. Herrero et al., “Livestock and the environment: What have we learned in the

past decade?”Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour., 40, 2015: 177–202.

7Keelia O’Malley et al., “Vegan vs Paleo: Carbon footprints and diet quality of 5

popular eating patterns as reported by US consumers.”Current Developments in

Nutrition, 3(1nzz047), 2019. doi:10.1093/cdn/nzz047.P03-007-19

8Zemeckis, Robert (dir.), Contact. Burbank, CA: Warner Home Video, 1997. DVD.

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An Ethical Dilemma: To Meat or Not to Meat?

Chapter

Mar 2023

David Julian McClements

Many people do not want to eat meat for ethical reasons – they believe it is wrong to confine and slaughter animals for food. There are billions of animals killed each year to feed us, with the vast majority being chickens. Livestock animals often live in uncomfortable and stressful conditions on factory farms and are then killed in traumatic ways in animal processing facilities, such as abattoirs. The people who work in these facilities are often traumatized by having to handle and slaughter large numbers of animals every day. There are therefore important ethical benefits from adopting a diet that reduces the number of animals killed for food. However, there are also ethical issues with plant-based diets, since some animals, birds, and insects are also killed during the growing and harvesting of agricultural crops. However, these numbers are much lower than the ones killed by the livestock industry. The major ethical theories applied to eating animals are discussed, including rights-based and utilitarian-based theories, as well as government regulations developed to improve animal welfare, which are often derived from these ethical theories.KeywordsRights-based ethicsUtilitarianismRegulationsAnimal welfareVegetarianismVeganism

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Katie Javanaud

This article is a review of Carlo Alvaro's Raw Veganism: The Philosophy of the Human Diet. Alvaro offers interesting and novel arguments in support of raw veganism, but they are of varying quality. Raw Veganism relies too heavily on aesthetic-based arguments for veganism, which are inadequate for the task of motivating ethical veganism. At several points throughout the book, Alvaro tries to cultivate psychological aversion to animal products (e.g., describing eggs as coming out of the “rear end” of an animal) as a means of promoting veganism when, in fact, a more careful philosophical argument is required. Despite certain shortcomings, which are pointed out in this review, Raw Veganism makes a valuable contribution to the literature and encourages the reader to think more critically about the merits of a raw diet.

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Co-parents who differ in their ideal child rearing policies should compromise, argues Marcus William Hunt. Josh Milburn and Carlo Alvaro dispute this when it comes to veganism. Milburn argues that veganism is a matter of justice and that to compromise over justice is (typically) impermissible. I suggest that compromise over justice is often permissible, and that compromise over justice may be required by justice itself. Alvaro offers aesthetic, gustatory, and virtue-based arguments for ethical veganism, showing that veganism involves sensibilities and virtues, and argues that veganism involves a belief. Alvaro takes this to show that parental compromise is impermissible. I suggest that Alvaro’s arguments are implausible and that the shaping of a child’s sensibilities and virtues is an apt matter for parental compromise.

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Full-text available

Jun 2019

Objectives: The food system contributes substantially to current environmental problems, which has prompted researchers to evaluate both environmental as well as nutritional impacts of dietary choices. However, there has been no research on the impacts of popular diets as consumed in the US. This study estimated the carbon footprint and diet quality of popular diets as selected by a nationally representative sample of US consumers. Methods: The 2005-2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 24-hour recall data were used to categorize individual adult diets (N = 16,800) into one of six mutually exclusive dietary patterns: vegan, vegetarian, pescatarian, paleolithic, and ketogenic. All other diets were classified into an omnivore pattern. Food groups in the USDA Food Patterns Equivalent Database were used to define these patterns. For example, the vegan pattern was defined as those who did not consume meat, seafood, eggs or dairy, and the paleo pattern included those who did not eat grains, legumes or dairy. Average daily greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) in carbon dioxide equivalents per 1000 kilocalories (kg CO2-eq 1000 kcal-1) were calculated by matching our previously developed database of Food Impacts on the Environment for Linking to Diets (dataFIELD) to NHANES individual diet data. Diet quality was determined using the Healthy Eating Index 2010 (HEI). Ordinary least-squares regression was used to assess differences in diet patterns. Results: The most frequent 1-day diet patterns were omnivore (87%), pescatarian (7%), and vegetarian (6%). The lowest carbon footprint diets were vegan (mean = 1.0 kg CO2-eq 1000 kcal-1), vegetarian (1.1), and pescatarian (1.9), and the highest footprints were omnivore (2.3), paleo (2.8) and keto (4.2). These average carbon footprints for the vegan, vegetarian, and pescatarian patterns were significantly lower (p < .05) than that of the omnivore pattern, and the keto pattern was significantly higher. Average HEI scores for the vegetarian and pescatarian patterns were significantly higher compared to the omnivore pattern, and the keto and paleo patterns were significantly lower. Conclusions: These data support the growing body of research identifying the environmental benefits of plant-based diet patterns and identify the environmental cost of other popular diet patterns in the US. Funding sources: Wellcome Trust.

Veganism and Children: Physical and Social Well-Being

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2019
J AGR ENVIRON ETHIC

Marcus Hunt

I claim that there is pro tanto moral reason for parents to not raise their child on a vegan diet because a vegan diet bears a risk of harm to both the physical and the social well-being of children. After giving the empirical evidence from nutrition science and sociology that supports this claim, I turn to the question of how vegan parents should take this moral reason into account. Since many different moral frameworks have been used to argue for veganism, this is a complex question. I suggest that, on some of these moral frameworks, the moral reason that some parents have for not raising their child on a vegan diet on account of this risk is plausibly as strong as the reason they have for raising their child on a vegan diet. In other words, the moral reason I outline is weighty enough to justify some vegan parents in plausibly finding it permissible to not raise their child on a vegan diet.

Red and Processed Meat and Mortality in a Low Meat Intake Population

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2019

Associations of low-to-moderate consumption of red and processed meat with mortality would add to the evidence of possible adverse effects of these common foods. This study aims to investigate the association of red and processed meat intake with mortality. The Adventist Health Study-2 (AHS-2) is a prospective cohort study of ~96,000 Seventh-day Adventist men and women recruited in the US and Canada between 2002 and 2007. The final analytic sample after exclusions was 72,149. Cox proportional hazards regression was used and hazard ratios (HR) and confidence intervals (CI) were obtained. Diet was assessed by a validated quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), calibrated using six 24-h dietary recalls. Mortality outcome data were obtained from the National Death Index. During a mean follow-up of 11.8 years, there were 7961 total deaths, of which 2598 were Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) deaths and 1873 were cancer deaths. Unprocessed red meat was associated with risk of all-cause mortality (HR: 1.18; 95% CI: 1.07–1.31) and CVD mortality (HR: 1.26; 95% CI: 1.05–1.50). Processed meat alone was not significantly associated with risk of mortality. The combined intake of red and processed meat was associated with all-cause mortality (HR: 1.23; 95% CI: 1.11–1.36) and CVD mortality (HR: 1.34; 95% CI: 1.12–1.60). These findings suggest moderately higher risks of all-cause and CVD mortality associated with red and processed meat in a low meat intake population.

Created from Animals: The Moral Implications of Darwinism

Book

Oct 2023

James Rachels

Since the Origin of Species was first published, Darwinism has been attacked for undermining traditional morality. In particular, because it emphasizes the kinship between humans and other animals, Darwinism seems incompatible with the traditional idea of human dignity - that human life has a special value, while other animals may be sacrificed for any purpose that humans choose. This book argues that Darwinism does undermine the traditional idea of human dignity; however, this is not a reason for rejecting Darwin's outlook. Instead, it is a reason for rejecting human dignity and replacing it with a better moral view, a more enlightened ethic regarding both the value of human life and our treatment of nonhuman animals. This important book, presenting Darwin's scientific and non-scientific views as one united theory, will stimulate all those interested in evolution, morality, religion, and animal rights to re-examine their views.

Applying Virtue Ethics to Our Treatment of the Other Animals

Chapter

Dec 2022

Rosalind Hursthouse

This volume brings together a selection of Rosalind Hursthouse’s essays on Aristotle, virtue ethics, and social philosophy. These articles—many of which are published in more obscure venues—provide valuable context and clarification for much of her more famous work on virtue ethics while drawing attention to new avenues of philosophical investigation Hursthouse pursued. Important contributions include articles on the development of virtue in children, what the Aristotelian practically wise person knows, how virtue ethicists can inform discussions about environmental and animal ethics, what the starting point for virtue politics should be in a contemporary political context, and how human nature and ethical naturalism could provide the foundation for a virtue ethical system.

Lack of Character: Personality and Moral Behavior

Book

Aug 2002

John M. Doris

This book is a provocative contribution to contemporary ethical theory challenging foundational conceptions of character that date back to Aristotle. John Doris draws on behavioral science, especially social psychology, to argue that we misattribute the causes of behavior to personality traits and other fixed aspects of character rather than to the situational context. More often than not it is the situation not the nature of the personality that really counts. The author elaborates the philosophical consequences of this research for a whole array of ethical theories and shows that, once rid of the misleading conception of motivation, moral psychology can support more robust ethical theories and more humane ethical practices.

The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory

Book

Jan 2015

Carol J. Adams

The Sexual Politics of Meat is Carol Adams’ inspiring and controversial exploration of the interplay between contemporary society’s ingrained cultural misogyny and its obsession with meat and masculinity. First published in 1990, the book has continued to change the lives of tens of thousands of readers into the second decade of the 21st century. Published in the year of the book’s 25th anniversary, the Bloomsbury Revelations edition includes a substantial new afterword, including more than 20 new images and discussions of recent events that prove beyond doubt the continuing relevance of Adams’ revolutionary book.

Why foods derived from animals are not necessary for human health

Chapter

Oct 2018

Stephen Patrick Kieran Walsh

Can Animals Be Persons?

Book

Jun 2019

Mark Rowlands

According to the standard conception of persons, an individual qualifies as a person if it satisfies four conditions, broadly construed. First, the individual is conscious , in the sense that there is something it is like to be it. Second, it is rational , in the sense that it can execute at least some rational inferences and possesses the required materials for such inferences, such as beliefs and desires. Third, the individual must be self-aware , aware of itself as an individual persisting through time. Finally, it must be other-aware , aware of the mindedness of others. This book argues that many animals can satisfy all of these conditions and so qualify as persons. Unlike recent debates that concern whether we should extend personhood as far as the great apes, it is argued that personhood extends quite widely through the animal kingdom.

Associations of Dietary Cholesterol or Egg Consumption With Incident Cardiovascular Disease and Mortality

Article

Mar 2019

Importance Cholesterol is a common nutrient in the human diet and eggs are a major source of dietary cholesterol. Whether dietary cholesterol or egg consumption is associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) and mortality remains controversial. Objective To determine the associations of dietary cholesterol or egg consumption with incident CVD and all-cause mortality. Design, Setting, and Participants Individual participant data were pooled from 6 prospective US cohorts using data collected between March 25, 1985, and August 31, 2016. Self-reported diet data were harmonized using a standardized protocol. Exposures Dietary cholesterol (mg/day) or egg consumption (number/day). Main Outcomes and Measures Hazard ratio (HR) and absolute risk difference (ARD) over the entire follow-up for incident CVD (composite of fatal and nonfatal coronary heart disease, stroke, heart failure, and other CVD deaths) and all-cause mortality, adjusting for demographic, socioeconomic, and behavioral factors. Results This analysis included 29 615 participants (mean [SD] age, 51.6 [13.5] years at baseline) of whom 13 299 (44.9%) were men and 9204 (31.1%) were black. During a median follow-up of 17.5 years (interquartile range, 13.0-21.7; maximum, 31.3), there were 5400 incident CVD events and 6132 all-cause deaths. The associations of dietary cholesterol or egg consumption with incident CVD and all-cause mortality were monotonic (all P values for nonlinear terms, .19-.83). Each additional 300 mg of dietary cholesterol consumed per day was significantly associated with higher risk of incident CVD (adjusted HR, 1.17 [95% CI, 1.09-1.26]; adjusted ARD, 3.24% [95% CI, 1.39%-5.08%]) and all-cause mortality (adjusted HR, 1.18 [95% CI, 1.10-1.26]; adjusted ARD, 4.43% [95% CI, 2.51%-6.36%]). Each additional half an egg consumed per day was significantly associated with higher risk of incident CVD (adjusted HR, 1.06 [95% CI, 1.03-1.10]; adjusted ARD, 1.11% [95% CI, 0.32%-1.89%]) and all-cause mortality (adjusted HR, 1.08 [95% CI, 1.04-1.11]; adjusted ARD, 1.93% [95% CI, 1.10%-2.76%]). The associations between egg consumption and incident CVD (adjusted HR, 0.99 [95% CI, 0.93-1.05]; adjusted ARD, −0.47% [95% CI, −1.83% to 0.88%]) and all-cause mortality (adjusted HR, 1.03 [95% CI, 0.97-1.09]; adjusted ARD, 0.71% [95% CI, −0.85% to 2.28%]) were no longer significant after adjusting for dietary cholesterol consumption. Conclusions and Relevance Among US adults, higher consumption of dietary cholesterol or eggs was significantly associated with higher risk of incident CVD and all-cause mortality in a dose-response manner. These results should be considered in the development of dietary guidelines and updates.

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