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Agricultural Water Management Practices in Mena Region Facing Climatic Challenges and Water Scarcity
Abstract
Location of Tunisia between the Mediterranean and the Sahara, is an arid country on a major part of its territory. This aridity combined with variability Mediterranean climate makes water a resource both scarce and irregularly distributed in time and space. Tunisia is classified by international organizations as being among the least endowed with groundwater resources countries in the Mediterranean basin. To improve modernization policy in the agriculture sector in Tunisia, essential factors for saving water and for a sustainable development must be followed as providing farmers with the technology they need to maximize the efficiency and rational use of water to optimize the use of water in agriculture. The subsurface irrigation has several advantages in terms of saving the amount of water in a sustainable development that aims to protection of groundwater. The aim of the contrasting water management techniques described in this paper is to minimize spatio-temporal losses. Subsurface irrigation can increase stores water in the root zone, allows limiting losses by evaporation and percolation. It also helps reduce weed growth. Then, we have carried out studies on the following irrigation systems: subsurface drip irrigation system (SDI) and Buried diffusers (BD). The studies consisted of monitoring the water saving of each of these techniques as well as their effects on the profitability of different crops. For example, SDI was used for two treatments full irrigation (T1) and deficit irrigation with 50% of crop Evapotranspiration (T2). Soil water content (SWC) variation was more important at the end of the season due to root uptake and hard climatic condition, treatment T2 had less water stock and best water use efficiency with 10.83 kg/ha than 5.85 kg/ha for T1. While the average values of the SWC are 19.6 ± 2.68; 15 ± 3.81 and 14 ± 3.72% respectively for buried diffuser with full irrigation TD100, deficit irrigation with 50 TD50 and deficit irrigation with 25% TD25.
... In the fields of hydrology and hydrogeology, new ways to predict the amount of water in the ground are very interesting (Boutheina et al., 2022;Naharuddin et al., 2022;Jamil et al., 2023). In the past few years, people all over the world have become more interested in predicting GP. ...
... This study is highly significant and timely as Africa remains a hotspot for climate change and requires continuous monitoring (see Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) and Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) - IPCC, 2014;IPCC, 2007). The importance of PET to agriculture, and water resources in arid areas is considerably greater than in other climatic regions, and plays a major role in arid zones by providing farmers and water managers with reliable information to support decision-making (Boutheina et al., 2022), thus enhancing the understanding of hydrological behaviour (Elagib et al., 2023). However, studies identified and concluded that warming climate increases the changes in ET and PET may trigger the trends in hydrological stress across different African regions in Sudan (Elagib et al., 2023), in West Africa (Abiye et al., 2019), in South Africa (Ncoyini-Manciya et al., 2022), in MENA (Hamed et al., 2023;Ajjur and Al-Ghamdi, 2021), and across Africa (Nooni et al., 2021), thereby other regions of Africa were left untouched using multiple GCMs to project the future PET. ...
... In the last years, researchers have been carrying out the enhancement of water use efficacy due to several problems that affect the agricultural field, such as resources reduction and water scarcity, water pollution caused by the highest levels of emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), Rainfall patterns are being disrupted by climate change, and because the agriculture field is considered as the most water user Irrigation has become a significant scientific and societal issue. The overcome these matters, farmers have used irrigation systems like flood, sprinkler, center pivot, drip, and micro-irrigation systems [67]. However, these latter needed to be increased due to water wastage. ...
Agriculture is considered one of the most vital industries worldwide responsible for people’s food and the country’s economic development. Nevertheless, this sector is the largest consumer of freshwater. Access to water, soil kind, weather conditions, fertilizers, and illnesses are crucial aspects of agricultural activities. Moreover, water scarcity has become a significant issue for farmers to tackle irrigation activity. While irrigation depends on water availability, building smart irrigation systems that control and manage water use efficiency is highly needed. This paper examines the most modern technologies used in irrigation systems over the last few years. This survey can easily be thorough and beneficial to academics while providing essential recommendations for the new era of irrigation systems technologies. The findings indicate widespread use of the Internet of Things (IoT) and artificial intelligence algorithms, while digital twins and blockchain technologies are less common and still in the early stages. To reduce costs and improve security in irrigation systems, it is strongly recommended to adopt digital twin technology. By utilizing digital twins, farmers can enhance operations, optimize resource utilization, and increase efficiency. Furthermore, digital twins contribute to identifying vulnerabilities and implementing robust security measures, ensuring protection against potential threats and disruptions
... Over 20% of the world's agricultural areas suffer from drought problems (Mansoor et al., 2022), and Tunisia is one of the countries with the lowest availability of water in the world (Hachani et al., 2022). Since many rivers and dams have already dried up, Tunisia is using up to 80% of the available water resources in agriculture (Douh et al., 2022). Wheat is consumed as a fundamental food grain all over the world (Hussein et al., 2023), with Tunisia being an important consumer. ...
Introduction
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is among the world’s most important staple food crops. In the current climate change scenario, a better understanding of wheat response mechanisms to water stress could help to enhance its productivity in arid ecosystems.
Methods
In this study, water relations, gas exchange, membrane integrity, agronomic traits and molecular analysis were evaluated in six wheat genotypes (D117, Syndiouk, Tunisian durum7 (Td7), Utique, Mahmoudi AG3 and BT) subjected to drought-stress.
Results and discussion
For all the studied genotypes, drought stress altered leaf area, chlorophyll content, stomatal density, photosynthetic rate and water-use efficiency, while the relative water content at turgor loss point (RWC0) remained stable. Changes in osmotic potential at turgor loss point (Ψπ⁰), bulk modulus of elasticity (Ɛmax) and stomatal regulation, differed greatly among the studied genotypes. For the drought-sensitive genotypes AG3 and BT, no significant changes were observed in Ψπ⁰, whereas the stomatal conductance (gs) and transpiration rate (E) decreased under stress conditions. These two varieties avoided turgor loss during drought treatment through an accurate stomatal control, resulting in a significant reduction in yield components. On the contrary, for Syndiouk, D117, Td7 and Utique genotypes, a solute accumulation and an increase in cell wall rigidity were the main mechanisms developed during drought stress. These mechanisms were efficient in enhancing soil water uptake, limiting leaf water loss and protecting cells membranes against leakage induced by oxidative damages. Furthermore, leaf soluble sugars accumulation was the major component of osmotic adjustment in drought-stressed wheat plants. The transcriptional analysis of genes involved in the final step of the ABA biosynthesis (AAO) and in the synthesis of an aquaporin (PIP2:1) revealed distinct responses to drought stress among the selected genotypes. In the resistant genotypes, PIP2:1 was significantly upregulated whereas in the sensitive ones, its expression showed only a slight induction. Conversely, the sensitive genotypes exhibited higher levels of AAO gene expression compared to the resistant genotypes. Our results suggest that drought tolerance in wheat is regulated by the interaction between the dynamics of leaf water status and stomatal behavior. Based on our findings, Syndiouk, D117, Utique and Td7, could be used in breeding programs for developing high-yielding and drought-tolerant wheat varieties.
... It plays a major role in changes in aridity and desertification. It defines the amount of precipitation that evaporates into the atmosphere and soaks into the ground, which is valuable information for local farmers and water managers to make informed and effective decisions about water and irrigation usage (Boutheina et al., 2022). It also determines the severity of droughts, an annual event in arid regions (Nie et al., 2022). ...
Global warming has significantly affected different climate variables and potential evapotranspiration (PET), influencing irrigation needs and water balance. However, the influence of climate change on PET trends is inconsistent in different regions due to the PET paradox. The climate change influence on PET can also vary with time due to the changing pattern of climatic variables and their interactions. This study applies sensitivity analysis of PET to various climate factors and PET trends to reveal the dynamics of PET in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and decipher its cause. Penman-Monteith (PM) method was used to estimate PET using ERA-5 data for three 30-year periods, 1951-1980, 1971-2000 and 1991-2020. The results showed a decrease in PET over a large part of MENA during 1951-1980, while an increase over most of MENA during 1971-2000 and 1991-2020, indicating demising evapotranspiration paradox in the region over time. Sensitivity analysis showed wind speed (70-80%) s a the most influential factor in determining PET in MENA, followed by solar radiation (10-20%) and daily maximum temperature (5-10 %) for all periods. However, wind speed and solar radiation have not changed significantly over periods in most areas. In contrast, a large increase in temperature (0.1 to 0.8 °C/decade) over most of the region caused a diminishing PET paradox and increased PET over most of the MENA. Overall, a 0.1 to 0.2 mm/day increase in PET per decade was observed. The study indicates the rising temperature would cause an increasing PET which can have severe implications in this global water stress hotspot.
... Les ressources en eau dans les zones arides et semi-arides sont limitées de point de vue quantité et qualité. L'assurance de la production agricole nécessite la bonne gestion de cette ressource à travers l'utilisation des systèmes d'irrigation qui permettent l'économie d'eau et l'introduction de l'agriculture de précision et de conservation (Douh et al., 2022). De plus, l'appauvrissement des sols présente une des contraintes majeures du secteur agricole. ...
This research aimed to compare the effect of two irrigation systems combined to soil organic amendment on the hydrodynamic and chemical parameters of the soil and on the productivity of a pea crop “Pisum sativum L.” subjected to water stress conditions. The results showed that the porous ramps allowed a better stability of the water stock with an amplitude of 30 mm against 50.7 mm for the drip system and a more high root development with a difference of about 2,5 cm compared with the drip system. Yield was not significantly affected crop yield and we recorded a difference of 3.43% in favor of porous ramps. In contrast, root nodulation and symbiotic nitrogen fixation were dependent on the irrigation system, and we found higher total nitrogen content for porous ramp-irrigated soil that reached 1.4 g/kg. The organic amendments increased the soil moisture content to 24 and 25% for peat and biochar respectively compared with the witness. The vegetative growth of the plant has also been improved.
Global warming has significantly affected different climate variables and, therefore, potential evapotranspiration (PET), which in turn influenced the region's irrigation needs and water balance. However, the influence of climate change on PET trends is inconsistent in different regions due to the PET paradox. The climate change influence on PET can also vary with time due to the changing pattern of climatic variables and their interactions. This study applies sensitivity analysis of PET to various climate factors and PET trends to reveal the dynamics of PET in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and decipher its cause. Penman-Monteith (PM) method was used to estimate PET using ERA5 data for three 30-year periods, 1951-1980, 1971-2000 and 1991-2020. The results showed a decrease in PET over a large part of MENA during 1951-1980, while an increase over most of MENA during 1971-2000 and 1991-2020, indicating demising evapotranspiration paradox in the region over time. Sensitivity analysis showed wind speed (70-80%) as the most influential factor in determining PET in MENA, followed by solar radiation (10-20%) and daily maximum temperature (5-10%) for all periods. However, wind speed and solar radiation have not changed significantly over periods in most of the area. In contrast, a large increase in temperature over most of the region caused a diminishing PET paradox and increased PET over most of the MENA. The study indicates the rising temperature would cause an increasing PET which can have severe implications in this global water stress hotspot.
Environmental effects of heavy metal pollution are considered as a widespread problem throughout the world, as it jeopardizes human health and also reduces the sustainability of a cleaner environment. Removal of such noxious pollutants from wastewater is pivotal because it provides a propitious solution for a cleaner environment and water scarcity. Adsorption treatment plays a significant role in water remediation due to its potent treatment and low cost of adsorbents. In the last two decades, researchers have been highly focused on the modification of adsorption treatment by functionalized and surface-modified nanomaterials which has spurred intense research. The characteristics of nano adsorbents attract global scientists as it is also economically viable. This review shines its light on the functionalized nanomaterials application for heavy metals removal from wastewater and also highlights the importance of regeneration of nanomaterials in the view of visualizing the economic aspects along with a cleaner environment. The review also focused on the proper disposal of nanomaterials with crucial issues that persist in the adsorption process and also emphasize future research modification at a large-scale application in industries.
Purpose Due to increasing water demand in worldwide, treated wastewater (TWW) will become an important component in agriculture, particularly in countries facing the water scarcity. Using judiciously the already existing water resources in agriculture production can be proved by using efficient irrigation method. Methods
This study investigates the impact of two irrigation water quality including; treated wastewater (TWW) and tap water (FW) with two modes of drip irrigation; subsurface at different depth (5, 15 and 25 cm depth) and surface drip irrigation on yield production and growth parameters of okra during the 2017 and 2018 growing seasons. Okra was chosen for its economical and nutritional values. Results Results revealed that the maximum agronomic performance of okra was recorded with TWW by comparing it with FW. SDI also offers more reliable growth and yield data than surface irrigation. TWW influenced positively the growth parameters and yield attitudes of okra. Plant height was maximum in WSDI25 treatment with 257 cm and 214 cm, in 2017 and 2018, respectively followed by WSDI15 and WSDI5 then WSDI0. The same order was observed for the different treatments in the plot by irrigated by FW. Fruit number per plant was observed to be maximum in WSDI5 (55.8) and WSDI15 (54.8), and minimum in FSDI0 (33.8) and FSDI5 (33.7). Okra yield was maximum in WSDI5 treatment (4.59 t/ha) and minimum in FSDI0 treatment (2.2 t/ha) in 2017. Conclusion The results of this study showed that application of TWW under (5 -15) cm depth of drip line is recommended for higher productivity of okra.
The sustainable management of irrigation water in arid regions poses a challenge in the face of water scarcity and climate change. This study was carried out on an arid area under greenhouse conditions. A modeling approach was used to analyze the effect of two irrigation techniques (drip irrigation and a new irrigation technique called buried diffuser) on repeated measurements of soil nutrients (organic matter (OM), total nitrogen (TN), nitrate (NO3−-N), ammonia (NH4+-N), available phosphorus (AP), and available potassium (AK)), sodium (Na+), and electrical conductivity (EC) at different depths of the sampling sites within the root zone of a pepper crop using two irrigation treatments: T1 (100% of reference crop evapotranspiration (ET)) and T2 (50% of reference crop evapotranspiration (ET)). As a result, the buried diffuser system significantly improves the soil nutrient levels, especially in regard to OM, TN, NO3−-N, AP, and AK, with considerable enhancement of pepper yield for the two irrigation treatments, T1 and T2. Moreover, the buried diffuser keeps the field in better soil salinity conditions than drip irrigation.
Tunisia is facing increasing competition for water among users due to population and economic growth. Projections show that the water resources will be fully used by 2010. As a result, the opportunity cost of water has risen significantly. In order to cope with potential water shortages, the Tunisian government has undertaken a set of policies and technical measures, such as institutional reforms, improving the efficiency of water delivery network and water pricing policies reforms. It has been observed that cost estimation of water produced and delivered is not transparent. Thus any increase in water price is opposed by farmers. Data is not consistent, making the establishment of a water pricing scheme difficult. Besides, the water authority lacks accurate information on water productivity at farm level leading to asymmetric information on the side of the authorities as well as on the side of the farmers. For a successful reform of the irrigation water pricing policy two conditions have to prevail: i) integration of the accounting system of capital costs with an analytical approach and ii) assessing farmers’ willingness to pay for irrigation water. Finally, the implementation of a water rights system could be an alternative to solve the asymmetric information problem and improve the economic efficiency.
Water resource systems have benefited both people and their economies for many centuries. The services provided by such systems are multiple. Yet in many regions of the world they are not able to meet even basic drinking water and sanitation needs. Nor can many of these water resource systems support and maintain resilient biodiverse ecosystems. Typical causes include inappropriate, inadequate and/or degraded infrastructure, excessive withdrawals of river flows, pollution from industrial and agricultural activities, eutrophication resulting from nutrient loadings, salinization from irrigation return flows, infestations of exotic plant and animals, excessive fish harvesting, flood plain and habitat alteration from development activities, and changes in water and sediment flow regimes.
Innovative irrigation practices can enhance water efficiency, gaining an economic advantage while also reducing environmental burdens. In some cases the necessary knowledge has been provided by extension services, helping farmers to adapt and implement viable solutions, thus gaining more benefits from irrigation technology. Often investment in technological improvements has incurred higher water prices, however, without gaining the full potential benefits through water efficiency. Farmers generally lack adequate means and incentives to know crops’ water use, actual irrigation applications, crops’ yield response to different water management practices, and thus current on-farm water-efficiency levels.
In semi-arid Mediterranean countries where crop yield is primarily water-limited, the topic of increasing productivity and water use efficiency is of great concern. The focus on water productivity of main crops is an imperative imposed by the critical situation of water resources as well as an ever-growing demand. However, there are still some gaps with respect to crop water use efficiency and productivity. The scope of this report is to establish the state of knowledge on water use efficiency and to help identify the possible margins of progress in terms of water productivity of wheat conducted in rainfed and irrigated conditions. Moreover, the inter relationship between crop yield, water use and water use efficiency were determined for Durum Wheat grown in Tunisian semi-arid conditions. The relationships have important implications for achieving efficient use of water resources in water-scarce areas. The methodology was mainly based on long-term simulations using the STICS crop model. The simulations were performed assuming a long-term weather database and representative soil types of the study area, chosen on the basis of their available soil water in the root zone. The analysis suggested that, under limited water resource conditions, full supplemental irrigation should be replaced with a level of deficit irrigation that should maximize water use efficiency.
Current trends in the intensification of olive cultivation including irrigation have dictated a need to reconsider amendment management practices. The addition of organic wastes to agricultural soils is becoming a common practice as a disposal strategy and to improve the physical and chemical soil properties This study examines physiological varieties of young olive trees (Olea europaea L.) grown on deficit irrigation under four different amended soil. We evaluated the short-term effect of different amended soil under deficit irrigation on soil, plant water status, level of soil, and leaf Nitrogen. Water stress was considered to be insignificant or absent with an irrigation amount of 50% of daily evapotranspiration. Leaf relative water content was between 65 and 88% for the Chemlali cultivar, while that of the Koroneiki was between 60 and 70%. Under conditions of water stress, photosynthesis of trees planted in soil amended with biochar decreased from 8.5 to 1.5 μmol.CO2.m⁻²s⁻¹, compared to the control for both cultivars.To conclude, amendment addition, used as a tool for sustainable agriculture, could improve plant growth, although soil fertility. The type and amount of amendment should receive special attention to be efficient.
Knowledge about the moisture distribution pattern shape and volume of soil wetted by an emitter is the basic need for better subsurface drip irrigation system. The dimensions of the pattern are imperative in selecting the right spacing between emitters and the suitable distance between laterals.
In Tunisia, the scarcity of water for irrigation and the quality of available resources make it necessary to adopt strategies of water management aimed to increase water use efficiency. If from one side, choosing an appropriate irrigation system, like a well-designed subsurface drip system can ensure high values of water distribution uniformity, increasing water use efficiency requires that irrigation scheduling account for actual crop water requirement, depending on soil, plant, climate, and other local conditions. During the growing season (2014) to investigate the effects of low water quality and scheduling on water’s dynamic in soil (soil water content moisture distribution, water’s stock variation) and water use efficiency (WUE) to produce potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). Subsurface drip irrigation was used for two treatments T1 and T2; T2 was irrigated 50% of T1. During the crop season soil water During the crop season soil water content variation was more important at the end due to root uptake and hard climatic condition, treatment T2 had less water stock and best water use efficiency with 10.83 kg/ha than 5.85 kg/ha for T1.
In Tunisia, the expansion of irrigated area and the semiarid climate make it compulsory to adopt strategies of water management to increase water use efficiency. Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), providing the application of high frequency small irrigation volumes below the soil surface have been increasingly used to enhance irrigation efficiency. Deficit irrigation has shown successful results with a large number of crops in various countries. Objective of this paper was to assess the effects of deficit irrigation on gross margin and water use efficiency of potatoes crop, irrigated with subsurface drip irrigation, in a semiarid area of central Tunisia. After assessing the validity of FAO-56 spreadsheet program to well simulate soil water status in the root zone, water use efficiency (WUE) was evaluated based on crop yield and simulated actual evapotranspiration. At the same time, irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) was determined as the ration between crop yield and the amount of water supply to the crop (irrigation). Field experiments, were carried out in Central Tunisia (10 ° 33' 47.0" E, 35 ° 58' 8.1 ° N, 19 m a.s.l) on a potatoes crop planted in a sandy loam soil, during the growing season 2014, from 15 January to 6 May. Soil water status was monitored in two plots (T1 and T2) maintained under the same management, except for irrigation volumes, provided by a SDI system. More particular, irrigation was scheduled according to the average water content measured in the root zone, with a total of 8 watering, with timing ranging between one and three hours in T1, and between about half-an-hour and one-hour and a-half, in T2. FAO-56 was validated according the average soil water content in all tubes and all observation depths with RMSE values, equal to 0.012 cm3cm⁻³ and 0.028 cm3cm-3, respectively for T1 and T2. Simulated actual evapotranspiration in T1 was equal to the potential evapotranspiration. However, it resulted lower than potential evapotranspiration. WUE resulted equal to 32 Kg/m³ and 16 Kg/m³, whereas IWUE was equal to 31.7 Kg/m³ and 45.70 Kg/m³ for treatments T1 and T2. In terms of gross margin, T1 were more efficient than T2. This finding is directly related to sheep price of water, although its scarcity. The experimental results and model simulations provided useful guidelines for a more sustainable use of irrigation water.
Limited opportunities to further expand the volume of global freshwaters allocated to irrigation means that advanced irrigation technologies, aiming to improve efficiency of existing systems, are timely needed and are of paramount importance. This article ‘Advanced Irrigation Technologies’ describes the latest advances in irrigation application methods, irrigation management, and other novel developments. It provides a vision for the future, including emerging risks, opportunities, and technical challenges, as the world gears up to supply 50% more food to an additional 2 billion people by 2050.
The main objective of the work is to optimize drip installation depth for Eggplant crop
irrigated with surface or subsurface drip irrigation systems to improve irrigation Water
Use Effeciency (WUE), by means of field measurements and simulations carried out with
Hydrus-2D model. Initially, a comparison between simulated Soil Water Contents (SWC) and
the corresponding measured in two plots, in which laterals with coextruded emitters are
laid on the soil surface (T0) and at 20 cm depth (T20), respectively. In order to choose
the best position of the lateral, the results of different simulation run, carried out by
choosing a deeper installation (T45) depth. Simulated SWC’s resulted fairly close to the
corresponding measured at different distances from the emitter and therefore the model was
able to predict SWC’s in the root zone with values of the Root Mean Square Error generally
lower than 4%. This result is consequent to the appropriate schematization of the root
distribution, as well as of the root water uptake. The values of WUE associated to the
different examined installation depths tend to a very slight increase when the position of
the lateral is situated on 20 cm and start to decrease for the higher depths.
SA Using the buried diffusers with different irrigation doses 25, 50 and 100% of crop evapotranspiration of potato "Solanum tuberosum L." buried diffuser efficiency subsurface irrigation performance potato water content on the soil Abbreviation SNK: Student–Newman–Keuls TDR: Time Domain Reflectometry ETC: crop evapotranspiration LA: Leaf area Q: diffuser flow (l/h); K: constant; x: characteristic coefficient of the diffuser; H: pressure. CU: coefficient of uniformity This paper aims to study the effect of subsurface irrigation by buried diffuser "Chahtech " on water dynamics in soil and its influence on agronomic parameters of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). This study was conducted in the experimental field of the Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott Meriem, on a sandy loam soil. Technical characterization of diffuser was determinate based on the calculation of uniformity coefficient of Christiansen and the determination of the flow-pressure relationship. We followed the variation of the water content in the soil at different depths and calculating stock water and their change in the ground for the treatments that have received 100%, 50% and 25% of the ETC respectively TD100, TD50 and TD25 to predict the optimum amount of irrigation. The average values of the water content in the soil are 19.6 ± 2.68, 15 ± 3.81 and 14 ± 3.72% respectively for TD100, TD50 and TD25. The stock water for TD25 and TD50 it varied between 28000 and 57000 cm 3 /crop, whereas it ranged between 30000 and 60000 cm 3 /crop for TD100. The stock of water in the soil resulting from the TD100 treatment was higher compared to other treatments. Indeed, the TD100 treatment has improved leaf area (0.229 ± 0.084 m²/crop). Statistical analysis of the effect of using different doses of irrigation performance reveals that there is no significant difference among treatments beyond α = 5 %.
The aim of this paper was to evaluate the effects of surface and subsurface drip irrigation buried at 0, 15 and 30 cm depths respectively (T0, T1 and T2) on water's dynamic in soil and irrigation water use efficiency to produce cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) in Mediterranean climate. Field study was conducted at the Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott Meriem, Tunisia from April to June 2011. The results showed that soil water's stock under T1 was more important and uniform compared to T0 and T2. In contrast, irrigation water use efficiency was higher in T2. Indeed, it increased about 20 and 13 % respectively when compared to T1 and T0. The results of the present study showed that SDI allows uniform soil moisture, minimize the evaporative loss and delivery water directly to the plant root zone and consequently increases use efficiency.
This study was carried out to determine the effects of different dripline depths on physiological and agronomic parameters of maize (Zea mays L.) under the Mediterranean climatic conditions in Tunisia. Experimental site was located at conducted at the Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott Meriem (Longitude 10°38'E, Latitude 35°55'N, altitude 15 m above sea level) on a sandy loam textured soil. Irrigation treatments consisted of four different driplines depths (T0: 0m, T1: 0.05 m, T2: 0.20 m and T3: 0.35 m). The crop was irrigated twice a week by regarding estimated crop water requirements. Dripline depth resulted in significantly different yields. The highest grain yield was obtained in T3 treatment with 1.347 kg m −2 , and the lowest yield was found in T1 treatment with 1.007 kg m −2 . leaf area, 100-kernel weight and grain yield from T3 were significantly higher than in the other three depths. According to the research results, optimum dripline depht for corn plant was found to be 0.35 m. But, it was no significantly effect on crop water use efficiency. The highest water use efficiency WUE was found in T3 (39.2 kg ha -1 mm -1) and the lowest one was found in the T1 treatment 0.05 m deep (29.3 kg ha -1 mm -1). Thus a depth of 0.35 m was recommended for subsurface drip-irrigated corn in the Mediterranean Region under those specific conditions.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the sustainability of farm irrigation systems in the Cébalat district in northern Tunisia. It addressed the challenging topic of sustainable agriculture through a bio-economic approach linking a biophysical model to an economic optimisation model. A crop growth simulation model (CropSyst) was used to build a database to determine the relationships between agricultural practices, crop yields and environmental effects (salt accumulation in soil and leaching of nitrates) in a context of high climatic variability. The database was then fed into a recursive stochastic model set for a 10-year plan that allowed analysing the effects of cropping patterns on farm income, salt accumulation and nitrate leaching. We assumed that the long-term sustainability of soil productivity might be in conflict with farm profitability in the short-term. Assuming a discount rate of 10% (for the base scenario), the model closely reproduced the current system and allowed to predict the degradation of soil quality due to long-term salt accumulation. The results showed that there was more accumulation of salt in the soil for the base scenario than for the alternative scenario (discount rate of 0%). This result was induced by applying a higher quantity of water per hectare for the alternative as compared to a base scenario. The results also showed that nitrogen leaching is very low for the two discount rates and all climate scenarios. In conclusion, the results show that the difference in farm income between the alternative and base scenarios increases over time to attain 45% after 10 years.
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