Mitochondrialne kanały potasowe: podsumowanie

Abstract

Mitochondria play a fundamental role in ATP synthesis within the majority of mammalian cells. Potassium channels present in the inner mitochondrial membrane are fine regulators of mitochondrial function, based on inner membrane K+ permeability. These channels are regulated by a plethora of factors and conditions in a way similar to plasma membrane potassium channels. Regulators of mitochondrial potassium channels include the membrane potential, calcium ions, free fatty acids and ATP levels within the cells. Recently, it was shown that these channels are regulated by the respiratory chain, stretching of the membrane and phosphorylation. The essential interest that has driven studies of mitochondrial potassium channels for nearly 25 years is their role in cytoprotection and in cell death. Mitochondrial potassium channels have been described in neurons, astrocytoma, cardiac and skeletal muscles, fibroblasts, keratinocytes and endothelial cells. In this overview, we summarize the current knowledge of mitochondrial potassium channels. This summary will be done with a special focus on studies performed over the last 20 years in the Laboratory of Intracellular Ion Channels at the Nencki Institute. These include studies on the electrophysiological and pharmacological properties of mitochondrial potassium channels and on their regulation by endogenous intracellular substances. Additionally, the regulation of mitochondrial potassium channels by the respiratory chain and by stretching of the inner mitochondrial membrane will be reviewed. Properties of mitochondrial potassium channels in various organisms will also be summarized.

Full text

190 www.postepybiochemii.pl
Joanna Bandorowicz-Pikuła*
Agnieszka Kinga Seliga
Laboratory of Cellular Metabolism, Nencki In-
stitute of Experimental Biology, 3 Pasteura St.,
02-093 Warsaw, Poland
*e-mail: j.bandorowicz-pikula@nencki.gov.pl
Received: September 25, 2018
Accepted: October 23, 2018
Key words: annexin A6, cholesterol metabo-
lism, membrane repair, vesicular transport
Acknowledgements: The research in Authors’
Laboratory is supported by statutory fund
from the Nencki Institute of Experimental Bio-
logy, Polish Academy of Sciences and by an
Opus grant, reg. no 2016/23/B/NZ3/03116,
from the National Science Center to JBP.
Annexin A6 as a cholesterol and nucleotide binding protein involved
in membrane repair and in controlling membrane transport
during endo- and exocytosis
ABSTRACT
Annexins, calcium- and membrane-binding proteins, have been extensively studied at the
Nencki Institute since early 1990s, in terms of their structure, potential ligands and func-
tions in the organism, with emphasis on mineralization processes in norm and pathology.
The results of recently performed studies have revealed that annexins are playing essential
roles in membrane organization. In this review we characterize the largest member of the
annexin family of proteins, annexin A6 (AnxA6), in respect to its cholesterol and nucleoti-
de binding properties, as well as intracellular pH sensing and ability to change membrane
permeability to ions. Furthermore, we discuss biological functions of AnxA6 such as partici-
pation in membrane lateral organization, cell membrane repair and regulation of vesicular
transport.
INTRODUCTION – THE ANNEXINS
The vertebrate annexin (AnxA) superfamily consists of 12 members of cal-
cium and phospholipid binding proteins which share high structural homology
[Morgan et al. 2004; 2006; Gerke et al. 2005; Bandorowicz-Pikula 2003; Bandoro-
wicz Pikula et al. 2001; 2012; Domon et al. 2012; Kodavali et al. 2014; Grewal et al.
2016]. In keeping with this hallmark feature, annexins have been implicated in
Ca2+-controlled regulation of a broad range of membrane related events, which
may suggest its potential therapeutic value, namely, the regulation of immune
response and control of tissue homeostasis [Schloer et al. 2018]. Recent highlights
concerning transgenic (knockout animals) are summarized in table 1.
In this review, we focus on one of the main subjects of our investigations,
annexin A6 (AnxA6), its properties and potential functions in addition to major
achievements made by us in this eld since 1997, we discuss recent advances
related to hypothetical functions of AnxA6, including organization of biological
membranes, or membrane repair mechanisms. The latter may be controlled in
response to a disrupted cellular hemostasis and vesicle-related cellular process-
es, such as biomineralization [Balcerzak et al. 2008; Kapustin & Shanahan 2016;
Minashima & Kirsch 2018; Bottini et al. 2018], transport and storage of cholesterol
[Enrich et al. 2011; 2017; Reverter et al. 2011].
ANNEXIN A6 AT THE NENCKI INSTITUTE
Annexins were rst introduced to the Nencki Institute as one among sever-
al experimental subjects of the Laboratory of Plasma Membrane Receptors at
early 1990s [Bandorowicz et al. 1992; 1996; Sobota et al. 1993], and since 1997
further explored at the Laboratory of Lipid Biochemistry and Laboratory of
Cellular Metabolism, but also since 1991 by the members of Laboratory of Cal-
cium Binding Proteins [Filipek et al. 1991; 1995; Filipek & Wojda 1996]. During
this time the important discoveries have been made concerning the annexin
structure, potential ligands and nally their cellular and organismal functions.
They are listed in table 2. It should be underlined that structural features, bio-
chemical and biophysical properties of AnxA6 together with its functions have
been well characterized in vitro and in cellular systems mainly on the basis of
two fundamental discoveries – nucleotide binding properties of AnxA6 [Ban-
dorowicz-Pikula & Awasthi 1997; Bandorowicz-Pikula et al. 1997a; 1997b; 1999;
Bandorowicz-Pikula 1998; Bandorowicz-Pikula & Pikula 1998; Danieluk et al.
1999] and its interaction with cholesterol and cholesterol enriched biological
membranes in a calcium- and pH-dependent manner [Sztolsztener et al. 2010;
2012; Domon et al. 2010; 2011; 2013a,b]. It should be stressed that cholesterol
binding properties of AnxA6, characterized by us on the basis of a series of
in vivo and ex vivo experiments, have been extensively studied in many other
laboratories around the world. The obtained results suggest that AnxA6 acts
as a multifunctional scaffold protein and is able to recruit vast number of sig-

Postępy Biochemii 64 (2–3) 2018 191
naling proteins, modulates cholesterol transport and its
distribution within the cell, and also regulates membrane
transport through actin dynamics. These activities suggest
that AnxA6 may contribute to the formation of specic
protein complexes and membrane domains relevant in sig-
nal transduction, cholesterol homeostasis and endo-/exo-
cytosis [Grewal et al. 2017].
MEMBRANE-RELATED FUNCTIONS OF ANNEXIN A6
MEBRANE LATERAL ORGANIZATION
Annexin A6, as a cholesterol binding and multifunc-
tional scaffold protein plays a crucial role in cell motility
[Hayes et al. 2004; Monastyrskaya et al. 2009; Grewal et al.
2017] and is implicated also in cell signaling [Koese et al.
2013; Hoque et al. 2014; Qi et al. 2015; Cornely et al. 2016;
Raouf et al. 2018]. Moreover, annexin A6 has been report-
ed to regulate a formation of multifunctional signaling
complexes at the membranes, affect membrane lateral or-
ganization, or inuence cholesterol metabolism and dis-
tribution, but also to participate in the vesicular transport
both in endo- and exocytosis [Cubells et al. 2007; 2008;
Enrich et al. 2014; Garcia-Melero et al. 2016; Cairns et al.
2017]. In addition, it has been shown that AnxA6 recruit-
ed to the plasma membrane is able to affect membrane re-
modelling, e.g. upregulated AnxA6 in the cell decreased
plasma membrane order through the regulation of cellu-
lar cholesterol homeostasis and its interaction with the
actin cytoskeleton in the living cells [Alvarez-Guaita et
al. 2015]. Strong experimental evidence has been accu-
mulated that AnxA6 due to its unique, among annexins,
structure affecting the distribution of cell specic surface
receptors, recruits the interaction partners and simultane-
ously bridges specialized membrane domains with corti-
cal actin surrounding activated receptors [Cornely et al.
2011].
MEBRANE REPAIR
The features of AnxA6 described above may be further
extended to the observations suggesting its participation
Table 1. Properties of mammalian annexins revealed on the basis of analyses of knockout animals.
Annexin Gene
encodingMW (Da) Total aa C-terminal core domain Some proposed functions*
Annexin A1 ANXA1 38,714 346 4 repeat domains
anti- or pro-inammatory responses, wound closure, epithelial
motility, cancer cell metastasis, insulin secretion, cell fusion,
vesicular transport, cell signaling, uptake of viruses
Annexin A2 ANXA2 40,41138,604 357
339 4 repeat domains cancer cell metastasis, brinolysis, pathogen
recognition, defense against bacterial infection
Annexin A3 ANXA3 36,375 323 4 repeat domains nd
Annexin A4 ANXA4 35,883 321 4 repeat domains cardiomyocyte signaling, integrity of urothelium
Annexin A5 ANXA5 35,937 320 4 repeat domains biomineralization, thrombosis, angiogenesis,
recognition of apoptotic cells
Annexin A6 ANXA6 75,873
72,423
673
641
8 repeat domains
and linker
calcium homeostasis, plasma membrane
organization, membrane repair, gluconeogenesis,
biomineralization, chondrocyte differentiation
Annexin A7 ANXA8 52,739
50,316
488
466 4 repeat domains cardiac contraction and remodeling, insulin
secretion, cell proliferation
Annexin A8 ANXA9 36,881 327 4 repeat domains nd
Annexin A9 ANXA10 38,364 345 4 repeat domains nd
Annexin A10 ANXA11 37,278 324 4 repeat domains nd
Annexin A11 ANXA12 54,390 505 4 repeat domains nd
Annexin A13 ANXA13 35,415
39,744
316
357 4 repeat domains nd
Information taken from https://www.uniprot.org, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein/. *Some intra and extracellular
functions suggested on the basis of the experiments performed using knockout animals, reviewed in [Grewal
et al. 2016; Schloer et al. 2018]. Abbreviations: aa – amino acid residue, nd – not determined.

192 www.postepybiochemii.pl
in membrane repair mechanisms. Efcient cell membrane
repair mechanisms are essential for maintaining mem-
brane integrity and, thus, for cell life [Lauritzen et al.
2015; Demonbreun et al. 2016; Boye et al. 2017].
Initially, it has been observed that AnxA1 is involved
in the repair of plasmalemmal lesions induced by bacteri-
al toxins. Furthermore, highly Ca2+-sensitive AnxA6, that
responds faster to [Ca2+]i elevation than AnxA1, promotes
formation of lesions, and therefore is able to react to a
limited and sustained membrane injury [Potez et al. 2011].
The AnxA6 contribution to membrane repair mechanism
has been further elaborated on the basis of in vitro obser-
vations that AnxA4 and AnxA6 involved in plasma mem-
brane repair cause rapid closure of micron-size holes in
membranes. It has been demonstrated that AnxA4 binds
to membranes and generates curvature force, whereas
AnxA6 induces constriction force. In cells, plasma mem-
brane injury and concomitant Ca2+ inux result in AnxA4
recruitment to the vicinity of membrane wound edges.
Then, homo-trimerization of AnxA4 leads to membrane
curvature near the edges. Mediated by AnxA6 constric-
tion force is responsible for pulling the wound edges to-
gether for membrane fusion and nal repair [Boye et al.
2017]. In agreement are observations performed by means
of whole genome sequencing and RNA sequencing which
identied AnxA6 on the mouse model of muscular dys-
trophy associated with cardiomyopathy. Its truncated
version called ANXA6N32 was found to be responsible
for disrupting the whole AnxA6-rich cap and the associ-
ated (surrounding) repair zone at the site of sarcolemma
disruption, resulting in a membrane leak, characteristic
for muscular dystrophy [Swaggart et al. 2014].
VESICULAR TRANSPORT
AnxA6 features allowed many investigators to think
about this protein as a potential modulator of vesicular
transport events. It has been suggested that AnxA6 is impli-
cated in endocytosis, especially at the stage of fusion of au-
tophagosomes with endocytic compartment in hepatocytes
[Tebar et al. 2014; Enrich et al. 2017]. Moreover, AnxA6 high-
ly expressed in smooth muscles, hepatocytes, endothelial
cells and cardiomyocytes, has been found to affect various
stages of endocytotic route of cholesterol transport [Cubells
et al. 2007; Enrich et al. 2011; Reverter et al. 2011; Rentero et
al. 2018].
In addition, AnxA6 was found to participate in choles-
terol storage and the control of late endosomal cholesterol
levels, that modulate integrin recycling and cell migration
[Garcia-Melero et al. 2018], as well as inuenza A replica-
tion and propagation [Musiol et al. 2013]. AnxA6 has also
been linked to triglyceride storage in adipocytes [Cairns et
al. 2017].
Participation of annexins in exocytosis was rst postu-
lated almost 30 years ago [Creutz 1992]. Further studies
has revealed, that the number of observations suggesting
functioning of AnxA6 in exocytosis is limited. Investiga-
tors, however, agree that this multifunctional protein plays
a regulatory role in membrane trafcking during exocytosis
too [Enrich et al. 2017; Cairns et al. 2018].
CONCLUDING REMARKS
We have actively contributed to experiments, results
of which show that AnxA6 is an exceptional member
Table 2. Properties and potential cellular functions of annexin A6 studied in the Laboratory of Lipid Biochemistry.
Feature Description References
Cellular localization Plasma membrane, lysosomes and endosomes, matrix vesicles
[Bandorowicz et al. 1992; Balcerzak
et al. 2008; Strzelecka-Kiliszek et al.
2008; Sztolsztener et al. 2010; 2012;
Cmoch et al. 2011; Bottini et al. 2018]
Membrane binding properties
and ion channel-like activity
Calcium dependent binding to plasma
membrane phosphatidylserine
A pH and calcium dependent interaction
of AnxA6 with cholesterol, identication of
cholesterol binding domain in AnxA6
Mechanism of folding of AnxA6 in membranes at acidic pH
[Bandorowicz-Pikula et al. 1996]
[Domon et al. 2010; 2011; 2013a; 2013b]
[Golczak et al. 2001; 2004; Pikula
2003; Buzhynskyy et al. 2009]
Nucleotide binding properties
Identication of a putative consensus sequence
for the nucleotide-binding site in AnxA6
GTP-induced ion channel activity of AnxA6
[Kirilenko et al. 2002; 2006; Bandorowicz-
Pikula 2003; Bandorowicz-Pikula et al. 2003]
Intracellular functions
Lateral organization of plasma membrane – microdomains
Transport and storage of cholesterol
Catecholamine and interleukin-2 secretion
Biomineralization and matrix vesicles biogenesis
[Domon et al. 2012]
[Bandorowicz-Pikula et al. 2012]
[Podszywalow-Bartnicka et al. 2007;
2010; Strzelecka-Kiliszek et al. 2008]
Pathogenesis Lipid storage in Niemann-Pick type C disease
associated with mitochondrial dysfunction [Wos et al. 2016; 2018]

Postępy Biochemii 64 (2–3) 2018 193
of the annexin family of proteins resembling genuine
cholesterol-interacting proteins. Our studies indicate
particularly that AnxA6 intracellular localization and
membrane binding at low pH is determined by choles-
terol. Although, the overall picture of possible AnxA6
functions still requires further studies to identify/clari-
fy/completely unveil physiological and/or pathological
processes involving AnxA6 ability to change membrane
permeability to ions or mechanisms of membrane repair.
To sum up, step should be taken to elucidate the overall
importance of AnxA6 for the whole organism as it may
form specic target to identify and cure human diseases
in which AnxA6 may play a signicant role.
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Postępy Biochemii 64 (2–3) 2018 195
Aneksyna A6, białko wiążące cholesterol i nukleotydy, uczestniczące
w naprawie błon biologicznych i w transporcie pęcherzykowym
Joanna Bandorowicz-Pikuła*, Agnieszka Kinga Seliga
Pracownia Metabolizmu Komórki, Instytut Biologii Doświadczalnej im. Marcelego Nenckiego PAN, ul. Pasteura 3, 02-093 Warszawa
*e-mail: j.bandorowicz-pikula@nencki.gov.pl
Słowa kluczowe: aneksyna A6, cholesterol, naprawa błon biologicznych, transport pęcherzykowy
STRESZCZENIE
Aneksyny, rodzina białek wiążących jony wapnia i błony biologiczne, były badane w Instytucie Biologii Doświadczalnej im. Marcelego
Nenckiego w Warszawie od wczesnych lat 90. XX wieku. Szczególną uwagę poświęcono strukturze aneksyn, potencjalnym ligandom tych
białek oraz ich funkcji, np. w procesie biomineralizacji zachodzącym w normie i w stanach patologicznych. Wyniki badań prowadzonych w
wielu laboratoriach na świecie wskazują, że aneksyny odgrywają bardzo ważną rolę w organizacji błon biologicznych. W tym artykule prze-
glądowym opisujemy jednego z największych pod względem masy cząsteczkowej przedstawiciela rodziny aneksyn, aneksynę A6 (AnxA6),
białko wykazujące zdolność wiązania się z cholesterolem i nukleotydami oraz zmieniające przepuszczalność błony dla jonów w odpowiedzi
na obniżenie wewnątrzkomórkowego pH. Dodatkowo, opisano funkcje AnxA6, takie jak udział w tworzeniu mikrodomen błonowych, w
naprawie uszkodzeń błony plazmatycznej oraz w regulacji transportu pęcherzykowego.
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Enzymol 535: 55-74
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derived from patients with Niemann-Pick type C disease. Arch Bio-
chem Biophys 593: 50-59
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type C patients. J Cell Biochem in press