Development of baseline (air quality) data in Pakistan

Abstract

During 2003–2004, SUPARCO, the Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission has conducted a year long baseline air quality study in country’s major urban areas (Karachi, Lahore, Quetta, Rawalpindi, Islamabad and Peshawar). The objective of this study was to establish baseline levels and behavior of airborne pollutants in urban centers with temporal and spatial parameters. This study reveals that the highest concentrations of CO were observed at Quetta (14 ppm) while other pollutants like SO2 (52.5 ppb), NOx
(60.75 ppb) and O3 (50 ppb) were higher at Lahore compared to other urban centers like Karachi, Peshawar etc. The maximum particulate (TSP) and PM10 levels were observed at Lahore (996 ug/m3 and 368 ug/m3 respectively), Quetta (778 ug/m3, 298 ug/m3) and in Karachi (410 ug/m3, 302 ug/m3). In all major cities the highest levels were recorded at major intersections and variations were directly correlated with traffic density. These pollutants showed highest levels in summer and spring while lowest were observed in winter and monsoon. A data bank has been generated for future planning and air pollution impact studies.

Full text

Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252
DOI 10.1007/s10661-006-9276-8
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Development of baseline (air quality) data in Pakistan
Badar Ghauri · Arifa Lodhi · M. Mansha
Received: 20 October 2004 / Accepted: 8 May 2006 / Published online: 21 October 2006
C

Springer Science +Business Media B.V. 2006
Abstract During 2003–2004, SUPARCO, the Pak-
istan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Comm-
ission has conducted a year long baseline air quality
study in country’s major urban areas (Karachi, Lahore,
Quetta, Rawalpindi, Islamabad and Peshawar). The
objective of this study was to establish baseline
levels and behavior of airborne pollutants in urban
centers with temporal and spatial parameters. This
study reveals that the highest concentrations of
CO were observed at Quetta (14 ppm) while other
pollutants like SO
2
(52.5 ppb), NO
x
(60.75 ppb) and
O
3
(50 ppb) were higher at Lahore compared to
other urban centers like Karachi, Peshawar etc.
The maximum particulate (TSP) and PM10 levels
were observed at Lahore (996 ug/m
3
and 368 ug/m
3
respectively), Quetta (778 ug/m
3
, 298 ug/m
3
) and in
Karachi (410 ug/m
3
, 302 ug/m
3
). In all major cities the
highest levels were recorded at major intersections and
variations were directly correlated with traffic density.
These pollutants showed highest levels in summer
and spring while lowest were observed in winter and
monsoon. A data bank has been generated for future
planning and air pollution impact studies.
B. Ghauri (

) · A. Lodhi · M. Mansha
Pakistan Space & Upper Atmosphere Research
Commission (SUPARCO) P.O. Box 8402, Karachi-75270,
Pakistan
e-mail: suparco@super.net.pk
Keywords Air quality
.
Mega cities
.
Particulates
.
Clean air
Introduction
Pakistan Space & Upper Atmosphere Research Com-
mission (SUPARCO) has kept a very close watch on
some atmospheric pollutants and trace metals for last
many years. In its earlier study a chemical mass balance
and multivariate analysis technique had been applied to
delineate pollution sources in major cities of Pakistan.
It was also reported that daily concentrations of partic-
ulate matter in Karachi city were found exceeding the
ambient air quality standard during most of time of the
year except in monsoons. A non-automotive source of
Pb aerosols was also identified (Parekh et al., 1987).
Later (Ghauri et al., 1994) demonstrated that most of
the air pollution in major cities came from the com-
bustion of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants, ce-
ment and textiles mills, etc. Exposure to elevated pol-
lutants concentrations or long continued exposure to
low levels of ambient air pollutants has received in-
creasing attention due to wide range of adverse effects
of air pollutants on ecological system and human health
(Dockery and Pope, 1994; Koenig, 2000; Pope et al.,
2002).
SUPARCO has undertaken air quality study dur-
ing 2003–2004 in response to the initiative taken by
FERTS (Fuel Efficiency in Road Transport Sector) of
ENERCON/UNDP. This has generated the most
Springer

238 Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252
needed information on environmental conditions of
major cities of the country. One of the important ob-
jectives of the study was to establish the baseline (air
quality) data in Pakistan with temporal and spatial pa-
rameters, to identify pollution sources and to determine
their relative contribution towards prevailing ambient
air quality of urban areas. The measurements of the fol-
lowing pollutants were carried out: SO
2
, CO, CO
2
,O
3
,
NOx, Hydrocarbons (Methane and Non-Methane), Par-
ticulates (TSP & PM10) and noise as well as meteoro-
logical parameters. TSP (total suspended particulates)
are aerosol particles (sometimes even above 100 μm
sizes) suspended in the air. PM10 means particulate
mass of particles smaller than 10 μm in diameter. The
study was carried out in six major cities of Pakistan i.e.
Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, Quetta, Rawalpindi and Is-
lamabad and continued during the whole year. The state
of air quality in urban areas of the country and various
factors are being presented in the paper which are dete-
riorating air quality. A brief description for these cities
is given below:
Karachi (Lat: 24
◦
48

N, Long: 66
◦
59

E) with a
population of over 10 millions, is the biggest industrial
and commercial center in Pakistan. It offers immense
employment and business opportunities. It borders on
the Arabian Sea, and is not under the influence of any
other immediate industrial center. Therefore, we expect
the pollutants present are entirely derived from local
sources. With a population of more than seven million,
Lahore (Lat: 31
◦
35

N, Long: 74
◦
20

E) is country’s
second largest city after Karachi. It occupies a choice
site in the midst of fertile alluvial plains. It is country’s
second commercial and banking center. Although little
industry is located in the city itself, Lahore serves
as a distribution center for the heavily industrialized
surrounding area. The city of Quetta (Lat: 30
◦
12

N,
Long: 67
◦
E) is located in the mountainous region and
lies at the mouth of the Bolan Pass. Here population
is about 0.7 million. The district lies outside the range
of the monsoon currents and the rainfall is scanty and
irregular. Rawalpindi (Lat: 33
◦
36

N, Long: 73
◦
04

E) is
an industrial and military center with a petroleum refin-
ery, engineering workshops, steel-rolling mills, etc. Its
population is over 1.4 million. Lying at altitudes rang-
ing from 457 to 610 meters, Islamabad (Lat: 33
◦
42

N,
Long: 73
◦
10

E) the capital city is an expanse of natural
terraces drained by the Kurang River with the Margalla
Hills in the north east. Population is 524,500 (National
Census, 1998). Peshawar (Lat: 34
◦
1

N, Long: 71
◦
35

E)
is situated near the entrance to the Khyber Pass. Local
industries produce handicrafts and processed food.
Population is 988,055 (National Census, 1998).
Methodology
Measurements of major pollutants were carried out us-
ing two Mobile Pollution Monitoring Labs. The fixed-
point observations do not explain the whole situation
because pollutants concentration may be dominated by
local sources, making the results to some degree un-
representative of the area as a whole. Air pollution
in general, is much too complex and diverse because
of the wide variability in the type, intensity, density
and spatial distribution of emission sources. Interval of
measurement was taken as 15 minutes and monitoring
was carried out continuously for 48 h at a site and was
repeated over the year for all the four seasons. One-
hour mean were calculated from 15 min data. The peak
value in hourly mean was quoted as maximum value.
Any single extraordinary high peak was omitted (e.g.
at some places a single CO peak was omitted and then
2nd highest value was quoted as maximum level). First
time measurements at a site were marked as cycle 1,
repeated measurements at the same site were marked as
cycle 2, cycle 3 & cycle 4. There were total 33 sites in
six cities and each site was monitored four times. Fig-
ure 1 shows the location of six cities on country map.
Measurement techniques
Suspended particulate matter was collected on 20 ×
25 cm Whatman 41 filters using high-volume sam-
plers. Air samples were collected for 24 h starting from
0800 h at a flow rate of 1.13 m
3
/min. The flow was
held at a constant volume by a mass flow controller
and was corrected for local temperature and barometric
pressure. A Sierra Andersen PM10 size-selective stage
(Model 321-A) was used to eliminate coarse particles
(>10 um). Weight of the filter paper was taken before
and after the loading at constant humidity (maintained
by keeping the filter paper in a desiccator for at least
24 h).
In accordance with 40 CFR part 53 of USEPA
air quality assessment in term of NO
x
,O
3
,CO&
SO
2
was carried out using the Mobile lab, which
had on-board all analyzers. Ambient NO
x
Monitor
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Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252 239
Fig. 1 Map of Pakistan showing locations of the cities
(Thermo Environmental Instrument Inc, USA, Model
42C) based on chemiluminescent technology was used
to monitor NO
x
levels. Ambient SO
2
was monitored
using Environmental SA, France, Model AF 22M.
The instrument is based on ultraviolet (UV) fluores-
cent measurement techniques. The instrument manu-
factured by M/S. Thermo Environmental Instruments
Inc USA, (Model 48C and 48 H) were used for CO &
CO
2
based on Gas Filter Correlation (GFC) technique.
The Ozone Analyzer of Monitor Lab. Inc., USA (Model
8810) based upon UV photometry was employed for
surface ozone measurements.
Results and discussion
The need to investigate ambient air quality appears
paramount especially when bearing in mind that
Pakistan is shifting its economic base from agriculture
to industry. The environmental impacts of air pollu-
tants include a number of effects on earth’s atmosphere
and on atmospheric processes. Generally, the sources
of gaseous pollutants are considered in three cate-
gories, combustion sources, industrial manufacturing
processes and natural emission mechanism. Industrial
sources of particulates, like steel, cement factories, in-
discriminate burning of solid wastes and heavy traffic
loads are the largest sources of particulate matter be-
sides noise and gaseous pollutants. Sulfur dioxide, car-
bon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides are
common emissions from auxiliary systems such as in-
cinerators, steam boilers including processing residue
waste fuel fire systems, glass and can manufacturing.
The aerosol contents of the atmosphere are sensitive
to the location of local sources and meteorological
conditions. The growing air pollution is resulting in
increased health cost, losses to crops and properties.
The Economic Survey of Pakistan 2004 pinpoints ve-
hicular and industrial emissions as the main causes
of poor air quality (www.irinnews.org/report.asp). The
Annual Economic Survey reports that the average com-
pounded growth of vehicles in Pakistan is about 12
percent a year, and over the last two decades the total
number of motor vehicles on the road has jumped
from 0.8 million to almost 5 million (Lahore, 11 Oct
2004, IRIN, www.irinnews.org/report.asp). This recent
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240 Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252
Table 1 Mean (48 h) & maximum (hourly) number of vehicles counted per day at monitoring sites (2003–2004)
Bick-up Loader Rickshaws
City Buses Jeeps Pick-ups Tractors Trucks M/Cycles (three wheelers) Cars
Karachi (10 sites) Mean 6512 2182 1928 18 1112 3400 1161 6330
Maximum 16052 4335 6032 217 4259 7588 2586 10593
Quetta (3 sites) Mean 3066 1222 1462 15 212 2228 1927 3376
Maximum 5091 1733 2412 313 637 2740 2001 5153
Lahore (7 sites) Mean 5256 1493 1559 30 515 3146 2213 4912
Maximum 14928 3926 3818 277 1645 5496 3744 7921
Rawalpindi (3 sites) Mean 4914 1276 1342 17 477 2865 1578 4268
Maximum 10829 2409 4399 140 1163 4431 1972 6700
Islamabad (3 sites) Mean 2764 1067 1054 13 220 1149 338 3008
Maximum 5091 1711 2412 39 733 2001 1019 4679
Peshawar (5 sites) Mean 3364 1226 920 42 327 1445 1035 3095
Maximum 6531 3391 3259 229 840 3450 3125 4940
Fig. 2 Total suspended particles observed in six major cities of Pakistan
increase in the population of vehicles in urban areas
not only leads to frequent traffic jams at intersections
but also ultimately result in rise in pollutants levels
as so far no vehicular pollution control device is em-
ployed in Pakistan. During this study, traffic density
at each location was determined using digital photog-
raphy. Table 1 gives daily mean and maximum num-
ber of vehicles counted at monitoring sites in various
cities.
Particulate matter (TSP & PM10)
Airborne particulate matter is ubiquitous in the atmo-
sphere and varies widely (spatially and temporally)
in size, concentration and chemical composition.
Particulate emissions to air are the main environmental
challenges for industry and transport sectors. Also of
concern are the sulfates and nitrate particles that are
formed as a byproduct of SO
2
and NO
2
emissions,
primarily from fossil fuel-burning in power plants and
vehicular exhausts. According to the report of World
Health Organization (WHO), South Asia has become
one of the most polluted areas in the world due to
its rapid industrialization and increasing population.
Exposure to particulate matter leads to more visits to
the doctor or emergency room. Health effects include
coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, aggravated
asthma, lung damage (including decreased lung
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Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252 241
function and lifelong respiratory disease), and prema-
ture death in individuals with existing heart or lung
diseases. In major urban areas of Pakistan, peoples of
all ages suffer from throat infections especially when
season is cold and dry. In Pakistan, like the other low-
income countries the vehicular emissions have been
dominated by emissions from old and poorly main-
tained vehicles that contribute to enhanced ambient
concentrations of fine particulates & carbon monoxide.
It has been observed that levels of most of air pollutants
were higher in summer than in winter and monsoons,
which can easily be interpreted in terms of time depen-
dent changes primarily in meteorological conditions.
In urban areas the higher concentrations of PM10 are
indicative of higher traffic density, whereas higher TSP
values are indicative of size reduction process such as
iron, cement and ceramic industrial activities or natural
dust entrainment. The particulate levels as monitored in
different cities contain a significant amount of crustal
dust, which is a peculiar characteristics of local soil (es-
pecially in north & eastern Pakistan), lack of vegetation
and paved areas. It was observed that maximum TSP
load was recorded during summer season and minimum
in monsoon. Further daytime particulate load is higher
than nighttime one, indicating more urban activities
during day time. Lahore is facing alarming level of TSP
followed by Quetta, Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Islamabad,
and Karachi. The high TSP maximum (1 hr) TSP
levels in these cities are 2 to 4 times higher than the
standard limit of USEPA of 260 ug/m
3
(Fig. 2). Even
the mean of 48 h exceeded the recommended limits
(Tables 2–7)
The maximum (1 hr) TSP peaks were found at
Chowk Yateem Khana, Lahore (996 ug/m
3
), Satel-
lite Town, Quetta (778 ug/m
3
), Attock Oil Refin-
ery, Rawalpindi (500 ug/m
3
), Kohat Ada, Peshawar
(530 ug/m
3
) and I-9, Islamabad (490 ug/m
3
), Civic-
Center, Karachi (410 ug/m
3
) as shown in Fig. 2. In
Quetta trans-boundary dust storm (seasonal), fugitive
emissions from lime stone quarries are major contribu-
tors. The dry weather, soil erosion, and lack of veg-
etation/trees, also contribute to higher level of TSP
in addition to low dispersion in the valley. The dust
and vehicular emissions are the major part in TSP load
observed in five cities, whereas low TSP levels were
observed in Karachi, which borders Arabian sea hav-
ing different meteorological conditions of higher wind
speed and humidity. There is a clear difference of TSP
levels measured in monsoons (1st Cycle) and those
Table 2 The mean concentration (48 h) showing spatial and temporal variation of different gases, particles, lead and noise level at Islamabad
SO
2
NO
x
CO O
3
HC Methane Non-methane CO
2
TSP PM10 Lead Noise
Site Cycle/season (ppb) (ppb) (ppm) (ppb) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (SPM) ug/m
3
ug/m
3
ug/m
3
Level (dB)
Sector F-10 Cycle I /Monsoon 15 Aug to 16 Aug, 03 12.1 18.8 2.0 17.0 0.5 0.4 270.0 287 157 64.8 64.8
Cycle II/Winter 3 Nov to 5 Nov, 03 16.7 21.2 2.8 20.0 0.7 0.6 303.2 301 159 71.7 72
Cycle III/Spring 6 Mar to 8 Mar, 04 19.7 28 3.5 20.9 1.1 0.8 312.2 429 163 76.7 77
Cycle IV/Summer 1 May to 3 May, 04 26.0 32 4.4 22 1.0 1.4 309.8 431 232 73.7 74
Poly Clininc Cycle I/Monsoon 12 Aug to 14 Aug, 03 16 19.1 1.0 15 1.0 0.7 298 320 157 78.3 78
Cycle II/Winter 31 Oct to 2 Nov, 03 18.9 23 1.7 18 1.2 1.2 308 350 159 72.5 73
Cycle III/Spring 3 Mar to 5 Mar, 04 21.9 26 2.4 18 1.2 1.1 314.2 365 175 72.5 73
Cycle IV/Summer 3 May to 5 May, 04 24 30 3.0 20 1.4 1.4 322.2 397 216 78.5 79
Sector I-9 Cycle I/Monsoon 10 Aug to 12 Aug, 03 16.9 20 2.4 11.8 0.9 0.7 306 373 173 66.9 66.9
Cycle II/Winter 29 Aug to 31 Aug, 03 20 22.2 3.0 15 0.7 1.1 311.2 421 216 68.9 68.9
Cycle III/Spring 1 Mar to 3 Mar, 04 22.2 22 3.7 16.8 1.1 0.9 319.5 427 224 73.8 73.8
Cycle IV/Summer 1 May to 3 May, 04 28 26 4.0 18 1.6 1.2 325 433 238 76.7 77
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242 Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252
Table 3 Mean of 48 hours showing spatial and temporal variations of different gases, particles, lead and noise level at Quetta
SO
2
NO
x
CO O
3
HC Methane Non-methane CO
2
TSP PM10 Lead Noise
Site Cycle/season (ppb) (ppb) (ppm) (ppb) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (SPM) ug/m
3
ug/m
3
ug/m
3
level (dB)
Mezan Chowk Cycle I/Monsoon 26 jun to 27 jun, 03 30.4 36 6.37 28.5 0.9 0.8 395 642 277 5.2 72.8
Cycle II/Winter 6 Nov to 8 Nov, 03 28 36 7.10 25 0.7 0.7 380 543 234 4.71 77
Cycle III/Spring 18 Feb to 20 Feb, 04 20 19.8 7.39 15.3 0.5 0.8 289 467 183 3.81 76.2
Cycle IV/Summer 13 May to 15 May, 04 38.38 45.3 8.23 34.4 0.75 1 358 563 272 5.8 77
Satellite Town Cycle I/Monsoon 27 Jun to 29 Jun, 03 32 29 5.65 28 0.9 0.8 384 653 298 4.11 72.2
Cycle II/Winter 31 Oct to 11 Nov, 03 25 32 5.8 26 0.7 0.7 381 553 285 3.44 76.1
Cycle III/Spring 20 Feb to 22 Feb, 04 15.4 17.9 6.2 16.9 0.4 0.7 381 467 201 2.31 76.2
Cycle IV/Summer 15 May to 17 May, 04 21.75 29.3 6.9 24.8 1 1 340 702 266.7 4.7 77.7
Gawal Mandi Cycle I/Monsoon 29 Jun to 1 Jul, 03 32 38 7.10 29.8 0.9 0.8 385 710 286 4.24 70.8
Cycle II/Winter 3 Nov to 5 Nov, 03 27.2 35.4 6.0 24.5 0.7 0.7 380 657 253 3.56 73
Cycle III/Spring 23 Feb to 25 Feb, 04 16.9 27.3 6.7 9.6 0.5 0.6 353 416 201 2.54 60
Cycle IV/Summer 18 May to 20 May, 04 26.8 31.3 7.3 26.9 1.4 1.2 366 553 252 4.28 61.9
measured in summer months (4th Cycle). The trend
remained same for mean TSP levels, with maxima of
means at Lahore and Quetta. Other cities, though ex-
ceeding prescribed limits of USEPA, had mean TSP
levels around 350 ug/m
3
(Fig. 3).
The PM10 (particles measuring 10 microns or less)
are particles likely to be inhaled by humans. These
microscopic inhalable particles PM10 affect breath-
ing and respiration and cause lung damage. Chil-
dren, the elderly, and people suffering from heart
or lung disease are especially at risk. Higher lev-
els of particulates especially PM10 are attributed to
large number of 2 stroke vehicles, diesel driven ve-
hicles and adulteration of petrol/diesel. The max-
imum (I hr) PM10 levels were again observed at
Lahore (368 ug/m
3
), Quetta (331 ug/m
3
), Rawalpindi
(276 ug/m
3
), Peshawar (350 ug/m
3
) and Islamabad
(280 ug/m
3
), Karachi (302 ug/0m
3
) (Fig. 4). These lev-
els were clearly higher in summer months (4th cycle)
as compared to other seasons (Tables 2–7). At most
of the sites, the mean (48 h) PM10 level exceeded the
USEPA standard limit of 150 ug/m
3
(Fig. 5). However
comparatively lowest PM10 concentrations has been
recorded at Baloch Colony, Karachi (99 ug/m
3
) and F-
10, Islamabad (126 ug/m
3
), which is a clear indication
that these sites have lesser activities and were visited
by comparatively fewer vehicles.
Gaseous pollutants
The ever increasing vehicular emissions are the main
factor leading to bad air quality in urban areas. Motor
vehicles account for about 90 percent of total emissions
of hydrocarbons, NO
x
, particles and CO. Oxides of ni-
trogen produced under high temperature combustion
are major criteria pollutants that are precursors to pho-
tochemical smog, ozone and acid formation. Oxides
of nitrogen are found within limit but their concentra-
tions in the ambient air has been found increasing since
the compressed natural gas (CNG) was introduced in
vehicles without any catalytic converters.
In all the six cities, NO
x
levels fall within speci-
fied U.S. ambient air quality standards (50 ppb as an-
nual mean, 100–170 ppb as one hourly mean). Lahore
city has shown highest levels of nitrogen oxides, which
was caused by the heavy traffic around the sampling
sites, however stationary sources such as power plants
around the city are also the contributers. The overall
NO
x
concentrations ranged 5.4–60.7 ppb during 24 h at
Springer

Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252 243
Table 4 The mean concentration (48 h) showing spatial and temporal variation of different gases, particles, lead and noise level at Lahore
SO
2
NO
x
CO O
3
HC Methane Non-methane CO
2
TSP PM10 Lead Noise
Site Cycle/season (ppb) (ppb) (ppm) (ppb) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (SPM) ug/m
3
ug/m
3
ug/m
3
level (dB)
Chowk Yateem Khana Cycle I/Monsoon 9 Jul to 11 Jul, 03 21.4 25.6 4.2 16.8 1.0 0.8 337.6 510 263 5.01 85.5
Cycle II/Winter 23 Sep to 25 Sep, 03 25.6 30.8 5.4 17.9 0.8 0.9 379.1 690 269 4.78 82.4
Cycle III/Spring 24 Mar to 26 Mar, 04 30.6 36.3 4.8 22.9 1.3 1.6 384 785 280 4.68 85.8
Cycle IV/Summer 7 Jun to 9 Jun, 04 31 53.7 7.4 30.5 1.6 1.9 380 851 293 4.8 78.0
Azadi Chowk Cycle I/Monsoon 12 Jul to 14 Jul, 03 23.4 30.9 3.8 20.8 1.2 1.2 350.8 460 201 5.12 85.6
Cycle II/Winter 25 Sep to 27 Sep, 03 22.9 27.1 4.6 20.6 1.3 1.2 356.1 561 231 4.56 76.9
Cycle III/Spring 26 Mar to 28 Mar, 04 27.3 32 4.5 25.7 1.3 1.5 362.1 580 268 4.02 79
Cycle IV/Summer 9 Jun to 11 Jun, 04 29.8 48 6.7 29.1 1.6 1.4 379.6 769 273 4.5 73.4
Shalimar Cycle I/Monsoon 28 Jul to 30 Jul, 03 17.7 24.5 2.8 19.8 0.8 1.2 326.2 308 168 3.45 75.1
Cycle II/Winter 23 Sep to 25 Sep, 03 20.7 24.7 3.45 19.9 0.7 1.0 330.2 360 205 2.98 82.9
Cycle III/Spring 29 Mar to 31 Mar, 04 24.3 30.9 3.8 26.5 1.0 1.1 337.3 372 255 2.81 87.0
Cycle IV/Summer 12 Jun to149 Jun, 04 25.7 31.2 4.9 26.7 1.3 1.7 344.4 418 288 3.2 86.9
Qurtaba Chowk Cycle I/Monsoon 14 Jul to 17 Jul, 03 16 28.3 2.2 18.7 0.7 1.1 333.6 327 119 2.98 71.7
Cycle II/Winter 30 Sep to 1 Oct, 03 14.7 22.8 3.3 22.1 1.1 1.3 339.9 327 119 2.98 80.3
Cycle III/Spring 31 Mar to 2 Apr, 04 24.1 30.1 3.0 22.1 1.0 1.5 347.6 331 125 3.01 84.7
Cycle IV/Summer 14 Jun to 16 Jun, 04 26.9 35 3.9 26.0 1.2 1.5 354.5 818 260 3.5 78.7
Bank Square Cycle I/Monsoon 17 Jul to 19 Jul, 03 16.9 23.0 2.0 13.7 0.7 1.1 324.1 220 130 2.76 70.5
Cycle II/Winter 3 Oct to 5 Oct, 03 19.1 24.6 3.9 21.1 1.0 1.3 334.9 211 148 2.45 76.6
Cycle III/Spring 3 Apr to 5 Apr, 04 19.9 26.7 2.5 23.6 1.0 1.3 341.5 269 149 2.46 81.2
Cycle IV/Summer 17 Jun to 19 Jun, 04 23.1 30.2 2.8 27.3 1.3 1.6 353.9 746 265 2.9 81.1
Ichra Cycle I/Monsoon 6 Jul to 7 Jul, 03 18.4 24.0 3.9 16.2 0.8 1.3 341.5 400 95 4.14 73.8
Cycle II/Winter 3 Oct to 5 Oct, 03 19.1 24.6 3.8 21.1 1.0 1.3 344.9 608 164 3.89 77.3
Cycle III/Spring 5 Apr to 7 Apr, 04 21.6 28.8 4.3 27.3 1.4 1.7 364 750 200 3.91 80.4
Cycle IV/Summer 197 Jun to 21 Jun, 04 24.9 50 4.5 30.2 1.3 1.7 340 808 265 4.4 80.4
Lhr Airport Cycle I/Monsoon 22 Jul to 24 Jul, 03 15.9 23.6 1.8 16.2 0.8 1.4 326.1 193 105 2.37 63.1
Cycle II/Winter 8 Oct to 10 Oct, 03 17.9 19.8 2.0 17.7 0.9 1.3 332.2 150 112 2.01 64.3
Cycle III/Spring 8 Apr to 10 Apr, 04 21.3 23.5 2.0 22.9 1.0 1.6 340 161 117 2.05 80.3
Cycle IV/Summer 22 Jun to 24 Jun, 04 26 38 2.9 24.8 1.3 1.7 338 518 224 2.6 82
Springer

244 Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252
Table 5 The mean concentration (48 h) showing spatial and temporal variation of different gases, particles, lead and noise level at Karachi
SO
2
NO
x
CO O
3
HC Methane Non-methane CO
2
TSP PM10 Lead Noise
Site Cycle/season (ppb) (ppb) (ppm) (ppb) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (SPM) ug/m
3
ug/m
3
ug/m
3
level (dB)
Civic Center Cycle I/Monsoon 7 Sep to 9 Sep, 03 18.6 33.1 5.0 30.8 1.1 1.6 328.9 358 220 5.03 73.3
Cycle II/Winter 5 Nov to 7 Nov, 03 20.1 24.5 7.0 18.5 1.4 0.8 326.9 332 146 4.79 83.7
Cycle III/Spring 5 Mar to 7 Mar, 04 23.8 28.8 7.8 23.1 2.0 1.2 341.9 339 231 4.8 87.7
Cycle IV/Summer 23 May to 25 May, 04 24.2 29.9 8.0 28.6 2.1 1.6 345.8 410 302 5.8 84.7
Garden Cycle I/Monsoon 10 Sep to 12 Sep, 03 17.1 26.5 4.0 28.3 2.0 0.9 316.5 341 220 4.83 76.3
Cycle II/Winter 7 Nov to 9 Nov, 03 25.4 22.5 5.5 16.0 1.3 1.0 332.2 245 164 3.67 84.1
Cycle III/Spring 7 Mar to 9 Mar, 04 29 27 6.0 12 1.5 1.1 339 321 189 4.31 91
Cycle IV/Summer 25 May to 27 May, 04 27.0 33.2 7.0 26.5 1.5 1.3 360.0 331 203 4.3 87.5
I.I. Chung. Rd Cycle I/Monsoon 13 Sep to 15 Sep, 03 17.9 20.0 3.9 27.0 0.6 0.9 327.2 333 198 3.9 78.8
Cycle II/Winter 10 Nov to 12 Nov, 03 19.2 23.6 5.7 24.6 0.8 1.2 333.0 289 201 3.2 82.5
Cycle III/Spring 10 Mar to 12 Mar, 04 25 28 6.2 27 1.1 1.6 344 288 210 3.1 89
Cycle IV/Summer 28 May to 30 May, 04 26.7 27.6 7.6 30.3 1.0 2.0 354.5 300 222 3.5 86.2
Korangi Cycle I/Monsoon 16 Sep to 18 Sep, 03 16.5 22.3 4.6 24.4 0.9 0.9 339.9 367 239 3.81 82.7
Cycle II/Winter 14 Nov to 16 Nov, 03 20.3 22.2 6.5 18.2 0.8 1.2 341.0 329 208 3.25 82.5
Cycle III/Spring 13 Mar to 15 Mar, 04 26 27 7.0 22 1.1 1.4 349 337 217 3.2 87
Cycle IV/Summer 30 May to 1 Jun, 04 27.5 33.0 8.0 24.5 1.4 1.6 348.9 346 228 3.2 85.5
Gizri Cycle I/Monsoon 17 Nov to 19 Nov, 03 18.1 20.6 2.6 25.3 0.4 0.7 324.2 275 219 3.35 84.9
Cycle II/Winter 19 Nov to 21 Nov, 03 21.8 23.4 3.2 20.3 0.7 1.0 333.0 258 199 3.03 82.4
Cycle III/Spring 16 Mar to 18 Mar, 04 27 29 4.0 24 0.8 1.3 345 262 204 3.1 85
Cycle IV/Summer 2 Jun to 4 Jun, 04 27.8 32.1 6.0 22.4 0.9 2.0 349.5 287 216 3.5 84.5
Site Cycle I/Monsoon 22 Sep to 24 Sep, 03 18.1 21.5 4.0 26.7 0.5 1.0 330.8 360 215 5.87 83.1
Cycle II/Winter 22 Nov to 24 Nov, 03 22.6 25.4 4.5 27.6 1.4 1.0 336.0 287 198 4.36 76.8
Cycle III/Spring 18 Mar to 20 Mar, 04 27 29 5.0 31 1.2 1.7 344 282 189 4.23 83
Cycle IV/Summer 4 Jun to 6 Jun, 04 27.0 32.6 7.4 28.1 1.5 2.0 350.1 296 201 4.4 81.5
Nazimabad Cycle I/Monsoon 25 Sep to 27 Sep, 03 12.6 23.3 4.3 25.0 0.8 0.9 334.1 285 185 3.25 78.6
Cycle II/Winter 25 Nov to 27 Nov, 03 17.4 18.5 4.4 18.4 1.0 1.0 338.8 254 151 3.03 75.9
Cycle III/Spring 21 Mar to 23 Mar, 04 24 24 5.2 22 0.9 1.6 354 208 163 3.12 86
Cycle IV/Summer 7 Jun to 9 Jun, 04 23.0 29.6 7.3 21.1 1.0 1.2 357.1 280 184 3.7 85.4
F.B.Area Cycle I/Monsoon 28 Sep to 30 Sep, 03 15.8 25.5 4.4 25.2 0.7 1.1 338.2 268 172 4.21 81.4
Cycle II/Winter 6 Nov to 8 Nov, 03 16.8 25.9 4.6 25.8 0.8 0.7 325.7 286 188 3.67 78.8
Cycle III/Spring 24 Mar to 26 Mar, 04 22.8 30.9 4.8 28.8 0.7 1.1 333.7 268 172 3.7 83.8
Cycle IV/Summer 9 Jun to 11 Jun, 04 18.3 35.9 6.2 26.6 1.0 1.2 345.8 286 188 3.7 80.6
Balooch Cycle I/Monsoon 1 Oct to 3 Oct, 03 15.9 20.9 3.0 26.2 0.7 0.8 322.5 289 160 4.13 82.2
Cycle II/Winter 28 Nov to 30 Nov, 03 20.7 22.4 3.4 22.8 0.8 0.7 325.7 245 146 3.97 78.8
Cycle III/Spring 27 Mar to 29 Mar, 04 25.7 28.4 4.2 25.8 0.6 1.1 337.7 255 139 3.9 80
Cycle IV/Summer 12 Jun to 14 Jun, 04 30.7 37.2 5.8 26.2 0.6 1.0 351.4 279 156 3.2 82.4
Jauhar Cycle I/Monsoon 4 Oct to 6 Oct, 03 19.8 21.7 3.5 24.1 0.6 0.7 324.7 228 128 4.98 83.8
Cycle II/Winter 30 Nov to 2 Nov, 03 17.7 22.1 3.2 23.8 1.0 0.9 327.3 210 178 4.45 80.4
Cycle III/Spring 29 Mar to 31 Mar, 04 22.6 26.6 4.0 27.8 1.2 0.8 340.3 220 186 4.16 87.4
Cycle IV/Summer 14 Jun to 16 Jun, 04 24.9 27.3 5.6 25.5 1.2 1.4 343.9 247 202 4.46 82.2
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Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252 245
Table 6 The mean concentration (48 h) showing spatial and temporal variation of different gases, particles, lead and noise level at Rawalpindi
SO
2
NO
x
CO O
3
HC Methane Non-methane CO
2
TSP PM10 Lead Noise
Site Cycle/season (ppb) (ppb) (ppm) (ppb) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (SPM) ug/m
3
ug/m
3
ug/m
3
level (dB)
Faizabad Cycle I/Monsoon 28 Jul to 30 Jul, 03 14.0 16 3.0 12.7 0.5 0.9 305.7 244 131 2.2 74.8
Cycle II/Winter 15 Oct to 17 Oct, 03 15 19 3.6 18 0.6 0.9 309 282 168 2.1 74.9
Cycle III/Spring 17 Feb to 19 Feb, 04 16.1 20 5.0 22.2 0.6 0.9 314.3 308 179 1.75 75.9
Cycle IV/Summer 9 May to 11 May, 04 16.8 23 5.5 26.8 1.0 1.0 323.2 392 215 2.6 79.9
Raja Cycle I/Monsoon 30 Jul to 1 Aug, 03 13.4 22 3.2 13.8 0.6 1.0 295.2 273 179 3.46 70.2
Cycle II/Winter 17 Oct to 19 Oct, 03 15.8 23 4.2 16.3 0.7 1.1 308 313 168 3.02 72
Cycle III/Spring 19 Feb to 21 Feb, 04 16.8 23 4.8 20.3 0.8 1.1 308 327 131 2.9 76.8
Cycle IV/Summer 11 May to 13 May, 04 18.1 26 5 21 1.0 1.2 312 416 215 3.8 81.8
Radio Cycle I/Monsoon 2 Aug to 4 Aug, 03 15 21 1.8 12 0.5 1.2 311 273 131 3.5 71.9
Cycle II/Winter 20 Oct to 22 Oct, 03 15.8 22.0 2.0 15 0.6 1.3 315 290 158 3.7 73.9
Cycle III/Spring 22 Feb to 24 Feb, 04 19.0 23 2.5 19 0.8 1.5 322 300 160 4.0 77.8
Cycle IV/Summer 14 May to 16 May, 04 19.0 27 3.8 20.1 0.8 1.6 356 459 236 4.7 77.7
Attock Cycle I/Monsoon 4 Aug to 6 Aug 03 12.9 18 3.0 13 0.4 0.6 302 389 167 3.75 69.6
Cycle II/Winter 22 Oct to 24 Oct, 03 13.9 20.0 3.8 14 0.7 0.8 308 416 200 3.65 66.0
Cycle III/Spring 24 Feb to 26 Feb, 04 15 21 4.2 15.2 0.8 1.2 314 420 208 3.37 66.4
Cycle IV/Summer 16 May to 18 May, 04 14.8 22.1 4.5 17 1.2 1.3 315 453 245 4.3 66.5
Nasirabad Cycle I/Monsoon 7 Aug to 9 Aug, 03 13.3 17 2.0 12 0.4 0.9 299 317 173 3.1 67.9
Cycle II/Winter 25 Oct to 27 Oct, 03 14.8 18 2.4 14.0 0.6 1.1 308 357 188 3.5 72.5
Cycle III/Spring 27 Feb to 29 Feb, 04 17.3 22 3.2 15.0 0.8 1.1 312 358 190 3.37 69.5
Cycle IV/Summer 19 May to 21 May, 04 19 25 4.5 19.9 0.8 1.2 314 464 248 4.3 69.5
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246 Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252
Table 7 The mean concentration (48 h) showing spatial and temporal variation of different gases, particles, lead and noise level at Peshawar
SO
2
NO
x
CO O
3
HC Methane Non-methane CO
2
TSP PM10 Lead Noise
Site Cycle/season (ppb) (ppb) (ppm) (ppb) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (SPM) ug/m
3
ug/m
3
ug/m
3
level (dB)
General Bus Stand Cycle I/Monsoon 21 Aug to 23 Aug, 03 18 21 2.4 20 0.4 0.8 356 302 213 3.23 72
Cycle II/Winter 10 Nov to 12 Nov, 03 19 27 3.2 20 0.8 1.6 358 312 219 3.9 72
Cycle III/Spring 10 Mar to 12 Mar, 04 23 27 3.6 23 2.1 2.0 372 350 291 4.5 74
Cycle IV/Summer 23 May to 25 May, 04 29 35 3.8 24 2.4 2.2 379 385 317 4.8 81
Saddar Cycle I/Monsoon 23 Aug to 25 Aug, 03 14 20 2.1 21 0.6 0.8 312 341 170 3.92 70
Cycle II/Winter 12 Nov to 14 Nov, 03 19 21 2.5 24 0.7 1.2 322 358 173 3.2 70
Cycle III/Spring 15 Mar to 17 Mar, 04 19 23 3.1 27 1.0 1.4 328 416 198 4.3 73
Cycle IV/Summer 25 May to 27 May, 04 24 28 3.5 29 0.8 1.7 340 421 208 4.72 79
Kohat Ada Cycle I/Monsoon 30 Aug to 1 Sep, 03 24 24 2.8 18.8 0.9 1.1 321 400 204 3.5 74.4
Cycle II/Winter 15 Nov to 17 Nov, 03 25.2 27 3.0 20 1.0 1.3 337 448 239 4.2 69.2
Cycle III/Spring 20 Mar to 22 Mar, 04 26.2 29 3.3 22 1.1 1.4 360 451 295 4.5 70.3
Cycle IV/Summer 28 May to 30 May, 04 29 30 4.0 21.7 1.6 1.6 373 474 305 5.3 77
Dabgri Cycle I/Monsoon 1 Sep to 3 Sep, 03 19.2 21.3 2 20.9 0.5 0.8 313 240 214 3.6 77
Cycle II/Winter 17 Nov to 19 Nov, 03 20.0 26 2.5 23.1 0.8 1.1 328 241 224 4.7 65.2
Cycle III/Spring 17 Mar to 19 Mar, 04 21 27 3.1 27.7 1.0 1.6 341 310 230 4.4 71.7
Cycle IV/Summer 30 May to 1 Jun, 04 22 30.2 3.3 30.9 1.3 1.7 356 414 240 4.8 77.7
Hyatabad Cycle I/Monsoon 27 Aug to 29 Aug, 03 15 20 1.8 21.1 0.3 0.6 313 261 142 2.02 67.5
Cycle II/Winter 20 Nov to 22 Nov, 03 19.2 23 2.0 22 0.6 1.3 328 301 153 2.8 64.6
Cycle III/Spring 12 Mar to 14 Mar, 04 23 29.4 3.8 25 1.1 1.5 373 305 156 2.89 72
Cycle IV/Summer 2 Jun to 4 Jun, 04 28 32.9 4.3 25.1 1.3 1.7 382 432 179 3.02 78
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Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252 247
Fig. 3 Mean concentration (48 h) of TSP in six major cities of Pakistan
Fig. 4 Max. concentration of PM10 in six major cities of Pakistan
all 33 sampling sites. Consequent upon the conversion
of gasoline driven engines to CNG and LPG (Liquid
Petroleum Gas) usage, NO
x
emissions has increased
and presently it is second to CO as the most prevalent
pollutant.
SO
2
is the principal pollutant supposed to be caus-
ing acid deposition after being oxidized to sulfuric
acid. Coal burning is the single largest source of at-
mospheric SO
2
, accounting for about 50% of an-
nual global emissions in recent years. Man-made sul-
phur emission in the form of SO
2
arises mostly from
combustion of fuel containing trace amounts of inor-
ganic and organic sulphur. The maximum daily SO
2
concentration recorded in Lahore was 53 ppb and at
Quetta around 46 ppb compared to other cities. How-
ever ambient mean SO
2
levels in urban areas are
within USEPA permissible limit of 140 parts per billion
(Fig. 7).
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248 Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252
Fig. 5 Mean conc. of PM10 in six major cities of Pakistan
Fig. 6 Mean conc. of NO
x
in six major cities of Pakistan
Fig. 7 Mean (48 h) conc. of SO
2
in six cities of Pakistan
Springer

Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252 249
Fig. 8 Mean average concentration of ozone in six major cities of Pakistan
Fig. 9 Mean conc. of CO in six major cities of Pakistan
Since 1980 the maximum growth has been noted in
2-stroke vehicles i.e delivery vans which are 1190%,
followed by Motor cycles 634% and Rickshaws 192%.
Diesel trucks and buses have also increased at an alarm-
ing rate of 200–300% since 1980. Diesel vehicles due
to overloading, faulty injection nozzles and weak en-
gines emit excessive graphitic carbon (visible smoke).
Available diesel in local market contains 1 ∼1.5% sul-
phur (NTRC, 1995).
Comparatively low sulphur dioxide was recorded
at Karachi as compared to that at Lahore and Quetta.
Although vehicle emission estimates show that a con-
siderable amount of SO
2
is being emitted every-day
at Karachi due to larger number of diesel vehicles be-
ing operated in the city, but due to well established sea
breeze pattern of the city even the road side levels of
SO
2
were observed well within specified limits of US
EPA of 140 ppb as 24 hr. In addition to diesel fueled
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250 Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252
Fig. 10 Mean conc. of methane in six major cities of Pakistan
Fig. 11 Mean on non methane in six major cities of Pakistan
vehicles, a number of brick kilns are being operated
around Lahore, Peshawar and Islamabad (which burn
high sulphur coal) also contribute to ambient SO
2
con-
centration. It has also been reported (Hameed et al.,
2001) that coal based power plants across the border
contribute towards increasing SO
2
levels in northeast-
ern Pakistan.
In recent years attention has also been drawn to-
wards the concentration of surface ozone. Eye ir-
ritation and increased number of asthmatic attacks
are attributed to photochemical oxidant levels around
200 ug/m
3
(0.1 PPM). Most of the ozone in the tro-
posphere (lower sphere) is formed indirectly by the
action of sunlight on nitrogen dioxide. In addition to
ozone (O
3
), photo chemical reactions produce a num-
ber of oxidants including peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN),
nitric acid and hydrogen per oxide. Figure 8 shows
the surface mean ozone levels in the six cities, which
are well within prescribed USEPA limit of 120 ppb.
Surface ozone has shown marked afternoon maximum
at all sampling sites between 1200–1500 h irrespec-
tive of climatic conditions and site location. The sur-
face ozone ranged from 6–41 ppb at Karachi, 8.5–
45 ppb at Lahore, 6.2–32 ppb at Islamabad, 11–25 ppb
at Quetta, 3.3–33.5 ppb at Rawalpindi, and 4–46 ppb at
Peshawar.
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Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252 251
Peak ozone levels were seen dependent on seasonal
temperatures and observed numbers of sunny days in
a particular city besides availability of its precursors.
There has been 50–60 % rise in ozone levels in summer
compared to winter and monsoon months when solar
insolation is week. In Karachi the carbon monoxide lev-
els in the ambient air on the average were found vary-
ing from 3 ppm to 14 ppm along the busy urban streets.
The max. (1 h) carbon monoxide exceeded the recom-
mended limit about 10% to 30 % at Lahore, Karachi and
Quetta. Though CO demonstrated a diurnal cycle at all
the monitoring sites, but a minimum CO level always
prevailed with or without traffic indicating contribution
from indiscriminate burning of solid waste in urban ar-
eas. The maximum CO concentration (14 ppm) was
observed at Quetta. However mean CO concentration
was found within the permissible limit (10 ppm) in all
the six major cities (Fig. 9). CO varied as 1.3–12 ppm
at Lahore, 1.5–5.2 ppm at Islamabad, 1.6–13 ppm at
Karachi, 1.6–8 ppm at Rawalpindi and 2–10 ppm at
Peshawar.
Hydrocarbon (Methane & Non Methane) levels
were also measured at all sampling sites in six
cities. The 48 h average concentration of hydrocarbon
(methane & non-methane) in six cities are presented in
Figs. 10 and 11 respectively.
The maximum HC level for methane was observed
exceeding the prescribed US EPA limit of 0.24 ppm
at most of study sites. The observed range of HC
(Methane) was 0.25–2.8 ppm at Karachi, 0.45–2.2 ppm
at Lahore, 0.3–1.7 ppm at Islamabad, 0.20–1.3 ppm at
Quetta, 0.1–1.3 ppm at Rawalpindi, and 0.2–2.8 ppm
at Peshawar, while HC (Nonmethane) ranged from
0.1–3.2 ppm at Karachi, 0.6–2.5 ppm at Lahore, 0.4–
2.2 ppm at Islamabad, 0.4–1.6 ppm at Quetta, 0.6–
1.8 ppm at Rawalpindi, 0.1–1.9 ppm at Peshawar. The
main source of H-Cs (non-methane) in air has been
evaporative losses and leakages from ill-maintained
vehicles and storage facilities. Natural gas (mostly
methane) is main fuel being used in industry, as CNG
in vehicles and in day to day cooking. Frequent leakage
is mainly responsible for higher methane levels. Bio-
genic methane could also be contributing since signif-
icant agricultural cultivation is being practiced around
urban areas. Swampy area exists along the coastal
belt.
The exceptionally high HC (non methane) upto
6 ppm was recorded at Karachi just after an oil spill
from an accident of oil tanker Tasman Spirit at coastal
belt of Karachi on 13th August 2003.
Although noise is a significant environmental prob-
lem, but it is often difficult to quantify its associated
costs. The social costs of noise identified as productiv-
ity loss due to poor concentration, communication dif-
ficulties or fatigue due to insufficient rest. The biggest
source of noise pollution that affects most people is
from transport sector. According to NEQS (Pakistan’s
National Environmental Quality Standards) the level of
vehicular noise should not exceed beyond 85 decibels
(dB) at a distance of 7.5 m from source. Maximum
noise level was seen approaching 100 dB at road sides
especially in Karachi. In Lahore the max. sound level
was recorded as 90.75 dB, at Rawalpindi and Peshawar
the maximum level was 85 dB, the comparatively low
level was found at Quetta (83.2 dB) and Islamabad
(82 dB).
Conclusion
Concentrations and seasonal variations of all the crite-
ria air pollutants i.e. particulate matter (TSP, PM10),
CO, NO
x
,SO
2
,O
3
, as well as traffic count were de-
termined in major urban centers of the country. The
study established the air quality baseline. The lev-
els of TSP and other parameters were higher in sum-
mer (May–June) than in winter and monsoons, which
can easily be interpreted in terms of time dependent
changes primarily in meteorological conditions. The
hourly and daily mean concentrations were compared
with USEPA and NEQS prescribed limits. The high
concentrations of CO, NO
x
and HCs are related to
excessive generation of the gases due to high vol-
ume of traffic congestions at intersections. The par-
ticulates levels as monitored in different cities con-
tain a significant amount of vehicular soot besides
crustal dust, especially in Lahore and Quetta. High-
est particulate load was found at Lahore. Quetta city
has been 2nd polluted city in term of TSP load.
The TSP level in these cities are 2–3.6 times higher
than the standard limits of USEPA (260 ug/m3). Sim-
ilarly PM10 were maximum in Lahore and Quetta,
which is not only due to poorly maintained vehi-
cles, traffic jams, poor engine condition and fuel qual-
ity, but also due to inadequate vertical mixing and
calm winds. The microscopic inhalable particles can
Springer

252 Environ Monit Assess (2007) 127:237–252
affect breathing and respiration, cause lung damage
and possibly cause premature death in children and
elder people. High levels of particulates especially
PM10 and gases were also attributed to large num-
ber of 2 stroke vehicles (60 to 75% gasoline vehi-
cles were motorcycles) and adulteration of petrol/diesel
and lube oil. Maximum NO
x
varied from 37 ppb to
58 ppb recorded at major intersections of the cities.
Sulpur dioxide and Ozone levelsat all sites were with in
USEPA limits. Carbon monoxide constituted the great-
est mass of any air pollutant, followed by sulphur diox-
ide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and particulates.
Its maximum levels have been recorded alarmingly
high, ranging from 3 ppm to 14 ppm along the busy
urban streets. Maximum methane and non-methane
levels were observed exceeding the prescribe limit
of 0.24 ppm at most of study sites. Maximum street
noise level (95 dB) has been observed at Karachi and
Lahore.
Acknowledgements The authors thank National Energy Con-
servation Center (ENERCON) and UNDP, Pakistan for spon-
soring this study. We also thank SUPARCO staff for providing
yearlong hourly data of particulate matter (TSP, PM10),
CO, NO
x
,SO
2
,O
3
, as well as traffic count at monitor-
ing locations and assistance in the operation of various
equipment.
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