Assessment of Information Literacy Abilities: A Case Study of Pakistan

Abstract

This study aimed to assess undergraduate students' Information Literacy (IL) abilities in Pakistan. A survey method was employed to collect the necessary data from the population. The participants consisted of students from the Capital University of Science and Technology (CUST), COMSATS University Islamabad, Bahria University (BU) Islamabad, and the Federal Urdu University of Arts, Sciences and Technology (FUUAST). The sample consisted of 200 students, randomly selected. A questionnaire was formulated and completed individually. The results produced an alarming result for the selected institutions, as about 52% of students reported that they never went to the library. A similar situation was found across the selected universities, though with BU surpassing other universities with respect to daily use of the library. The responses to the survey indicated students were in a poor position in terms of their ability to identify information sources. Furthermore, most item scores were less than two, indicating that students' recognition and understanding of information sources was in a dangerously precarious condition. The findings also indicated that students' ability to access and use information for assignments, tests, examinations, and the writing of research articles was extremely limited. This could have severe implications for their learning outcomes. According to our findings, students' ability to implement technical best practice in academic work and research was extremely limited, as was their knowledge of and practice in providing appropriate credit to original authors. On the other hand, the students' ability to use social media applications, such as Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn, was relatively strong. We recommend that university libraries should be more involved in the educational process. This study should contribute considerably to the organization of different IL programs in universities to promote, develop, and improve students' IL abilities.

Full text

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14073807 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Article
Assessment of Information Literacy Abilities: A Case Study
of Pakistan
Bibi Abida Hussain 1,*, Si Li 1,* and Ahmed Alsanad 2,*
1 School of Information Management, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
2 STC’s Artificial Intelligence Chair, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University,
Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
* Correspondence: 2017171040001@whu.edu.cn (B.A.H.); lsiwhu@163.com (S.L.); aasanad@ksu.edu.sa (A.A.)
Abstract: This study aimed to assess undergraduate students’ Information Literacy (IL) abilities in
Pakistan. A survey method was employed to collect the necessary data from the population. The
participants consisted of students from the Capital University of Science and Technology (CUST),
COMSATS University Islamabad, Bahria University (BU) Islamabad, and the Federal Urdu
University of Arts, Sciences and Technology (FUUAST). The sample consisted of 200 students,
randomly selected. A questionnaire was formulated and completed individually. The results
produced an alarming result for the selected institutions, as about 52% of students reported that
they never went to the library. A similar situation was found across the selected universities, though
with BU surpassing other universities with respect to daily use of the library. The responses to the
survey indicated students were in a poor position in terms of their ability to identify information
sources. Furthermore, most item scores were less than two, indicating that students’ recognition and
understanding of information sources was in a dangerously precarious condition. The findings also
indicated that students’ ability to access and use information for assignments, tests, examinations,
and the writing of research articles was extremely limited. This could have severe implications for
their learning outcomes. According to our findings, students’ ability to implement technical best
practice in academic work and research was extremely limited, as was their knowledge of and
practice in providing appropriate credit to original authors. On the other hand, the students’ ability
to use social media applications, such as Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn, was relatively strong.
We recommend that university libraries should be more involved in the educational process. This
study should contribute considerably to the organization of different IL programs in universities to
promote, develop, and improve students’ IL abilities.
Keywords: information literacy; undergraduate students; abilities
1. Introduction
The world today appears to be divided into two distinct groups: the developed and
the developing. Pakistan is considered one of the world’s developing countries by the
United Nations. Developing countries are confronted with common issues, such as
population growth, scarcity of the basic necessities of life—such as housing and medical
care—as well as widespread illiteracy, low productivity, and a low standard of living [1].
The problems that we have been confronted with over the years include a high birth rate,
primitive agricultural methods, a lack of modern industrial technology, a low level of
literacy, and a scarcity of trained manpower, all of which are detrimental to
socioeconomic development. The poor level of literacy in the country is a major
contributor to all these issues. A better understanding of this alarming situation, as well
as adequate opportunities for education at all levels and in new directions, are required.
The literacy deficit needs to be defined in relation to the national and worldwide context
in a way which recognizes the challenges faced and considers the changing situation over
Citation: Hussain, B.A.; Li, S.;
Alsanad, A. Assessment of
Information Literacy Abilities:
A Case Study of Pakistan.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su14073807
Academic Editors: Shuiqing Yang,
Yongqing Yang, Atika Qazi and
Yunfan Lu
Received: 16 January 2022
Accepted: 19 March 2022
Published: 23 March 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays
neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/license
s/by/4.0/).

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 2 of 22
time. Although there have been literacy plans with particular objectives, the reported
evidence is that they have not been effective.
Currently, researchers are paying close attention to the concept of IL. IL is currently
the subject of a great deal of investigation. Research-oriented graduates who are well-
versed in information literacy are highly sought after by researchers [2]. Students need to
keep up with current research trends by applying IL skills. An information-literate
individual can identify when and where they need information, locate, analyze, and apply
that knowledge successfully. “Information-literate individuals are those who have
learned how to learn” [3]. To be considered information-literate, a person must be able to
recognize a need for information and assess its scope, retrieve content from various
sources quickly and efficiently, evaluate documents and relevant sources, organize and
save writings that have been collected or generated, incorporate essential information into
a repository, use information effectively for learning and creation of new knowledge,
develop solutions to problems, and communicate decisions [4]. Knowledge of IL can help
students become lifelong learners [5].
Knowledge of IL is unquestionably important for academics and researchers in the
current age. Students need to have access to this knowledge to be able to keep up with the
latest research and knowledge. Numerous studies on information learning abilities have
been conducted around the world [6–10]. However, there have been few studies in the
fields referred to above [11–13]. A lack of literature on local faculty perceptions of
students’ IL skills, their value, as well as challenges and solutions in this context is a
problem. Additionally, there is little research on the abilities of students in different
programs. This research aims to fill that void.
The surveyed institutions spend a lot of time and money to ensure that their students
receive the finest education possible. Training events, workshops and seminars are used
by the institutions to ensure students have relevant skills which are consistent with their
fields of study. However, often no evaluation of the current level of IL skills possessed by
students is undertaken in this process. Therefore, the authors chose to evaluate the present
IL abilities of students and the necessity for IL courses in light of this consideration.
Students’ present IL abilities, as perceived by teachers, were the focus of this study, which
also sought to identify any areas of uncertainty that required examination in order to
improve student performance. The study also aimed to find out what faculty members
think about the value of and need for IL courses. In addition, this study sought to evaluate
differences in IL abilities amongst undergraduate students enrolled in different programs
in Pakistan.
1.1. Problem Statement and Motivation
Students who are well-versed in information literacy are better equipped to achieve
their goals, broaden their horizons, and to take on a variety of roles in today’s
multicultural society. Students who are well-versed in information literacy are better able
to find the data they need quickly and accurately. They can analyze and utilize
information effectively and efficiently. Information literacy is essential if we are to raise
the standard of academic inquiry and the depth of student understanding.
Although there is much literature available on information literacy worldwide, in
Pakistan the concept is very limited [14]. Expressed in another way, students do not have
the necessary abilities to survive in the modern world. Here, we consider some of the most
pressing concerns and circumstances that affect today’s college students. If you do not use
your knowledge properly, you may not be able to compete in the professional world
today. Any university’s undergraduate students must be able to learn effectively. Social
problems are solved by their research into the social implications of change. Their research
is also a result of innovation. Undergraduate students must learn to read and write in
order to be able to cope. Information literacy regarding recent developments in their
academic fields is an important factor. In light of this, researchers are attempting to raise
the literacy level of undergraduate students in Pakistani universities.

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 3 of 22
Students in Pakistan’s universities need to be able to read, to be able to write, to
understand concepts, to learn about their courses, and to complete assignments. Most
undergraduate students in Pakistan’s universities lack the ability to learn new material.
Many students are not aware of the benefits of utilizing internet resources to suit students’
information needs [15]. A student’s capacity to explore databases and write extensive
essays at the undergraduate level may explain why some students at the University of
Washington have this talent. Their university education provided the opportunity to learn
how to use electrical and mechanical tools which they would otherwise not have been able
to access.
A preliminary assessment by several academics found that in most Pakistani
universities, undergraduate students do not receive formal instruction in information
literacy [16]. Aside from a one-week orientation course given to all new students upon
their arrival at the university, and the occasional use of textbooks by professors to educate
students on how to conduct research, there was no formal information literacy instruction
provided before students began their university studies. Because of this study, this study
aims to examine the IL abilities of undergraduate students at Pakistani universities.
1.2. Aim and Objectives
To summarize what has been said so far: IL is still very limited in Pakistan and a lot
of work requires to be done in the field of IL. This study sought to investigate the link
between student IL and academic success at a university. Additionally, the research
examined the information-related behaviors, sources used, and IL abilities of
undergraduates.
The study’s objectives were:
 To determine the ability of undergraduate students to evaluate potential sources of
information.
• To measure the ability of undergraduate students in Pakistan to assess the purpose
of accessing and using information sources.
• To assess the ability of undergraduate students regarding the recognition and ethical
use of information.
• To assess student abilities in the use of information technology tools during their
studies.
1.3. Paper Organization
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides details of the
background and related work; Section 3 covers the research methodology; Section 4
comprises the results and discussion; finally, Section 5 presents the study conclusions.
2. Background and Literature Review
Academic performance is largely determined by a student’s desire to learn. As a
result, a mixed scaffolding, based on information literacy and incentives, should help
students learn more effectively. Numerous studies have been undertaken on motivation
[17,18], but only a small number have looked at its association with information literacy
abilities [19].
The number of basic information abilities is vast, with search, evaluation, processing,
and communication skills being the most important [20–24]. From a pedagogical
standpoint, it is preferable to restrict the number of basic abilities to a smaller number of
representative components. It is also important to understand sample variability, to assess
whether there are significant disparities among students in terms of degrees, courses,
gender, and age. Research has primarily focused on information evaluation, information
source evaluation, information recognition, ethical use of information, and information
literacy tool evaluation.

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 4 of 22
Students’ evaluation of Internet information sources has long piqued the interest of
information scientists and librarians. According to one study, students prefer
convenience, tending to focus their research on the Internet, and frequently utilizing
Google to search for information before turning to other sources [25]. Undergraduate
students have access to a variety of information sources. There are primary, secondary,
and tertiary sources [26]. Students’ ability to use and access the various forms of
information is dependent on their knowledge of these information sources. According to
Wilkes and Gurney [27], electronic resources were the primary source of information for
the vast majority of students (80% of the total). According to research by Algudsi and
Dousar [28], 98% of Kuwait University students said they used electronic resources for
personal shopping, downloading movies and e-books, checking encyclopedias, and for
rapid reference. According to a study by Singh [29], titled “Assessing Indian Agricultural
Sciences Graduates’ Knowledge and Information Literacy Skills”, a substantial percentage of
students (81%) cited Yahoo and Google as their primary sources for information.
The results based on students’ evaluation of information sources show that criteria
are applied inconsistently when evaluating Internet information sources. According to the
Project IL study, which surveyed students on their frequency of applying standard rating
criteria (currency, author’s qualifications, and multiple opinions stated), most students
claim to analyze Internet sources. Other research, however, indicates that students are
conversant with standard evaluative criteria but apply them significantly less in reality
than they claim [30]. According to some studies, when evaluating the quality or suitability
of sources, students only look at one or two pages or skim the text [31]. Students also say
that identifying a source’s author is crucial, but they do not consider the author’s
qualifications when choosing information sources [32,33].
Lorenzen [34] found that without the assistance of their professors, students had
difficulty making judgments about information source authenticity. When conducting
research, students are expected to look for sources that are related to their research topic.
As a result, it is not surprising that one study found that “relevance” was more significant
than other factors for many students [35]. Finding terms in the title or lead paragraphs
may be the strategy utilized to determine relevance, implying that students are not
evaluating Internet sources properly. A crucial information literacy skill is evaluating the
“quality” of an information source [36].
Recognizing an information requirement, on the other hand, is a crucial ability in
achieving IL. As described by the Chartered Institute of Library and Information
Professionals [37], the ability to properly determine a need is characterized as the ability
to recognize when information is needed, as well as the type, extent, and nature of the
information needed. Understanding the role of information, as well as the scope and
nature of information necessary, is a pre-requisite for success in any undertaking.
Similarly, the capacity to identify key concepts in the research process provides a road
map for that research in terms of the sort of information and information sources required,
as well as the scope of information required. Otherwise, due to a lack of direction, the
research process may become arduous, resulting in abandonment or delay [38].
University students, in general, make effective use of the vast possibilities and
facilities that digital information offers in terms of usage and transmission, taking
advantage of the ability to use, edit, share, and disseminate work much more freely.
However, their acts occasionally go beyond what is legal. The enormous ease with which
infringement can occur is precisely the reason for current copyright amendments [39].
Several studies have considered this [40–42]; their findings suggest that such knowledge
is scarce and that it is frequently marred by confusion or misunderstanding when it comes
to basic issues. The information community, which has taken on a new function, has
recognized the necessity for specific training. Their unique position as face-to-face
intermediates between information sources and students qualifies them as the
appropriate professionals to provide training and advice on these topics [43]. It is no
surprise that ethical and legal standards are included in IL standards and frameworks,

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 5 of 22
although putting them into practice is not easy. Most library students learn about the other
four major criteria of IL: need, access, evaluation, and use. However, most are not
educated about ethical and legal issues [44,45].
Information Literacy in Pakistan
In contrast to advancements made across the world, IL in Pakistan is still in its
infancy [46]. A dearth of fundamental research (e.g., development of frameworks, models,
and standards) on this subject is demonstrated by related publications [47]. IL guidance
in Pakistan is very basic compared to what people there really need [48].
Mahmood [5] investigated the relationship between students’ perceived IL skills and
certain academic and demographic variables at Punjab University in Lahore. A
questionnaire was used to collect data from 114 students who were selected through
convenience sampling for a cross-sectional survey. For data analysis, descriptive and
inferential statistics were used. Although these students were familiar with fundamental
computer and internet skills, they were hesitant to use advanced search tools, such as the
HEC digital library, online databases, indexes, abstracts, and the library OPAC. In
addition, the study found a strong link between students’ perceived IL skills and their
field of study, degree program level, English language proficiency, and home computer
access. Gender and socioeconomic status (rural/urban) had no bearing on pupils’ general
IL abilities. It was suggested that university libraries should establish comprehensive
internet services for their patrons.
Rafique [49] investigated the IL abilities of University of Lahore faculty members. A
survey questionnaire was used to collect data from 84 faculty members who were chosen
through a simple random sampling process. The questionnaire used a 5-point Likert scale,
ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree, based on the UNESCO information
literacy life cycle. According to the findings, many of the respondents thought they knew
how to use library resources, search engines, HEC online databases, and the OPAC.
Furthermore, while the mean scores against almost all the claims were more than 3.5, the
study participants perceived themselves as basic-level information-literate individuals.
These respondents were less comfortable with advanced level searching procedures and
designing search strategies. The authors suggested that the Higher Education
Commission and university administration should work together to establish and
organize IL instruction programs.
At the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Rafique and Mahmood
[50] conducted a study of engineering students to determine their perceptions of IL skills.
The ACRL IL criteria for science and technology were used to create the questionnaire,
which was divided into five sections: conceptual definition, search method, evaluation,
use and distribution of knowledge, and lifelong learning. A straightforward sampling
procedure was used to choose the sample. The surveys were given to 500 students
enrolled in various engineering programs. On a 5-point Likert scale, respondents were
asked to score their impressions of ACRL-based IL statements (i.e., excellent, good,
average, weak, and not at all). A total of 460 questionnaires (92%) were returned. For data
analysis, descriptive and inferential statistics were used. Many of the students received a
mean score of more than 3.5 for each item, indicating that they thought their abilities were
“good”. Based on English language proficiency and age, there were statistically significant
disparities. There was no link observed between students’ IL abilities and their gender or
academic level. Task-based inquiries, rather than perception-based assessments, were
suggested by the researchers as a means to assess students’ real levels of IL skills.
According to Naveed and Sharif [51], new M.Ed. students at the AKU-IED were
assessed for their information literacy needs, and the impact of the IL workshops attended
was measured. The results suggested that the students’ weak areas included concepts,
such as call number, classification number, author mark, and ways to access the library
collection, use of OPAC, databases, and full-text publications.

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 6 of 22
The IL skills of undergraduate and graduate students at one of Pakistan’s leading
university were assessed by Safdar and Idress [13]. In the survey, most participants
showed a lack of proficiency in information literacy. Nevertheless, most respondents
believed that information literacy training was useful in meeting their academic and
research requirements.
As a result of the above literature review, it is possible to conclude that research on
IL is being undertaken all over the world. There is a paucity of research on this problem
in the context of developing countries, particularly Pakistan. It is also evident, from the
review, that students have difficulty in identifying, gaining access to, managing, and
evaluating their academic and research content in order to meet their educational and
research needs. This scenario highlights the importance of information literacy abilities
among undergraduate students, which can be seen in this situation. In this context, there
is little doubt that the function of education and professional work in libraries is extremely
important. The findings of the review also demonstrate that research on students’ IL and
necessary measure in the context of Pakistan is quite restricted. This circumstance
emphasizes the importance of bridging the gap and indicates that further research in this
area is needed so that an accurate image of this critical part of national growth can be
presented. As a result, institutions, students, staff, and library professionals may be better
able to assess the IL abilities of their students and the efforts that will be required in this
regard.
3. Research Methodology
3.1. Population:
This study used a case study methodology to achieve its objectives. For the data
collection, four major universities in capital cities were selected. The selection of these
universities was based on the number of students as well as their status of being
comprehensive universities. We obtained information on several indicators, such as
number of students, disciplines, public vs. private status, and origin of students enrolled
in those universities. This ensured sufficient variability in the dataset. The study
population consisted of undergraduate students from the Capital University of Science
and Technology, COMSATS University Islamabad, Bahria University, and the Federal
Urdu University of Arts, Sciences, and Technology. Students at these Pakistani
universities had equal opportunity to participate in this research. After identification of
the institutions, students were selected randomly from these universities. The researchers
visited several locations in the universities to randomly select the required number of
students. The data was collected between 15 October 2021, and 20 November 2021.
However, we acknowledge that this dataset did not include information on postgraduate
students and, thus, may not be comprise a representative sample for the region.
3.2. Construction of Questionnaire
The data collection process was carefully designed. The questionnaire was divided
into several sections. The first section was for the respondents’ demographic information.
In the demographic section, respondents were asked questions about their name,
university name, current academic status, and age
In the second section, questions were included to assess the undergraduate student’s
ability to evaluate information. This section included five statements aimed at assessing
students’ ability to evaluate information. Each of these statements was measured on a five-
point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). The third section of the
questionnaire included eight questions regarding identifying potential sources of
information. These responses were also obtained using a five-point Likert scale (1 =
strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). In the fourth section, seven questions were asked to
test the ability of the undergraduate students regarding recognition of information. As for
previous items, these items were also measured on a five-point Likert scale. The ability to

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 7 of 22
assess the purpose of accessing and using information sources was examined in part 5 of
the questionnaire. This component was measured using five statements, with responses
being obtained on a five-point Likert scale. Queries regarding the ethical use of
information were examined in the sixth part of the questionnaire, in which five questions
were asked to measure students’ responses on a five-point Likert scale. In the final section,
we assessed undergraduate students’ abilities to use information technology tools during
their studies using seven statements scored on a five-point Likert scale.
3.3. Data Collection Process
The questionnaire employed in this study used closed-ended questions. Personal
visits were used to distribute the questionnaires to participants. The collected
questionnaires were scrutinized, filtered, and analyzed. The data collected for this study
was analyzed by applying a multiple linear regression model using SPSS v.20.
4. Results and Discussion
Table 1 shows the distribution by gender of students in different universities in the
participant sample. It was evident from the results that, overall, there were more male
students from the universities than female students. However, the gap was not large.
COMSATS had the highest ratio of female students in the sample. However, these
universities were all in the capital, so the situation in other cities might differ from that in
our sample. Recently, the government has taken many steps to increase female enrollment
in higher education institutions, including removing quota limits and promoting merit-
based admission rules.
Table 1. Distribution by gender of students in different universities.
University Gender Total
Female Male
CUST 19 (0.39) 30 (0.61) 49
COMSATS 27 (0.53) 24 (0.47) 51
BU 21 (0.42) 29 (0.58) 50
FUUAST 24 (0.48) 26 (0.58) 50
Total 91 (0.46) 109 (0.55) 200
Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentages.
The distribution by province of students in different universities in our sample data
is shown in Table 2. Economically, Punjab is the most prosperous province in the country
and has the largest population, while Baluchistan and GB are the least developed
provinces. The results of our analysis generally indicated that in the capital city of
Islamabad, most enrolled students belong to the Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT) and
Punjab, while fewer students were enrolled from other provinces. Overall, more than 50%
of student participants in all universities belonged to ICT and Punjab, while only 6% of
them belonged to GB, which is the least developed province. This is an alarming situation
considering that the least developed territories are most in need of skilled human
resources. More than 20% of students belonged to KPK, which is a province bordering
ICT.

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 8 of 22
Table 2. Distribution by province of students in different universities.
University Measure
Province
ICT Punjab
KPK Sindh
Baluchistan
Gilgit-
Baltistan
CUST Frequency 20 13 8 4 2 2
Percentage
41% 27% 16% 8% 4% 4%
COMSATS Frequency 10 13 12 6 10 0
Percentage
20% 25% 24% 12% 20% 0%
BU Frequency 12 16 12 5 3 2
Percentage
24%
32%
24%
10%
6%
4%
FUUAST Frequency 14 10 9 6 4 7
Percentage
28% 20% 18% 12% 8% 14%
Total Frequency 56 52 41 21 19 11
Percentage
28% 26% 21% 11% 10% 6%
Students’ native language can also have an impact on their academic performance,
especially in Pakistan. For example, if a student’s native language is Urdu, it is easier for
them to understand the educational resources that are mostly presented in Urdu.
However, the native language varies from province to province, while the medium of
instruction in most of the schools is either English or Urdu. Hence, students who have
Urdu or English as their native language are at an advantage. The results related to the
distribution of students according to their native language in different universities are
shown in Table 3. About 23% of students in the sample data reported that Urdu was their
native language, with COMSATS having the highest number of such students. However,
more than 70% of student participants spoke a native language other than Urdu. In the
sampled data, Punjabi was the second most spoken native language. However, speaking
Punjabi did not confer any advantage in the academic environment since none of the
schools in Punjab offered courses in the Punjabi language.
Table 3. Distribution of students according to native language in different universities.
University
Measure Language
Urdu Punjabi
Pashto
Sindhi
Balochi
Saraiki
Balti
CUST Frequency 17 15 9 4 2 0 2
Percentage 34.7% 30.6% 18.4% 8.2% 4.1% 0.0% 4.1%
COMSATS
Frequency 9 12 12 7 10 1 0
Percentage 17.6% 23.5% 23.5% 13.7% 19.6% 2.0% 0.0%
BU Frequency 9 15 12 6 4 2 2
Percentage 18.0% 30.0% 24.0% 12.0% 8.0% 4.0% 4.0%
FUUAST Frequency 11 8 10 6 4 3 8
Percentage 22.0% 16.0% 20.0% 12.0% 8.0% 6.0% 16.0%
Total
Frequency
46
50
43
23
20
6
12
Percentage 23.0% 25.0% 21.5% 11.5% 10.0% 3.0% 6.0%
Table 4 shows the distribution of students according to the discipline of studies they
are enrolled in. It can be seen from the results that about 44% of the students were enrolled
in humanities and social sciences in these universities, while 56% were enrolled in
scientific disciplines, such as natural sciences, formal sciences, and applied sciences. While
the researchers have ensured random data collection to avoid any biases, these results
show that the percentage of students in the hard sciences was as high as that for social
sciences and humanities.

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 9 of 22
Table 4. Distribution of students according to their discipline of studies.
University Measure
Department
Humanities
Social
Sciences
Natural
Sciences
Formal
Sciences
Applied
Sciences
CUST Frequency 12 13 6 7 11
Percentage 24.5% 26.5% 12.2% 14.3% 22.4%
COMSATS Frequency 4 15 10 11 11
Percentage 7.8% 29.4% 19.6% 21.6% 21.6%
BU Frequency 11 15 6 7 11
Percentage
22.0%
30.0%
12.0%
14.0%
22.0%
FUUAST Frequency 5 13 10 12 10
Percentage 10.0% 26.0% 20.0% 24.0% 20.0%
Total Frequency 32 56 32 37 43
Percentage 16.0% 28.0% 16.0% 18.5% 21.5%
Many studies have shown that owning educational resources or increasing access to
technological resources to students can improve their learning outcomes. The computer
is one such tool that is required to fulfill academic tasks, especially at university level. The
results in Table 5 show the distribution of students according to their possession of a
computer. Our results show that about 89% of students in our sample owned a computer.
This may be as a result of recent laptop schemes of the government of Pakistan which
aimed at awarding free laptops to students enrolled in universities.
Table 5. The distribution of students according to the possession of a computer.
University Measure Students Having a Computer Total
No Yes
CUST Frequency 9 40 49
Percentage
18.4%
81.6%
100.0%
COMSATS Frequency 8 43 51
Percentage 15.7% 84.3% 100.0%
BU Frequency 2 48 50
Percentage 4.0% 96.0% 100.0%
FUUAST
Frequency
2
48
50
Percentage 4.0% 96.0% 100.0%
Total Frequency 21 179 200
Percentage 10.5% 89.5% 100.0%
However, owning a computer does not necessarily mean that it will be used
productively by students. This is indicated by our results (Table 6). The results show that
the percentage of students using the computer for entertainment purposes only was very
high (about 66%) compared to those who used it for educational purposes (only 5.6%).
This is an alarming situation because, despite the large-scale efforts of the government to
increase access to technology to higher education students, the use of such technology for
its intended purpose is still very low. When we compared the results across various
universities, we found that there were hardly any variations among students in terms of
using a computer for educational purposes.

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Table 6. Distribution of students according to the purpose of using a computer.
University Measure
How Students Use Computer
Total
Entertainment
Education
Web
Browsing
Others
CUST Frequency 21 4 15 0 40
Percentage 52.5% 10.0% 37.5% 0.0% 100.0%
COMSATS Frequency 25 1 15 2 43
Percentage 58.1% 2.3% 34.9% 4.7% 100.0%
BU Frequency 33 2 13 0 48
Percentage
68.8%
4.2%
27.1%
0.0%
100.0%
FUUAST Frequency 40 3 2 3 48
Percentage 83.3% 6.3% 4.2% 6.3% 100.0%
Total Frequency 119 10 45 5 179
Percentage 66.5% 5.6% 25.1% 2.8% 100.0%
In addition to a computer, the library is one of the main sources for accessing
educational resources. During the survey, the researchers observed that all universities in
the sample had well-established libraries with online access to research-related resources
as well as huge book catalogues. In addition, all universities had a computer laboratory
attached to the library. However, our results indicated the frequency of students using a
library was very low (Table 7). The students reported that their daily use of the library
was very low (only 4%), while their weekly use was a little higher (7%), but still very low
overall. About 36% of students reported going to the library once a month only. An
alarming result here was that about 52% of students reported that they never went to the
library. The university-based comparison also revealed a similar situation, with BU
surpassing other universities with respect the daily use of the library.
Table 7. The distribution of students according to the frequency of using the library.
University Measure
Frequency of Using Library
Total
Daily Weekly Monthly
Never
CUST Frequency 2 5 26 16 49
Percentage 4.1% 10.2% 53.1% 32.7% 100.0%
COMSATS Frequency 1 4 20 26 51
Percentage 2.0% 7.8% 39.2% 51.0% 100.0%
BU Frequency 4 4 20 22 50
Percentage 8.0% 8.0% 40.0% 44.0% 100.0%
FUUAST Frequency 1 1 7 41 50
Percentage 2.0% 2.0% 14.0% 82.0% 100.0%
Total Frequency 8 14 73 105 200
Percentage
4.0%
7.0%
36.5%
52.5%
100.0%
Students’ ability to evaluate information sources required to complete academic tasks
is demonstrated in Table 8. The scale used was made up of five items, as described in the
Table. The responses were obtained using a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5 (5 being
strongly disagree and 1 being strongly agree). According to the findings, the students’
ability to evaluate the authenticity and reliability of information, the expertise of an
individual author, their ability to identify a motive for information, and their ability to
evaluate the recentness of information were all very low as shown in Figure 1.

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 11 of 22
Table 8. Student’s ability to evaluate information sources.
How Students Evaluate the Information N Mean
Std. Deviation
I am able to evaluate the authenticity of the information
source 200 2.17 1.05
I am able to evaluate the reliability of the information 200 2.27 1.05
I am able to check the expertise of the author in his/her field
200 2.24 1.06
I am able to identify the motive of information 200 2.29 1.08
I am able to evaluate the recency of information 200 2.15 0.98
Figure 1. Differences by gender in students’ ability to evaluate information sources.
It is necessary for students to identify potential sources of information, such as books,
encyclopedias, databases, magazines, library catalogs, and online resources in order to
complete their academic assignments. As shown in Table 9, student responses to the
survey indicate that they were in a poor position in terms of their ability to identify
information sources. Students’ ability to recognize academic journals, magazines, library
catalogs, and dissertations as potential sources of information was extremely low
according to our findings. However, while their ability to identify books, encyclopedias,
and online resources (search engines) as potential sources of information was higher than
average, it was still far below the level of excellence that is desirable as shown in Figure 2.
Table 9. Student’s ability to identify potential sources of information.
How Students Identify the Potential Sources of Information N Mean
Std.
Deviation
When I look for information, I can use books as a
potential source.
200 2.34 1.114
When I look for information, I am able to use encyclopedias 200 2.50 1.139
When I look for information related to my studies, I use academic
journals. 200 1.89 0.822
I am able to use databases as a potential source of information. 200 1.57 0.654
When I look for information, I can use magazines as a potential
source of information. 200 1.58 0.652
I am familiar with the library catalog. 200 1.54 0.656
When I look for information, I can use thesis and dissertations as
potential sources of information. 200 1.60 0.681
When I look for information, I can use search engines like Google,
Bing and Ask, etc. 200 3.50 1.089
1.900
2.000
2.100
2.200
2.300
2.400
2.500
Evaluate
authencity
Evaluate
reliability
Check author
expertise
Identify motive Evaluate
Recency
Average Score
Female Male

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 12 of 22
Figure 2. Students’ responses on their ability to identify potential sources of information.
Along with the ability to identify information sources, students must also be able to
recognize and understand these sources of information. Examples include estimating the
amount of information required, using online resources to recognize needed information,
comprehending the needed information, determining the feasible sources of information
required, and determining the type of information sources that are appropriate to
complete a required task. When students responded to the six items on a Likert scale (1–
5), we were able to assess their ability to recognize and comprehend the information they
had learned as shown in Table 10. The findings revealed that, in general, the student’s
ability to recognize and comprehend the required information was extremely limited as
shown in the Figure 3. Most item scores were less than two, indicating that students’
recognition and understanding of the information sources was in a dangerously
precarious condition.
Table 10. Students’ ability to recognize and understand sources of information.
How Students Recognize and Understand Sources of
Information N Mean
Std.
Deviation
I am able to estimate the amont of information needed for a
particular task. 200 1.75 0.750
I am able to use online r
esources for the recognition of needed
information. 200 1.81 0.806
I am able to seek assistance from others in order to grasp the
information I needed. 200 1.72 0.863
I am able to determine when I need printed or electronic
sources of information. 200 2.10 0.982
I am able to determine feasible sources for the needed
information. 200 1.52 0.601
I am able to determine the types of information resources that
are appropriate for my information requirements, such as
primary and secondary sources.
200 1.62 0.734
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Average Score

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 13 of 22
Figure 3. Students’ responses to their ability to understand and recognize information sources.
Students must be able to determine the purpose of accessing and using information
sources in order to be effective users of that information. The ability to access and use
information sources for university assignments, tests, and examinations, writing research
articles, gaining general knowledge, or for entertainment, may be included in this
description. The students performed extremely poorly on all indicators, apart from
accessing sources of general knowledge and entertainment, which was consistent with
our previous findings. The findings in Table 11 indicate that students’ ability to access and
use information for assignments, tests, examinations, and the writing of research articles
was extremely limited as shown in Figure 4. This could have severe implications for their
learning outcomes.
Table 11. Students’ ability to access and use information for various purposes.
How Students Assess the Purpose of Accessing and
Using
Information N Mean
Std.
Deviation
I am able to access the information source for university
assignments 200 1.74 0.767
I am able to access the information source for university
tests and examinations 200 1.89 0.971
I am able to access the information source for research
articles. 200 1.48 0.567
I am able to access the information source for general
knowledge 200 3.11 1.551
I am able to access the information source for entertainment
200 3.29 1.568
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Estimate amount of info
Use online resources
Understand needed info
Detemine printed & electronic info
Determine feasible sources of info
Determine types of info sources
Average Score

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 14 of 22
Figure 4. Students’ responses to their ability to access information for different purposes.
The responsible and ethical use of information is a major concern in the academic
community today, and has been for some time. It concerns best practice in academia,
protecting others’ rights, and promoting innovative and new ideas by avoiding practices
such as plagiarism and other forms of intellectual property infringement (IP). We also
looked at the students’ ability to cite their papers in the proper format, to create
bibliographic records of books and journals, and to use citation tools, such as EndNote,
Mendeley, and Zotero to help them with their research. Table 12 shows the results of the
study. According to the findings, students’ ability to technically implement best practice
in academic work and research was extremely limited, as was their knowledge of and
practice in providing proper credit to original authors, both of which were also extremely
limited as shown in Figure 5.
Table 12. Ethical use of information sources.
How Students Ethically Use Information N Percent N
I’m able to paraphrase a given paragraph to avoid
plagiarism 200 1.44 0.537
I’m able to cite a research paper with different styles (APA,
Chicago, Harvard, etc.). 200 1.39 0.508
I’m able to create bibliographic records for different
materials (articles, books, thesis, web pages, etc.). 200 1.35 0.499
I’m able to use citation tools for citation (Endnote,
Mendeley, Zotero, etc.) 200 1.34 0.496
I am able to give credit to authors of image/video 200 1.38 0.506
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
For university
assigfnemtns
For university
tests
For research
articles
For general
knowledge
For
entertainment
Average Score

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 15 of 22
Figure 5. Students’ responses to ethical use of information sources.
One of the most important factors that affects students’ access to, use of, and
identification of information sources is the technological skills that they have at their
disposal. These may include their ability to use a computer, word processing software,
presentation software, social media, e-data bases, and data analysis software, amongst
other tools. This was one of the items we included in our survey, which was scored on a
Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5, with 5 representing strong agreement and 1 representing
strong disagreement. Table 13 presents the results of the analysis. The results showed that
students’ ability to use a computer was relatively strong, but their ability to use word
processing and presentation software was significantly less so. In addition, their ability to
use data analysis software and programming languages was extremely limited. Students
reported that their ability to access and search e-databases was extremely limited.
Students’ ability to use social media applications, such as Facebook, Instagram, and
Linked In, on the other hand, was relatively strong as shown in Figure 6.
Table 13. Students’ ability to use information technology tools.
How Students Use the Information Technology Tools
During the Studies N Percent N
I am able to use a laptop, personal computer. 200 3.51 1.494
I am able to use word processing software such as MS Word.
200
1.67
0.857
I am able to make presentations in PowerPoint. 200 1.62 0.748
I am able to use social media applications such as LinkedIn,
WeChat, Instagram, Facebokk, etc. 200 4.14 0.941
I am able to access and search e-books, e-journals, and e-
database, etc. 200 1.45 0.608
I am able to use other tools like data analyzing tools: SPSS and
MATLAB etc. 200 1.38 0.554
I am able to use programming languages: C, C++, Python, and
Java, etc. 200 1.36 0.576
1.28
1.3
1.32
1.34
1.36
1.38
1.4
1.42
1.44
1.46
Can paraphrase Can cite articles Can create
bibliography
Can use citation
tools
Can give credit
to authors
Average Score

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 16 of 22
Figure 6. Students’ responses to their ability to use information technology tools.
Findings and Discussion
We used multiple linear regression analysis to estimate different factors that affected
students’ IL, such as their ability to evaluate, recognize, understand, access, and use
different information sources. We used each separate aspect of information literacy as the
dependent variable and students’ demographic and other characteristics as the control
variables. Table 14 summarizes the findings. The findings showed that gender had a
negative relationship with students’ ability to evaluate information sources on the basis
of reliability and recency of information. According to the variable’s definition, this result
implied that female students overtook male students in terms of information source
evaluation. Following this, the findings showed that a student’s university had an impact
on their ability to evaluate information. The base category, in this case, was FUUAST. The
findings showed that, when compared to FUUAST, students’ ability to evaluate
information sources improved when they were enrolled in CUST and BU. Students’ ability
to evaluate information, on the other hand, decreased when they were enrolled in
COMSATS. This finding has a wide range of implications. It demonstrates that, even in
the capital city, universities provide learners with different opportunities to evaluate
information sources, with some universities performing better than others. It implies that
instituting reforms in universities has the potential to improve the situation. Furthermore,
we can see that students’ ability to evaluate information varied depending on the province
from which they came. ICT was used as the base category in this case. The findings
showed that, compared to ICT, the provinces of KPK, Sindh, Baluchistan, and GB all had
a significant negative relationship with students’ ability to evaluate information. This
finding implies that students from less developed provinces had lower ability to evaluate
information sources, necessitating targeted training programs for such students. On the
other hand, Punjab had a positive relationship with student information evaluation,
indicating that economically advantaged students performed better in terms of
information source evaluation. Furthermore, the findings suggested that when students
owned a computer, their ability to evaluate information tended to improve. Following
this, we find that students’ fields of study could have an impact on their ability to evaluate
information. According to the findings, students enrolled in the humanities and social
sciences had lower ability to evaluate information sources compared to students enrolled
in the applied sciences. This has serious implications because we previously found that
most students enrolled in the sample universities were studying social sciences or
humanities. The frequency with which students used the library affected their ability to
evaluate information. Daily frequency was used as the base variable in this case. The
results showed that, when compared to students who visited the library daily, students
who never visited the library had significantly lower ability to evaluate information. This
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Computer/Laptop
Word processing software
PowerPoint
Social Media Apps
Access e-booksm journals etc
Data analysis tools
Programming languages
Average Score

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 17 of 22
finding suggests that universities should encourage students to visit libraries in order to
improve their ability to evaluate information sources.
Table 14. Regression results of factors affecting student information literacy.
Variables
Evaluate
Information
Identify
Information
Recognize
Information
Access
Information
Ethics in
Information
Use Info
Tech
Coeff. Sig. Coeff. Sig. Coeff. Sig. Coeff.
Sig. Coeff. Sig. Coeff.
Sig.
Age (Years) −0.029 0.19 −0.193 0.305 −0.014 0.935 −0.073
0.666 0.172 0.231 0.169 0.074
Gender
(0 = female, 1 =
male)
0.022 0.001 −0.146 0.755 −0.057 0.893 0.214 0.611 −0.202 0.570 −0.334
0.081
University a
CUST 0.001 0.001 −1.924 0.008 1.580 0.015 1.639 0.012 −0.730 0.185 −0.691
0.343
COMSATS −0.11 0.25 −2.337 0.001 1.608 0.009 3.875 0.000 −0.509 0.324 0.287 0.675
BU
0.34
0.0001
−2.014
0.003
0.389
0.521
1.828
0.003
−0.123
0.810
1.682
0.014
Province b
Punjab 0.333 0.0001 0.111 0.860 −0.093 0.069 0.760 0.178 0.138 0.772 1.209 0.057
KPK −0.124 0.04 −0.284 0.675 1.645 0.008 −0.786
0.198 0.420 0.417 0.632 0.357
Sindh −0.224 0.003 −2.495 0.005 −0.585 0.456 −0.710
0.365 −0.094 0.888 1.307 0.139
Baluchistan −2.59 0.0001 −2.385 0.009 −0.455 0.056 −0.292
0.720 −0.227 0.042 −0.547
0.050
GB −0.654 0.151 −0.584 0.012 −0.555 0.092 −1.568
0.130 −1.334 0.029 −0.627
0.090
Department c
Humanities −0.234 0.0002 −0.248 0.046 −0.201 0.071 −0.105
0.079 −0.174 0.066 0-.292
0.007
Social Sciences
−0.251 0.01 0.442 0.095 −0.484 0.007 −0.879
0.032 −0.163 0.041 −0.023
0.072
Natural
Sciences 0.223 0.231 0.016 0.983 −0.500 0.473 0.477 0.493 −0.306 0.604 0.396 0.613
Formal Sciences
0.124 0.41 −0.170 0.821 0.196 0.771 0.572 0.396 −0.366 0.522 −0.553
0.466
Have computer?
0.001 0.001 2.507 0.0203
−1.602 0.036 0.694 0.061 0.221 0.732 1.433 0.095
Frequency
library d
Weekly −0.121 0.201 −1.233 0.395 −0.230 0.860 −0.774
0.052 −1.749 0.114 −1.307
0.373
Monthly −0.114 0.152 −0.223 0.053 0.655 0.545 −0.138
0.098 −0.273 0.766 −1.722
0.059
Never −0.342 0.0001 −0.004 0.098 1.103 0.306 −0.276
0.097 −0.063 0.945 −1.759
0.047
Constant 12.021 0.0001 24.524 0.000 10.180 0.000 10.821
0.000 11.012 0.000 11.022
0.000
R
2
0.29
0.234
3.120
0.242
0.241
0.331
F-value 2.34 0.001 2.237 0.004 2.136 0.006 3.209 0.0001
2.136 0.001 2.411 0.000
Notes: “a” The base category for the variable university is “FUUAST”. “b” The base category for
the province is “ICT”. “c” The base category for the variable of department is “applied sciences”.
“d” The base category for the variable of library frequency is the “daily frequency”.
The dependent variable in the very next model in Table 14 was students’ ability to
identify information. The findings indicated that students’ age and gender had no effect
on their ability to identify information. Student enrollment in a different university,
however, had an impact on ability to identify information. According to the findings,
students from CUST, COMSATS, and BU had lower ability to identify information sources
than students from FUUAST. This finding necessitates yet another university-wide reform
to improve the situation. In terms of geographical differences, we found that students
from KPK, Sindh, and GB had lower ability to identify information sources than students
from ICT. Once again, we see that students from less developed areas require more
attention to their information literacy. Furthermore, we found that students majoring in
social sciences and humanities had lower ability to identify information than students

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 18 of 22
majoring in applied sciences. There was no significant relationship between natural
sciences and formal sciences and students’ ability to identify information sources. In
contrast to previous findings, we found that students’ ownership of a computer had no
effect on their ability to identify information sources. Finally, the frequency with which
students visited the library affected their ability to identify information sources; we found
that students who never visited the library had lower information identification ability
than those who visited the library every day.
We found that students’ age and gender had no significant relationship with their
ability to recognize and understand information sources. However, there were inter-
university effects. For example, we found that students enrolled in CUST and COMSATS
had a lower ability to recognize and understand information than those enrolled in
FUUAST. Here, too, we found similar inter-regional differences. We found that students
from less developed areas (e.g., KPK, Sindh, and Baluchistan) had lower ability to
understand and recognize information sources than students from more developed areas
(e.g., ICT). Furthermore, the results showed that students enrolled in social sciences and
humanities had lower ability to understand and recognize information sources than
students enrolled in applied sciences. The findings also showed that owning a computer
improved students’ ability to understand and recognize information sources. In contrast
to previous findings, we found that students’ ability to understand and recognize
information sources was unaffected by the frequency of library visits.
In terms of accessing and using information sources, regression analysis results
showed that students’ age and gender had no effect on this variable. Their enrollment in
various universities, on the other hand, had a significant relationship with this variable.
Surprisingly, we discovered that students from CUST, COMSATS, and BU had increased
access to information sources, despite the fact that previous relationships indicated that
their ability to understand and identify information sources decreased if they attended
these universities. Unlike previous findings, we found that inter-regional differences in
student ability to access and use information had no effect. This means that students had
equal access to information sources regardless of where they lived. However, the findings
were consistent with previous findings in that students’ ability to access and use
information was influenced by the discipline they were studying. We found that students
of social sciences and humanities had less access to information sources (or did not use
them on purpose) than students of applied sciences. We also found that owning a
computer had a positive and significant impact on their access to and use of information.
Furthermore, the importance of library visits was demonstrated by the finding that
students who visited the library weekly, monthly, or never had a lower ability to access
information sources than those who visited the library daily.
The findings of the study revealed that the majority of the students who participated
in the survey lacked IL abilities, because they had never had any formal information
literacy education. This outcome was anticipated and unsurprising, given that academic
institutions in Pakistan, particularly schools and colleges, had historically made little
provision for imparting information literacy instruction in instructional programs [52].
The IL education offered by university libraries is embryonic or in its infancy, and lags
well behind the norms set by developed world institutions, with the mainstream of these
offering no formal IL education [53–55]. A significant proportion of IL education that is
now available is incapable of supporting students in the development of foundational
information abilities. Previous studies [56,57] have also obtained comparable results—
respondents possessed insufficient IL skills and needed to develop in this area. Possibly
as a result of this, scholars have recommended the importance of IL skills among students
[58]. The findings demonstrated that there was little variation in students’ responses to
the majority of the claims about their IL abilities. These findings are also consistent with
earlier research findings, which showed that there was little variation between the
different student class levels in terms of their IL abilities. A number of previous research
[59,60] came to the same conclusion, namely that there was a difference in IL abilities

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 19 of 22
between students who received IL education and those who did not receive IL education.
It is reasonable that a trained individual can outperform a non-trained individual in
certain situations. Therefore, training should be seen as a critical component in the
development of students’ IL abilities.
5. Conclusions
The aim of this study was to assess undergraduate students’ information literacy
abilities in Pakistan. To collect the required data from the population, a survey method
was used. The participants consisted of Capital University of Science and Technology
(CUST), COMSATS University Islamabad, Bahria University (BU) Islamabad, and Federal
Urdu University of Arts, Sciences and Technology (FUUAST) students. The sample
consisted of 200 students, randomly selected. A questionnaire was formulated and
completed individually.
The results included the alarming result that about 52% of students from the selected
institutions reported that they never went to the library. Comparison across the
universities revealed a similar situation, though with BU surpassing other universities
with respect to daily use of the library. The responses to the survey indicate that students
were in a poor position in terms of their ability to identify information sources.
Furthermore, most of the item scores were less than two, indicating that students’
recognition and understanding of information sources was in a dangerously precarious
condition. The findings further indicated that students’ ability to access and use the
information for assignments, tests, examinations, and the writing of research articles was
extremely limited. This could have severe implications for their learning outcomes.
According to the findings, students’ ability to technically implement best practice in
academic work and research was extremely limited, as was their knowledge of and
practice in providing proper credit to original authors, both of which were also extremely
limited. Students’ ability to use social media applications, such as Facebook, Instagram,
and Linked In, on the other hand, was relatively strong.
We recommend that students be educated with appropriate instruction through a
program that meets their needs. The Higher Education Commission (HEC) and the
institutions must organize conferences, workshops, and seminars to educate students on
the importance of IL and to raise awareness among faculty and students. Additionally,
during practical visits, we noticed that the majority of the libraries were not adequately
developed and that their internet facilities and contemporary services were not available
to the students in question. In order to effectively teach and encourage students to use
libraries, we strongly recommend that significant efforts be made to address these issues.
Finally, the authors acknowledge that, despite our best efforts, there are several
limitations to this study. First, the data was only collected from undergraduate students.
Future studies may include postgraduate students as well to compare the outcomes
between undergraduate and postgraduate students. Second, future studies should use
more advanced econometric techniques, such as structural equation modeling, to analyze
the influence of different factors on the outcomes considered in this study, because the
SEM technique enables analysis of several variables simultaneously.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.A.H., S.L. and A.A.; methodology, B.A.H., S.L. and
A.A.; software, B.A.H.; validation, B.A.H., S.L. and A.A.; formal analysis, B.A.H.; investigation,
B.A.H., S.L. and A.A.; resources, B.A.H.; data curation, B.A.H.; writing—original draft preparation,
B.A.H., S.L. and A.A.; writing—review and editing, B.A.H., S.L. and A.A.; visualization, B.A.H.;
supervision, S.L.; project administration, S.L. and A.A.; funding acquisition, A.A. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Sustainability 2022, 14, 3807 20 of 22
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the
study.
Data Availability Statement: The data used in this research can be obtained from the corresponding
authors upon request.
Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful to the Deanship of Scientific Research, King Saud
University for funding through Vice Deanship of Scientific Research Chairs.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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