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Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-14181-0 — Dialogue, Argumentation and Education
Baruch B. Schwarz , Michael J. Baker
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dialogue, argumentation and education
New pedagogical visions and technological developments have brought
argumentation to the fore of educational practice. Whereas students previously
learned to argue, they now also argue to learn: collaborative argumentation-
based learning has become a popular and valuable pedagogical technique across
a variety of tasks and disciplines. Researchers have explored the conditions under
which arguing to learn is successful, described some of its learning potentials
(such as for conceptual change and reflexive learning) and developed Internet-
based tools to support such learning. However, the further advancement of this
field presently faces several problems, which this book addresses. Three dimen-
sions of analysis –historical, theoretical and empirical –are integrated through-
out the book. Given the nature of its object of study –dialogue, interaction,
argumentation, learning and teaching –this book is resolutely multidisciplinary,
drawing on research on learning in educational and psychological sciences, as
well as on philosophical and linguistic theories of dialogue and argumentation.
Baruch B. Schwarz is the Isadore and Bertha Gudelsky Chair of Early Child-
hood Education at the Hebrew University.
Michael J. Baker is a research director (tenured Research Professor) of the
CNRS, the French National Centre for Scientific Research, working in the
Social and Economic Sciences Department of Telecom ParisTech, the French
National Telecommunications Engineering School.
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Dialogue, Argumentation
and Education
history, theory and practice
Baruch B. Schwarz
Hebrew University, Jerusalem
Michael J. Baker
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Telecom ParisTech, Paris
Foreword by Lauren B. Resnick with Faith Schantz
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It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
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Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107141810
© Baruch B. Schwarz and Michael J. Baker 2017
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
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no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
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First published 2017
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names: Schwarz, Baruch B., author. Baker, Michael J., author.
title: Dialogue, argumentation, and education : history, theory, and practice /
Baruch B. Schwarz & Michael J. Baker ; foreword by Lauren B. Resnick.
description: New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2017.
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subjects: lcsh: Questioning. | Discourse analysis.
classification: lcc lb1027.44 .s 34 2016 |ddc 371.3/7–dc23 LC record
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To my father, Adi, with whom I dialogised without books,
and to my uncle, Rabbi Meïr Zini, who taught me
to dialogise with books.
To the memory of my mother, Marlene Baker (1938–2015),
who taught me to love books and music.
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Contents
List of Tables and Figures page ix
Foreword by Lauren B. Resnick with Faith Schantz xi
Preface xv
Acknowledgements xxi
1Beginnings 1
2Changes in the Role of Talk in Education: Philosophical
and Ideological Revolutions 24
3Argumentation Theory for Education 56
4The Pervasive Role of Argumentation According to
Progressive Pedagogies 93
5Argumentative Interactions in the Classroom 135
6Argumentative Design 182
7Conclusions 225
References 247
Index of Names 279
Subject Index 285
vii
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Tables and Figures
tables
3.1Walton’s(1989) types of dialogue page 78
figures
2.1Socrates helps Meno’s slave to discover a geometrical property. 31
3.1Example of a Toulmin argument structure. 64
3.2Movements of generalisation in the Toulmin argument structure. 65
3.3Categorisation of modern theories of argumentation. 68
3.4Partial Toulminian representation of the artists’argument. 71
3.5Question, thesis and argumentative discourse. 80
5.1A part of the blocks task. 158
5.2Three dimensions of change of viewpoint relating to
argumentative interactions. 166
5.3Heating ice to steam task sheet. 169
5.4Tabular version of Toulmin diagram. 170
5.5Modified diagrammatic version of Toulmin diagram. 171
5.6Adaptation of the Toulmin model by Reznitzkaya and
colleagues (2007) for teaching philosophy to children. 174
6.1Goal instructions for deliberative and disputative argumentation. 187
6.2Example of a Digalo discussion map. 201
6.3Main window of the moderator’s interface. 202
6.4Awareness ‘chat’table. Contributions are vertically organised
per discussant according to chronological order, and deletions
or modifications are marked with the help of strike-through
font and font colours. 203
6.5‘Is it dark or light on the moon location from which this picture
of the Earth was taken?’216
ix
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Foreword
Several years ago, I organized a conference on dialogic learning that
brought together scholars in a wide range of fields from across the world.
During the planning phase, my colleagues and I contacted scholars whom
we knew to be interested in the role of discussion and social interaction in
school learning and asked them to send us any evidence they had, pub-
lished or unpublished, on the effects of carefully orchestrated discussions
among students. The responses were startling. The data we were sent
included evidence that many students who were taught by dialogic
methods performed better on standardized tests than similar students
who did not have such discussion experience. The data also showed that
some students retained their learned knowledge for two or three years.
In some cases, they even transferred their academic advantage to a differ-
ent domain. The results raised many questions for me. These questions
have persisted through the assembling and editing of a volume (Resnick,
Asterhan & Clarke 2015) based on the conference, to which my friend and
esteemed colleague Baruch Schwarz contributed a chapter. The opportun-
ity to further comment on the parallel work that Schwarz and his colleague,
Michael Baker, were doing offered a chance to consider these questions in
a different light.
I have been interested in classroom talk since I was a young student.
Arguing with my classmates, when I was given the chance, was for me the
most exciting part of any lesson. At the University of Pittsburgh, I helped
to develop accountable talk,todefine the kind of talk that meets stand-
ards for a good classroom discussion. This form of talk is accountable to
knowledge (getting the facts right even if it is a struggle to find the perfect
wording), accountable to reasoning (providing a rational justification for a
claim), and accountable to community (showing respect for the ideas and
feelings of others). By the time I organized the conference, I had been
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immersed in classroom talk for years. Yet I was stunned by the evidence of
transfer and what it implied about the nature of intelligence. If learning
through discussion in a domain such as science can lead to higher scores
on an English exam, for example, then it seemed to me we had proof that
intelligence is learnable –the mind can grow. This seemed revolutionary in
a scholarly world that believes that people can get better at doing specific
intellectual tasks but that intelligence is a natural endowment.
Thinking this through, I also found at least a partial answer to a question
that had been puzzling me and my colleagues: Why was resistance to the idea
of accountable talk so strong? It could be that the requirements of testing –
currently a dominating force in education –favor teacher-centered talk and
tend to repress much student discussion. It could be because it is admittedly
difficult for teachers to manage discussions that have no clear end.
However, the transfer evidence led me to another possibility. Most
people hold a deep-seated belief that cognitive ability is fixed at birth;
therefore, only some children can learn to use complex forms of reasoning.
Why try to teach –or expect teachers to teach –in a way that allows all
children to debate and defend their ideas if only a few students have ideas
worth debating?
Often students themselves share these beliefs. In Chapter 1of this book,
Baker describes French teenagers in a technical school who told him they
were the “bad students,”so naturally, they could not be expected to discuss
important social issues. My colleague, Sherice Clarke, interviewed Ameri-
can teenagers about their participation in discussions in a high school
biology class. Most seemed to believe the purpose of discussion was to
display knowledge they had already acquired. Unless they were “knowers,”
they did not have the right to speak. As a result, nearly half the class
remained silent over the observed period of six weeks.
The “right to speak”is intimately related to democratic ideals. The great
civil rights movements of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were
aimed at securing the right to vote for everyone. In the twenty-first
century, however, more is asked of citizens than regular visits to the voting
booth. Participation in a democracy depends on the ability to enter fully
into the public debates and discussions of the day. This means being able to
form a position based on evidence, counter a claim, persuade someone to
take another view of an idea, or convince another of the worth of a plan.
This means knowing how to keep a conversation going when the parties
deeply disagree. These are the skills that allow individuals to shape their
own destinies. The same skills will be needed for an educated citizenry to
reshape society.
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If we view the capacity to reason as a birthright, not as the purview of an
elite group, then we must offer opportunities to develop the skills of
argument (which are really the skills of reasoning) to everyone. The
question of how to accomplish that goal brings us to this book.
Schwarz and Baker provide a comprehensive view of how dialogue has
evolved through history and been positioned with regard to theories of
mind and the right to speak. They identify the need for supporting
argumentation-based learning with stronger theoretical foundations, and
they begin to provide such foundations.
Turning to the history of dialogue as a branch of philosophy, the
authors bring their knowledge of the various strains of argumentation
theory to bear on talk in the classroom. Their discussion (in Chapters 3
and 4) will be challenging for readers without a deep background in
philosophy, but the payoff for “staying the course”will be considerable.
This perspective allows the authors to analyze classroom dialogue with
different “tools”than those used by the typical researcher or teacher. One
could say that learning theory and argumentation theory engage in dia-
logue here and emerge in a newly integrated form. The new theory influ-
ences the authors’discussion of how argumentation should be designed for
the classroom and their fascinating analysis of what is actually happening
when students argue to learn to argue.
By the end of this book, the authors have laid out the main lines of
a case for argumentation as a competency that all schools should teach –
because argumentation is central to democracy. As I write this, in
November 2015, I imagine what might have occurred if a copy of this book
had appeared on every café table in the Eleventh Arrondissement of Paris a
few weeks ago. Fewer guns, more arguments. Is that not an imaginable
paradise?
Lauren B. Resnick with Faith Schantz
University of Pittsburgh
Foreword xiii
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Preface
To our knowledge, this book is the first monograph on argumentation in
dialogue in education. We explore how students learn in specific teaching
domains by engaging in argumentative dialogues, as well as the conditions
for the emergence of such dialogues. Our main theme is thus arguing to
learn and moreover, arguing to learn together.
Our work has many inspirations, beginning of course, with the classics
in logic and argumentation. However, such theories deal mainly with –and
indeed originated from –the spheres of law, politics and the media, leaving
education and the learning subject aside. Given its domains of predilection,
argumentation theory tends to stress the distinction between acceptable
and unacceptable modes of reasoning and persuasive discourse, whereas it
is the constructive function of argumentation dialogue with respect to new
knowledge, that is important for education.
In modern times and in the domain of education, the most influential
work on argument has been that of Deanna Kuhn (see, e.g. The Skills of
Argument,1991, or her more recent book for teachers, written with Hem-
berger and Khait, Argue with Me,2014). Kuhn treats argument as an
abstract higher-order skill acquired gradually throughout development.
In other words, her work is about learning to argue. Most of the educators
interested in promoting argumentation in classrooms have been pro-
foundly influenced by Kuhn’s research, especially researchers in science
education (e.g. Erduran and Jiménez-Aleixandre 2007), who see argumen-
tation as a key skill in doing and learning science.
In their book entitled Arguing to Learn, Jerry Andriessen, Michael
Baker and Dan Suthers (2003) established a new research direction. With
respect to the work on ‘skills of argument’just mentioned, the arguing-to-
learn approach is focused on the interactive dynamics at work in groups of
learners rather than on the individual. It focuses on interactive learning
xv
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processes involving argumentation in specific taught domains and class-
room contexts, with no a priori assumption that the processes involved are
either universal or else purely ‘cognitive’(they are also communicative and
involve the interplay of interpersonal relations and affects). In practice, the
distinction between learning to argue and arguing to learn is not sharp
because the latter presupposes the former, and what can be learned from
arguing about a topic may in fact be of an argumentative nature (know-
ledge of the main views and arguments for and against them). But
researchers working on arguing to learn –as we already stated, this being
the subject of this book –aim to work from the argumentative skills that
students already possess, as people already well able to communicate with
others, and stress this distinction in order to demarcate themselves from a
pedagogical approach mainly targeted at the development of high-order
thinking skills. Arguing to learn has thus been identified as one of the key
processes of social learning in specific teaching domains. Argumentation is
now studied in situation instead of as an abstract skill to be acquired
(learning to argue) and applied anywhere and everywhere, as indeed is
the implicit and seemingly obvious view of the major theories of argumen-
tation. Arguing to learn is contextualised in the flourishing domain of
collaborative learning, as a sub-field that has come to be known as collab-
orative argumentation-based learning, across a variety of tasks and taught
disciplines. Huge developments in computer design have provided varied
computer supports for collaborative argumentation-based learning.
Over the past twenty-five years there have been several collective works
on collaborative argumentation-based learning in which we participated as
authors and as co-editors (Andriessen, Baker & Suthers 2003; Andriessen
& Coirier, 1999; Baker, Andriessen & Järvelä 2013; Ludvigsen, Lund, Ras-
mussen & Säljö 2010; Muller Mirza & Perret-Clermont 2009; Schwarz,
Dreyfus & Hershkowitz 2009). All these books are collections of separate
articles, many of which deal with arguing to learn and related topics such
as the roles of emotion and tool mediation. The process of the writing of
these books was extremely influential on us as the background for the
writing of this book. Conferences that gathered together all contributors
preceded the writing of the chapters of each book. During each conference,
we found ourselves immersed in a wonderful outburst of ideas in various
domains: educational psychology, social psychology, socio-cultural theor-
ies, computer design and of course, informal logic and theories of argu-
mentation. Although such a disparate list of domains could have led us to
feel confused or eclectic, we felt that these conferences helped in creating a
new scientific community around something big –a new domain that we
xvi Preface
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had difficulties in defining, but that united people from different domains.
However, when each of us turned to the writing of our chapters the
compartmentalisation of domains dominated. Indeed, as contributors to
all these books we felt that the chapters did not present an integrative view
that combines learning, dialogue and argumentation because each of the
contributors adopted his or her view on learning, dialogue and argumen-
tation. No through-written book existed that could serve as a common
reference for the emerging domain of argumentation and education. Also,
during the last five years our discomfort about the absence of suitable
references increased considerably in the light of the impressive number of
articles published on argumentation in learning contexts. In addition, the
ubiquitous use of social networks by young people in debates or in
discussions –for better and for worse –brings the study of new forms of
argumentation to the fore of educational issues.
We therefore felt that there was a need for a through-written book on
argumentation in collaborative learning contexts. This book is an attempt
to synthesise and extend what we have absorbed and learned over the last
twenty-five years on dialogue, argumentation and education. We feel that
we are the instruments of a growing society that seeks to establish its
identity. However, the literal explosion of research in argumentation in
learning contexts during the last decade turned our enterprise into an
almost impossible challenge. We are aware that many research efforts
have not been included in this book, primarily due to our inability to
cope with an exponential number of publications. We have not been
exhaustive for another reason. It is not only the number of publications
but also the new directions that are so diverse that they cannot reasonably
been inserted into one book. An example of this diversity is the use of
social networks. The kinds of discussions between young people that
develop in and out of schools are relevant to education. Propaganda,
violence and demagogy are involved in social network discussions that
can impinge on the opinions or actions of children or adolescents for better
and for worse. We have hardly touched on this immensely important topic
which is obviously relevant to the general themes of this book. We could
also have reviewed very interesting research on argumentation in multi-
cultural educational contexts, a highly relevant topic in Western countries.
However, reviewing research on these and other extremely interesting
topics would have made our book too eclectic and too complex and
indeed too big.
Although this book is about argumentation in learning contexts and
therefore might be expected to be purely a work of educational psychology,
Preface xvii
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the title of the book, Dialogue, Argumentation and Education: History,
Theory and Practice, is intended to indicate that we also include general
theoretical perspectives from philosophy and language sciences on dia-
logue and argumentation themselves, as well as their inscription in educa-
tional practices throughout modern history. This is therefore a resolutely
multidisciplinary book. Readers interested in results of research in psych-
ology and educational sciences on how students learn in argumentation
dialogue and how situations that favour this may be designed may wish to
consult mostly the later chapters of this book. We hope however, that they
will also be interested in the earlier chapters on dialogue and argumenta-
tion theory. We included them here because, although references to both
dialogue and argumentation have become very frequent in modern peda-
gogical approaches, they are often based on largely intuitive or everyday
notions of these phenomena. We believe therefore, that a few reminders of
more precise theoretically motivated definitions of dialogue and argumen-
tation may be of some use.
As our scientific community grew we became aware of the fact that the
move towards dialogic and argumentative pedagogies involves an aspir-
ation to deep educational changes with societal implications. Such peda-
gogies are new with respect to the earlier part of the twentieth century. But,
as we describe here, they have a long history prior to this. Such a historical
perspective can guide future steps in instilling argumentative norms and
implementing argumentative practices in educational institutions. The
evolution of dialogue and argumentation practices in religious education
(notably within Christian, Jewish and Islamic religious education) and
secular education over the last two thousand years is relevant for those
who contribute to the promotion of new argumentative skills in education.
We hope that this will be a useful resource book for researchers,
students and teachers interested in these issues as well as designers of
educational technologies. Although we have invested efforts in maintaining
coherence between the very different chapters of this book, readers may
wish to focus on certain chapters at the expense of others. We took into
consideration the possibility of a selective reading by providing concluding
sections in Chapters 2,3,4,5and 6that serve as short summaries for each
of these chapters.
Over the two preceding decades or more our ideas on argumentation,
dialogue and education have been shaped by collaborations with many
people. Pierre Dillenbourg created a framework in which the role of
argumentation in collaborative learning could be studied by his organisa-
tion in the 1990sofa‘collaborative learning task force’within the ‘Learning
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in Humans and Machines’programme, financed by the European Science
Foundation. Over the years our closest collaborator in developing the
arguing-to-learn approach has been Jerry Andriessen at the University
of Utrecht, then at Wise and Munro Learning Research, with whom we
have published several co-edited books, book chapters and research papers.
In particular, for Michael Baker, the argumentation theorist Christian
Plantin has been a major influence over a period spanning a decade, within
the CNRS-ICAR Laboratory in Lyon. We thank Christian Plantin for his
careful critical and constructive reading of Chapters 2and 3of this book.
Since the 1990s the European Commission has funded many research
and development projects that helped us to participate in developing new
technologies for facilitating learning and teaching processes. Since the
beginning of the millennium, we worked on several such projects focusing
on arguing to learn: DREW, DUNES, SCALE, LEAD, ARGUNAUT,
ESCALATE and METAFORA. All of them yielded innovative environ-
ments with which we could envision new argumentative practices, among
them argumentative writing based on maps of previous discussions and the
subtle role of teachers in moderating groups of arguing learners. These
projects were opportunities to strengthen our growing society. For
example, through his participation in those projects Baruch Schwarz
interacted not only with omnipresent Jerry Andriessen but also with
Anne-Nelly Perret-Clermont at the University of Neuchâtel. Such encoun-
ters brought forwards the perspective of social psychology to the study of
argumentation. With the perspective of time we recognise the importance
of the massive funding of the European Community that we have received
and express our gratitude for the trust that was put in our ideas.
Many people helped in the actual writing of this book over the four years
it was in the making. Amongst them we thank specifically Christa Asterhan,
Zvi Bekerman, Paolo Boero, Nadia Douek, Michael Ford, Christian Plantin,
Françoise Détienne, Anne-Nelly Perret-Clermont and Benzi Slakmon for
their precious detailed comments on several chapters of the book.
We also thank our contact at Cambridge University Press, New York,
Dave Repetto, for his immediate, continuing and always-friendly support.
references
Andriessen, J. & Coirier, P. (1999). Foundations of Argumentative Text Processing.
University of Amsterdam Press.
Andriessen, J., Baker, M. J. & Suthers, D. (Eds.) (2003). Arguing to Learn: Con-
fronting Cognitions in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning Environ-
ments. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
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Baker, M. J., Andriessen, J. & Järvelä, S. (Eds.) (2013). Affective Learning Together:
Social and Emotional Dimensions of Collaborative Learning (New Perspectives
on Learning and Instruction Series). London: Routledge.
Erduran, S. & Jiménez-Aleixandre, M. P. (2007). Argumentation in Science
Education. Perspectives from Classroom-Based Research Series: Contemporary
Trends and Issues in Science Education. New York: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-1-
4020-6670-2_5
Kuhn, D. (1991). The skills of argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kuhn, D., Hemberger, L., & Khait, V. (2014). Argue with me: Developing thinking
and writing through dialog. Bronxville, NY: Wessex Press.
Ludvigsen, S., Lund, A., Rasmussen, I. & Säljö, R. (Eds.) (2010). Learning Across
Sites: New Tools, Infrastructures and Practices (New Perspectives on Learning
and Instruction Series). London: Routledge.
Muller Mirza, N. & Perret-Clermont, A.-N. (Eds.) (2009). Argumentation and
Education: Theoretical Foundations and Practices. New York: Springer.
Schwarz, B. B., Dreyfus, T. & Hershkowitz, R. (Eds.) (2009). Transformation of
Knowledge through Classroom Interaction (New Perspectives in Learning and
Instruction Series). London: Routledge.
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Acknowledgements
Baruch Schwarz is grateful to the School of Education at the Hebrew
University which created a suitable ambiance for the writing of this book.
Michael Baker gratefully acknowledges the financial support of the Centre
National de la Recherche Scientifique and Telecom ParisTech during the
writing of this book. The authors thank Maya Resnick for her efficient and
kind help with preparation of the manuscript.
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