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Two Tularemia Cases with Atypical Presentation

Authors:
  • Etlik City Hospital, Ankara, Turkiye

Abstract

Tularemia is a zoonosis caused by Francisella tularensis, a Gram-negative coccobacillus. Oropharyngeal tularemia is due to bacteria penetrating the oral mucosa during intake of contaminated water and food and is the common form seen in our country. Oculoglandular tularemia is rarely reported. In this report, two oropharyngeal tularemia cases from the same province, Cankiri, are presented. The first was associated with an oculoglandular form and the second with a diffuse skin rash. Tularemia cases have rarely been reported from this province. Cases in unexpected forms lead to difficulties in the differential diagnosis of patients. Therefore clinicians should be aware of aypical presentations, apart from the classic case descriptions, and also recognise the cutaneous lesions of tularemia and consider tularemia in patients with eruptions having an epidemiological history.
Olgu Sunumu / Case Report
Atipik Bulgularla Seyreden İki Tularemi Olgusu
Two Tularemia Cases with Atypical Presentation
Ayşegül Ulu-Kılıç1, Gönül Çiçek-Şentürk1, Emin Ediz Tütüncü1, Selçuk Kılıç2, Fatma Aybala Altay1,
Yunus Gürbüz1, İrfan Şencan1
1 Dışkapı Yıldırım Beyazıt Eğitim ve Araştırma Hastanesi, İnfeksiyon Hastalıkları ve Klinik Mikrobiyoloji Kliniği, Ankara, Türkiye
2Refi k Saydam Hıfzıssıhha Merkezi Başkanlığı, Bakteriyel Zoonozlar Araştırma ve Referans Laboratuvarı, Ankara, Türkiye
Özet
Tularemi, Gram-negatif kokobasil olan Francisella tularensis’in
neden olduğu bir zoonozdur. Orofaringeal tularemi, kontamine
su ve gıdaların alımı sırasında bakterinin oral mukozadan girme-
si ile oluşur ve ülkemizde görülen yaygın formdur. Oküloglan-
düler tularemi ise nadir olarak bildirilmiştir. Bu raporda, Çankırı
ilinden başvuran biri oküloglandüler formla birliktelik gösteren,
diğeri yaygın cilt döküntüleri ile seyreden orofaringeal formda
iki tularemi olgusu sunuldu. Çankırı ilinden tularemi olgu bildi-
rimi sık değildir. Beklenen formda olmayan olgular ayırıcı tanıda
güçlüğe neden olmaktadır. Tulareminin klasik olgu tanımları dı-
şında seyreden iç içe girmiş tablolar şeklinde ortaya çıkabileceği
unutulmamalıdır. Tularemi döküntülerinin bilinmesi ve epidemi-
yolojik öyküsü olan hastalarda cilt lezyonları ile birlikte tularemi-
nin tanıda akla getirilmesi gereklidir.
Klimik Dergisi 2010; 23(3): 120-3.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Francisella tularensis, tularemi.
Abstract
Tularemia is a zoonosis caused by Francisella tularensis, a Gram-
negative coccobacillus. Oropharyngeal tularemia is due to bac-
teria penetrating the oral mucosa during intake of contaminated
water and food and is the common form seen in our country.
Oculoglandular tularemia is rarely reported. In this report, two
oropharyngeal tularemia cases from the same province, Cankiri,
are presented. The fi rst was associated with an oculoglandular
form and the second with a diffuse skin rash. Tularemia cases
have rarely been reported from this province. Cases in unex-
pected forms lead to diffi culties in the differential diagnosis of
patients. Therefore clinicians should be aware of aypical presen-
tations, apart from the classic case descriptions, and also recog-
nise the cutaneous lesions of tularemia and consider tularemia
in patients with eruptions having an epidemiological history.
Klimik Dergisi 2010; 23(3): 120-3.
Key Words: Francisella tularensis, tularemia.
Giriş
Tularemi, Francisella tularensis’in neden olduğu ku-
zey yarım küreye özgü bir zoonozdur. Dünyada yılda yak-
laşık 500 000 tularemi olgusu olduğu tahmin edilmekte-
dir (1). Son yıllarda ülkemizde tularemi olgularının artışı
ve daha önce tanımlandığı Marmara Bölgesi’nin dışında
birçok bölgede küçük epidemilere neden olması, bu in-
feksiyonun ciddi bir toplum sağlığı sorunu haline gelme-
sine neden olmuştur (2).
Tularemi, organizmanın virülansına, inokülasyon
kaynağına ve konağın immün durumuna bağlı olarak ge-
niş bir klinik spektrumda görülebilmektedir. Orofaringe-
al, ülseroglandüler, oküloglandüler, glandüler, tifoid ve
pulmoner olmak üzere altı klinik formu tanımlanmıştır.
Orofaringeal tularemi, kontamine su ve gıdaların alımı
sırasında bakterinin oral mukozadan girmesi ile oluşur
ve ülkemizde görülen yaygın formdur (2,3). Bu yazıda,
kliniğimizde takip edilen klasik orofaringeal tularemi
tablosundan farklı bulgularla seyreden Çankırı ilinden
başvurmuş iki olgu sunulmuştur.
Olgular
Olgu 1: Seksen üç yaşında erkek hasta, üç haftadır
devam eden yüksek ateş, titreme, yaygın vücut ağrısı ve
boynun sol tarafında şişlik şikayeti ile kliniğimize baş-
vurdu. Fizik muayenesinde ateş 38°C ve orofarinks doğal
idi. Sol dudak köşesinde 1x0.5 cm, sol servikal alanda
2x1 cm lenfadenopati ve sol gözde konjonktivit bulgu-
ları mevcuttu (Resim 1). Laboratuvar incelemesinde kan
beyaz küre sayısı 10 600/mm3 (%62’si parçalı çekirdekli
lökosit), hemoglobin 14.9 mg/dl, trombosit 296 000 (140
Yaz›flma Adresi / Address for Correspondence:
Aysegül Ulu-Kılıç, Dışkapı Yıldırım Beyazıt Eğitim ve Araştırma Hastanesi, İnfeksiyon Hastalıkları ve Klinik Mikrobiyoloji Kliniği, Ankara, Türkiye
Tel./Phone: +90 312 596 20 00 Faks/Fax: +90 312 318 66 90 E-posta/E-mail: draysegululu@yahoo.co.uk
doi:10.5152/kd.2010.32
120
000-400 000/mm3), eritrosit sedimantasyon hızı (ESH) 64 mm/
saat, C-reaktif protein (CRP) 24.4 mg/lt (0-5 mg/lt) olarak tes-
pit edildi. Boyun ultrasonografi sinde; sol servikal alanda 12
mm, sağ servikal alanda 11 mm olan birkaç adet reaktif lenf
nodu görüldü.
Yaşadığı bölgede benzer vakaların olduğu öğrenilmesi
üzerine tularemi için yapılan serolojik incelemede mikroag-
lütinasyon testi (MAT) ile 1/2560 titrede pozitifl ik saptandı.
Hastanın kene ısırığı, fare veya kemirici hayvan teması öykü-
sü yoktu. Hastanın lenfadenopatilerinin küçük ve sert olması
nedeniyle aspirasyon işlemi yapılamadı.
Tularemi tanısı konulan olguya streptomisin (1 gr/gün) te-
davisi başlandı. Tedavi esnasında yüzünde sol dudak köşe-
sinde yer alan lenf nodunda büyüme ve yumuşama gözlenen
olgudan alınan örnekten kültür ve polimeraz zincir reaksiyo-
nu (PZR) yapıldı. Seçici besiyerinde üreme olmamasına rağ-
men, PZR ile F. tularensis subspecies holarctica olarak tanım-
landı. Antibiyotik tedavisi 14 güne tamamlanan hastada tam
iyileşme sağlandı.
Olgu 2: Otuz beş yaşında kadın hasta, kliniğimize yaklaşık
iki haftadır olan üşüme, titreme, ateş, boğaz ağrısı, el, kol,
bacaklar ve yüzde yaygın döküntü ve boynun sağ tarafında
şişlik nedeni ile başvurdu. Fizik muayenesinde ateş 38°C idi;
tonsiller hipertrofi k, 5x3 cm boyutlarında sağ submandibu-
ler lenfadenopati ve bilateral konjonktiviti, yüzde ve kollarda
erythema multiforme, bacaklarda erythema nodosum şeklin-
de döküntüleri mevcuttu (Resim 2-4). Laboratuvar inceleme-
sinde kan beyaz küre sayısı 9900/mm3 (%64 parçalı çekirdekli
lökosit), hemoglobin 12.2 mg/dl, trombosit 277 000/mm3 (156
000-373 000/mm3), ESH 79 mm/saat, CRP 125 mg/lt (0-5 mg/
lt) olarak tespit edildi. Boyun ultrasonografi sinde; sağ yarıda
submandibuler alanda 53x35x20 mm olan birkaç adet hipoe-
koik solid lezyon (konglomere lenfadenopati) görüldü.
Eşi ve oğlu tularemi tanısı ile kliniğimizce takip edilen
hastanın tularemi için yapılan serolojik incelemesinde MAT
ile 1/1280 dilüsyonda pozitifl ik saptandı. Hasta 14 gün 1 gr/
gün streptomisin ile tedavi edildi. Tedavinin 7. gününde cilt
döküntüleri tamamen geriledi fakat lenf nodunda büyüme ve
üktüasyon tespit edilen hastaya cerrahi drenaj uygulandı.
İrdeleme
F. tularensis dünyada yaygın dağılım gösteren bir zoonoz
olan tulareminin etkenidir. F. tularensis’in bilinen dört alt ti-
pinden supspecies holarctica (Tip B) daha az virülandır ve
Türkiye’de salgınlara neden olan türdür. Salgınlar Trakya, Ka-
radeniz ve Marmara Bölgelerinde sıktır. Orofaringeal tularemi
ülkemizdeki salgınlarda en sık gözlenen klinik formudur (2,3).
Oküloglandüler tularemi %0-5 hastada görülen nadir
bir tablodur (3). Ülkemizde 2004-2005 yılında Zonguldak-
Kastamonu-Bartın’da görülen salgında 54 orofaringeal tula-
remi yanında dört hastada oküloglandüler tularemi saptan-
mıştır (4). Gölcük’teki tularemi salgınında ise 145 hastanın
5’inde konjonktivit tespit edilmiştir (5). Oküloglandüler tula-
remi seyrinde konjonktivit, pürülan eksüda, ptoz, periorbital
selülit, konjonktival granülom ve daha nadir olarak görme
kaybı ortaya çıkabilir (6). Birinci olgumuzun sol dudak kena-
rında yer alan bukkal lenf nodu tutulumu ve konjonktivit tab-
losu ile oküloglandüler formda tularemi olduğu düşünülmüş-
tür. Fasyal lenf nodları gözkapakları, konjunktiva, burnun deri
ve mukozasını drene eder. Oküloglandüler forma sıklıkla eşlik
eden fasyal lenf nodu preaurikülerdir (6). Fasyal lenf nod-
larının palpe edilmesi genellikle güçtür. Fakat tularemi gibi
süpüratif lenfadenit yapan hastalarda belirgin hale gelebilir.
Olgumuzda başlangıçta nodüler yapıda olan bukkal lenf nodu
tedavi sırasında yumuşama göstermiş ve yapılan aspiratta
PZR ile F. tularensis subspecies holarctica tespit edilmiştir.
Tularemi çok farklı klinik formla karakterize bir hastalıktır.
Bazen aynı hastada birden çok form aynı anda gözlenebilir.
Bellibaşlı formlar arasındaki ayrım baskın klinik bulgulara
göre yapılmıştır. Hastamızda bilateral reaktif servikal lenf
nodlarının olması nedeniyle hafi f formda orofaringeal tula-
reminin de eşlik ettiği söylenebilir. Olgumuzda ve ülkemizde
bildirilen benzer olgularda orofaringeal ve okuloglandüler
formun birlikteliği mevcuttur (4-6).
Tulareminin tüm klinik formlarında difüz makülopapüler
veya vezikülopapüler erüpsiyon, püstül, erythema nodo-
sum, erythema multiforme, akneiform lezyonlar veya ürtiker
gibi deri döküntüleri gelişebilir. Tularemi olguların yaklaşık
%43’ünde deri lezyonları gözlenmiştir. Tularemiyle ilişkili
Resim 1. Fasyal (bukkal) lenf nodu tutulumu.
Resim 2. Alında erythema multiforme şeklinde döküntü, sol
gözde konjonktivit.
Ulu-Kılıç A et al. Atipik Bulgularla Seyreden İki Tularemi Olgusu 121
akut febril nötrofi lik dermatoz olarak bilinen Sweet sendro-
mu da tanımlanmıştır (7). Papüler ve vezikülopapüler form ise
en sık görülen deri lezyonlarıdır. Deri döküntüleri genellikle
hastalığın ilk iki haftası içinde ortaya çıkar ve 2-6 hafta ka-
dar devam edebilir (8). Sekonder deri lezyonları kadınlarda
erkeklere göre daha sık görülmektedir. Deri lezyonları spesifi k
tedavi ile tamamen gerilemektedir.
Tularemi hastalığında görülen deri lezyonlarından ery-
thema nodosum’un daha çok pnömonik formda görüldüğü
bildirilmiştir (3). Ülkemizde Havza/Samsun bölgesinde 75
orofaringeal tularemi olgusuyla yapılan bir çalışmada 3 (%3)
olguda, Bursa’da yapılan çalışmada ise %13 oranında erythe-
ma nodosum saptanmıştır (9,10).
Erythema nodosum daha çok immünolojik bir bulgu olma-
sına karşın erythema multiforme veziküllerinden F. tularensis
üretilmiştir (8). Herpes lezyonları ile karışabilen, tanının gecik-
mesine neden olan veziküler döküntüler de bildirilmiş, vezikü-
ler sıvı ve skar dokusunda bakteri üretilebilmiştir (11).
İkinci olgumuzda tüm vücutta yaygın cilt döküntüleri has-
tanın kliniğinde ön planda görülmekteydi. Döküntü tularemi
hastalığının klasik bir bulgusu değildir. Yüksek ateş, tonsil-
lofarenjit ve lenfadenopati ile birlikteliği, benzer olguların
görüldüğü bir bölgeden gelmiş olması tularemi tanısını des-
teklemektedir. Her iki olguda uygun epidemiyolojik ve klinik
bulgular MAT ve/veya PZR pozitifl iği ile doğrulanmıştır.
Yaygın döküntüsü olan ikinci olgumuzda daha belirgin
olmak üzere her iki olgumuzda ESH ve CRP değerleri yük-
sek oranda saptanmıştır. Erythema nodosum olan hastalarda
deri döküntüleri olmayan hastalara göre bu değerler daha
yüksek oranda saptanmıştır (10).
Kültür pozitifl iği infeksiyonun kesin tanısında altın stan-
dard olarak kabul edilmektedir. Fakat bakterinin rutin kul-
lanım besiyerlerinde ürememesi ve yüksek bulaşma özel-
liği nedeniyle kolay değildir. Hasta örneklerinden PZR ile F.
tularensis’e ait genomik segmentlerin amplifi kasyonu duyarlı
ve özgül bir yöntemdir (12).
Çankırı ilinden tularemi olgu bildirimi sık değildir (13). Bu
nedenle beklenen formda olmayan bu olgular ayırıcı tanıda
güçlüğe neden olmaktadır. Konjonktival tutulum ile birlikte
fasyal lenf nodlarının tutulumu oküloglandüler tularemiyi
düşündürmelidir. Tulareminin klasik olgu tanımları dışında
seyreden iç içe girmiş tablolar şeklinde ortaya çıkabileceği
unutulmamalıdır. Tularemi özellikle kadın hastalarda yaygın
döküntü ile birliktelik gösterebilir. Tularemi döküntülerinin bi-
linmesi ve epidemiyolojik öyküsü olan hastalarda cilt lezyon-
ları ile birlikte tulareminin tanıda akla getirilmesi gereklidir.
Çıkar Çatışması
Yazarlar, herhangi bir çıkar çatışmasının söz konusu olma-
dığını bildirmişlerdir.
Kaynaklar
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Resim 4. Bacaklarda erythema nodosum şeklinde döküntüler.
Resim 3. Kollarda ve ellerde erythema multiforme şeklinde
döküntüler.
122 Klimik Dergisi 2010; 23(3): 120-3
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10. Akdiş AC, Kiliçturgay K, Helvaci S, Mistik R, Oral B. Immunological
evaluation of erythema nodosum in tularemia. Br J Dermatol.
1993; 129(3): 275-9.
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vesicular skin lesions may be mistaken for infection with herpes
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13. Ataman-Hatipoglu Ç, Bayız Ü, Kaya-Fırat SK, Erdinç FS, Tülek N,
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Bül. 2005; 39(1): 89-94.
Ulu-Kılıç A et al. Atipik Bulgularla Seyreden İki Tularemi Olgusu 123
... There are six main clinical presentations in tularemia: ulceroglandular, glandular, oculoglandular, oropharyngeal, pneumonic and typhoidal (Table1). Dermatological manifestations including erythema nodosum, erythema multiforme, diffuse maculopapular rash, acneiform and vesicular lessions reported as many as 20% of patients with tularemia (2,4,20,25). Secondary skin lesions of infection are observed most frequently in women than men and eruptions completely resolve after treatment (25). ...
... Dermatological manifestations including erythema nodosum, erythema multiforme, diffuse maculopapular rash, acneiform and vesicular lessions reported as many as 20% of patients with tularemia (2,4,20,25). Secondary skin lesions of infection are observed most frequently in women than men and eruptions completely resolve after treatment (25). Fulminant manifestations of tularemia are reported including meningitis, abscesses and endocarditis (2,29). ...
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Tularemia is a bacterial zoonotic disease. The etiologic agent is Francisella tularensis which is a gram negative coccobacillus and has an exceedingly low infectious dose. Natural infections with F. tularensis have been reported in a range of vertebrates including mammals, birds, amphibians and fish. Tularemia occurs in humans only in the northern hemisphere and most frequently in Scandinavian countries, northern America, Japan and Russia. It is also an epidemic disease in some part of Turkey. The infection is transmitted to humans by arthropod bites (ticks, flies, mosquitoes), by direct contact with infected animals, by contact with infected tissues or fluids of infectious animals, by ingestion of contaminated water or food or by inhalation of infective aerosols. Clinical forms are ulceroglandular or glandular, oculoglandular, oropharyngeal, respiratory and typhoidal forms. The diagnosis is based on the isolation of F.tularensis and/or positive serology. In the therapy, the first choice is an aminoglycosides (streptomycin or gentamicin) and alternative choice is ciprofloxacin or doxycycline. Duration of therapy is suggested as 10-14 days. A live attenuated vaccine is only in use some parts of the former Soviet Union but no licensed vaccine available.
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Tularemia is a zoonotic disease caused by Francisella tularensis. We aimed to explicate the clinical and laboratory findings of 27 consecutive tularemia patients who were included into the study. The average duration between onset of symptoms and diagnosis was 19.1 +/- 7.3 days. Sore throat (100%), fever (93%) and myalgia (100%) were the most frequently observed symptoms, while lymphadenopathy (100%), pharyngeal hyperemia (85%), tonsillitis (74%), and rash (7%) were the most frequently observed physical findings. Treatment failed in 6 patients: 1/13 streptomycin- (changed to doxycycline + streptomycin), 1/7 ciprofloxacin- (changed to streptomycin), and 4/7 gentamicin- (changed to streptomycin) receiving patients who had longer duration to treatment (26.5 +/- 2.9 days) than the 21 successfully treated cases (17.0 +/- 6.8 days). Tularemia should to be taken into account in the differential diagnosis in cases having tonsillopharyngitis and cervical lymphadenopathy without response to beta lactam/macrolide-group antibiotics in rural areas. We believe that streptomycin should be the first-line antibiotic in the treatment of pediatric tularemia cases, but it should be supported by comprehensive studies with larger patient series.
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Tularemia is a zoonotic infection caused by Francisella tularensis. In the recent years tularemia has become a re-emerging infection in Turkey with epidemics and also sporadic cases. Transmission occurs most often through consumption of contaminated water and food, direct contact with animals and insect/ tick bites. In this study, we evaluated clinical features and laboratory findings of 35 tularemia cases diagnosed during two outbreaks that occurred in two different villages during two different periods in Konya (located in Central Anatolia), Turkey and five sporadic cases. In both outbreaks, first (index) cases were admitted to our outpatient clinic with the complaints of cervical lympadenopathy. After diagnosis of tularemia, an organized team visited the villages to search if more cases existed. For microbiological diagnosis, blood, throat and tonsil swabs and lymph node aspirate specimens were collected from the suspected cases. Diagnostic tests (culture, serology, molecular methods) for tularemia were performed in reference center, Refik Saydam National Public Health Agency. Drinking and potable water samples from those villages were also collected by provincial health authorities. The cases (n= 14) that belonged to the first epidemics were detected in February 2010 and cases (n= 21) of the second epidemics in November- December 2010; five cases were followed as sporadic. The mean age of the 40 patients (25 females, 15 males) was 37.6 (age range: 5-80 years; five of them were pediatric group) years. The most common complaints of patients were cervical mass (90%), sore throat (63%), chills (60%) and fever (58%). The most frequently detected clinical findings were enlarged lymph nodes (n= 34, 85%), followed by tonsillitis (20%), skin lesions (15%) and conjunctivitis (8%). Most of the patients (82.5%) had been misdignosed as acute tonsillitis, suppurative lymphadenitis, tuberculous lymphadenitis and brucellosis, before their admission to our hospital and treated with beta-lactam antibiotics. Demographic analysis of the cases revealed that 68% of them lived in the rural area, 75% had rodents at home, 46% used natural water supplies, 53% fed animals, 15% had contact with game animals and 5% had contact with ticks. Clinical samples from the patients were found culture negative for F.tularensis. The diagnosis of the cases was based on the presence of specific F.tularensis antibodies between 1/160-1/1280 titers obtained by microagglutination test. Additionally F.tularensis DNA was demonstrated in three lymph node aspirate samples by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Water samples were found negative both by culture and PCR assays. However, it was detected that there were problems in the chlorination of water supplies in the two villages where epidemics were seen. All the patients were treated with streptomycin (2 x 1 g, intramuscular, 10 days), and surgical intervention was performed for the patients (n= 12) with extremely large lymph nodes and suppuration. Erythema nodosum developed in two patients following the end of treatment. Death or serious complications such as pneumonia or meningitis were not detected. In conclusion, tularemia should be considered in patients presenting with cervical lymphadenopathy, sore throat, fever and unresponsive to previous treatment with beta-lactam antibiotics. For the management of the disease, healthcare personnel and the community should be educated concerning the risk factors and precautions for tularemia.
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In this study, we investigated a waterborne tularemia outbreak occured in Kadiozu, a village of Cerkes county of Cankiri province (located in North-west part of central Anatolia, Turkey) between 18 November 2009-24 December 2009. Active surveillance was conducted to determine clinical characteristics and risk factors of cases after two patients from the same village had been diagnosed as oropharyngeal tularemia. All villagers were examined, and clinical specimens from cases and water samples which may be the source of outbreak in the field investigations were taken. Cases were in the form of oropharyngeal, glandular and pneumonic. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and cultures were conducted from lymph node aspirates, throat swabs taken from cases and samples from water sources of epidemic zone. All serum samples taken from the villagers were screened for F.tularensis antibodies with microagglutination test (MAT). Oropharyngeal tularemia was diagnosed in 11 patients, glandular form in 3 patients and pneumonic form in one patient according to clinical and laboratory results. Age of the patients ranged between 6-75 years old (mean age: 52.5 years) and thirty one of them (54.7%) were female. MAT titers ranged between 1/160 and 1/5120 in cases of tularemia. Causative agent was grown in the cultures of two patients (including a throat swab and a lymph node aspirate). F.tularensis DNA was shown by PCR in a throat swab and four lymph node aspirates. F.tularensis was also detected by PCR in the water sample obtained from one of the spring water commonly used by villagers. Only one of the lymph node samples obtained from two different patients, was positive by direct fluorescent antibody method. Causative agent was defined as F.tularensis subsp. holarctica by conventional and also molecular methods. Patients were treated with aminoglycoside (streptomycin, gentamicin, amikacin) or quinolone (ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin) antibiotics. Treatment failure was observed in five patients, due to the delay in initiating treatment. Comparison of characteristics and risk factors for tularemia cases versus controls yielded age and contact with rodent excreta at home as potential risk factors (p= 0.001 and 0.002, respectively). The epidemic was controlled after cleaning the tank collecting spring water and chlorination of the water. Tularemia which is an emerging disease in Turkey is spreading to non-endemic regions and represent a significant threat for public health.
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Four tularemia epidemics were reported from three different regions of Turkey between 1936 and 1953. After a long interval, a new tularemia epidemic was reported from the area around Bursa in the northwestern part of Turkey in 1988. Following this first epidemic in Bursa, small epidemics occurred in areas around Bursa between 1988 and 2002. Other tularemia epidemics in different regions of Turkey were reported between 1988 and 2005. Almost all of the cases involved the oropharyngeal form of the disease. However, ulceroglandular and oculoglandular forms were detected in the Bursa epidemics; all of the ulceroglandular cases had dermatitis on their hands. To date, 1300 cases have been serologically confirmed. We reviewed one of the biggest tularemia epidemics in Europe.
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Francisella tularensis (FT), a zoonotic bacterium that causes tularemia, has received attention as a possible bioterrorism threat. We developed a PCR assay for use in fixed, processed tissues, which are safer to handle and allow archival testing. PCR analysis for a 211-bp fragment of the FT lipoprotein gene was performed on tissues from 16 cases of tularemia. In all, 14/15 cases with intact DNA (93%) were positive for FT by PCR. Frequent histologic findings in PCR-positive tissues included irregular microabscesses and granulomas in liver, spleen, kidney, and lymph nodes, and necrotizing pneumonia. Unusual cases featuring suppurative leptomeningitis and gastrointestinal ulcers were also seen. As this disease is endemic in North America, and has been identified as a potential bioterroristic threat, awareness of the clinicopathologic spectrum of disease and available detection methods is increasingly important. This PCR assay, the first designed for use in processed tissues, is an excellent method for diagnosis of tularemia.
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An outbreak of tularemia occurred in three provinces in Turkey in February 2004 and reemerged in the same provinces in February 2005. A total of 61 cases, 54 of which were confirmed with the micro-agglutination test, were diagnosed with oropharyngeal tularemia. No culture for Francisella tularensis was attempted, but PCR for F. tularensis was positive in aspiration material of suppurated lymphadenitis of 7 patients. F. tularensis detection with PCR was negative in water samples, but epidemiologic and environmental findings suggested that contaminated water or food was the cause of the outbreaks. Late initiation antibiotic therapy could not prevent suppuration and draining of the involved lymph nodes.
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The original reports of human infection with Francisella tularensis noted vesicular skin rash as a manifestation. We present 2 cases of tularemia initially diagnosed as herpes simplex or varicella zoster infection. Clinicians must recognize the cutaneous manifestations of tularemia and be able to distinguish these from lesions seen with herpes viruses.
Article
Tularemia is caused by a small, Gram-negative, pleomorphic coccobacillus, Francisella tularensis. Oculoglandular tularemia is a rare clinical form. There are few reports about oculoglandular tularemia, and less than 20 cases with oculaglandular tularemia have been reported in PubMed up to date. We reviewed the literature about oculoglandular tularemia, and reported a 31-year-old woman with oculoglandular and oropharyngeal tularemia. She admitted to our hospital with a three-week history of sudden onset of fever, fatigue, headache, sore throat, swollen left upper lid, injected and erythematous left eye, epiphora, preauricular nontender lump on the left and generalized aches, but there was no history of eye injury. She was living in a village where tularemia is endemic, but no history of encountering with an animal. The clinical diagnosis of oculoglandular and orophayngeal tularemia was confirmed by microagglutination test and PCR. She was fully improved on the eighth day of the ciprofloxacine treatment. Tularemia should come to mind in patients with fever, severe throat, conjunctivitis and cervical masses especially unresponsive to penicillin or cephalosporine therapy, coming from a tularemia endemic area. © Medical Journal of Trakya University. Published by Ekin Medical Publishing. All rights reserved.
Article
88 tularemia patients with secondary skin manifestations seen in northern Finland during 1967-1983 are described in this paper. Tularemia was ulceroglandular in 57% and pulmonary in 27% of the patients. 68% of the patients were women. The most common secondary skin manifestation was papular or vesicopapular eruption which was seen in 42% of the patients. Erythema nodosum either alone or in combination with some other skin eruption was encountered in 28% and erythema multiforme in 9% of the patients. Erythema nodosum was seen more often in patients with pulmonary tularemia than in other types of the disease (p less than 0.01). The clinical pictures of erythema nodosum and erythema multiforme caused by tularemia greatly resembled those caused by Yersinia. Tularemia should be remembered as one possible triggering factor of erythema nodosum and erythema multiforme.
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During two tularaemia outbreaks in the Bursa region of Turkey in 1991, a total of 98 patients were diagnosed and evaluated. Thirteen of these patients had erythema nodosum, which is accepted as a secondary skin manifestation. The patients with erythema nodosum, 21 patients without any skin lesions, and 20 healthy controls were studied. Comparable elevations of levels of IgG, IgA, and IgM were detected in the two tularaemia groups. There was no difference in complement C3c and C4 levels between the groups. All of the patients with erythema nodosum had elevated circulating immune complex (CIC) levels, when compared with the patients without skin lesions and the control group. The acute phase response (C-reactive protein [CRP] and erythrocyte sedimentation rate [ESR]) of the erythema nodosum group was significantly higher than the patients with normal skin, and healthy controls (P> 0.001). Serum transferrin levels were significantly decreased in both of the tularaemia groups (P>0.001). Serum soluble interleukin-2 receptor levels (SIL-2R) were significantly elevated in both tularaemia groups (P>0.001), and the elevation was more marked in the erythema nodosum group (P> 0.05). Histopathologicai evaluation of biopsies from two patients with erythema nodosum showed dermal oedema, a perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate, and panniculitis. No immunoglobulin or complement deposits were detected on immunofluorescence. Erythema nodosum in the course of tularaemia is associated with many immunological changes, although it is not clear whether these findings are related to the increased tissue response, or whether they play a role in the pathogenesis of the erythema nodosum.
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Ticks are ectoparasites that cause dermatologic disease directly by their bite and indirectly as vectors of bacterial, rickettsial, protozoal, and viral diseases. In North America, where ticks are the leading cause of vector-borne infection, dermatologists should recognize several tick species. Basic tick biology and identification will be reviewed. Tick bites cause a variety of acute and chronic skin lesions. The tick-borne diseases include Lyme disease, tick-borne relapsing fever, tularemia, babesiosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, other spotted fevers, ehrlichiosis, Colorado tick fever, and others. The epidemiology, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment of these diseases are reviewed with an emphasis on cutaneous manifestations. Finally, the prevention of diseases caused by ticks is reviewed.
Article
Tularemia outbreaks have occurred in various regions of Turkey in recent years. In this study, clinical (145 patients) and laboratory (97 patients) features of patients with oropharyngeal tularemia were evaluated during the tularemia outbreak in the district of Gölcük in Kocaeli, Turkey. We analyzed the risk factors for therapeutic failure and prolonged recovery time, and compared the efficacy of three antibiotic groups, namely aminoglycoside, tetracycline and quinolone. The most common physical sign and laboratory findings in patients were lymphadenopathy (LAP) and increased erythrocyte sedimentation rate, respectively. Treatment failure was observed in 55 of the 145 (38%) patients during one-year follow-up and the most successful results were obtained in the quinolone group. It was determined that antimicrobial therapy initiated 14 days after onset of symptoms was a statistically significiant risk factor, reducing the success rate (p=0.0001, OR=13.10, 95% CI=5.69-30.15) and prolonging the recovery period (p=0.001, OR=3.23, 95% CI=1.63-6.40) in oropharyngeal tularemia cases. These results suggest that antimicrobial treatment should be started early, and quinolones such as moxifloxacin and ciprofloxacin seem to be new alternatives in the treatment of oropharyngeal tularemia.
s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases
  • R L Penn
Penn RL, Francisella tularensis (tularemia). In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone, 2005: 2927-37.