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Paper—8 Pillars X 8 Layers Model of Metacognition: Educational Strategies, Exercises &Trainings
8 Pillars X 8 Layers Model of Metacognition
Educational Strategies, Exercises &Trainings
https://doi.org/10.3991/ijoe.v17i08.23563
Athanasios Drigas 1 (), Eleni Mitsea 1,2
1 Institute of Informatics and Telecommunications, N.C.S.R. ‘Demokritos’, Athens, Greece
2 University of the Aegean, Information and Communication Systems Engineering, Samos, Greece
dr@iit.demokritos.gr
Abstract—Metacognition is one of the foremost cardinal factors of achieve-
ment in the 21st century. Despite extensive research, there is still the need to build
a unique model based on multidisciplinary research illuminating questions as re-
gards the real nature of metacognition and the methods to develop metacognitive
abilities. The current study presents a new layered model of metacognition based
on well-established theories derived from cognitive science, psychology, physical
and computer sciences, environmental and other sciences, even from philosophy.
We describe in detail the cognitive and metacognitive processes involved at each
layer, while particular emphasis is placed on the relation between the control pro-
cesses as well as the special role of attention. According to our model, each layer
of metacognition describes a higher-order control system which operates under
the rule of a series of attention processes at an ever more refined, abstract and
united level. The same applies to the cognitive processes and abilities such as at-
tention, memory, perception, pattern recognition. At each higher level, they dis-
play more advanced attributes and functions responding to the necessity of creat-
ing more abstract mental representations and upper class motivations, thoughts
and emotions. In addition, we recommend a number of strategies that support the
metacognitive development at each level of the hierarchy. The multi-layered
model of metacognition targets at enriching our understanding of how metacogni-
tion evolves and it has the potential to guide the development of more effective
strategies in educational system.
Keywords—layers of metacognition, intelligence, consciousness, executive
functions, meta-attention, meta-memory, meta-motivations, information pro-
cessing, control systems, intervention strategies and techniques
1 Introduction
Many researchers have attempted to develop theories and models of metacognition.
Flavell [1] recognized that metacognition consisted of both monitoring and regulating
aspects. He proposed a model of metacognitive monitoring which includes the follow-
ing components: metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive experiences, tasks or goals
and strategies.
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Norman et al. [2] underlined the primary role of attention in the control processes.
They proposed an executive function model comprising two levels of control: a su-
pervisory attentional mechanism monitoring and manipulating automatic processes
and a contention scheduling mechanism selecting among competing schemas.
Brown [3] presented a metacognitive model based on two components: knowledge
and regulation of cognition. Knowledge of cognition depicts the conscious reflection
on one’s cognitive abilities and the regulation of cognition relates to the self-
regulatory mechanisms during the ongoing attempt to learn.
Nelson and Narens [4-5] suggested an alternative model of metacognition consist-
ing of two interrelated levels called the object level and the meta-level. There are two
dominant relations between the levels known as “monitoring” and “controlling”. Met-
acognitive monitoring is a flow of information from the object level to the meta-level
whereas metacognitive control is depicted as a flow of information from the meta-
level to the object level.
Shimamura [6] developed the dynamic filtering theory, the neurocognitive coun-
terpart of Nelson and Naren’s model [4-5]. The dynamic filtering theory proposes that
the prefrontal cortex acts as a filtering mechanism that controls information pro-
cessing.
Drigas et al. [7] presented an integrative model of human knowledge, intelligence
and consciousness. According to the aforementioned model, intelligence is not re-
garded as a static or one-dimensional concept. On the contrary, it could be represented
with a dynamic and multi-layered structure dependent on metacognitive procedures.
The Knowledge-Intelligence-Consciousness model is the uniformity with the ISO’s
Open Systems Interconnection Model, a conceptual framework describing the func-
tions of a networking system through a universal set of rules [8].
Recognizing the fundamental role of metacognition in human intelligence, Drigas
et al. determined the core components of metacognition [9]:
1. Deep theoretical knowledge about human cognition and metacognition
2. Self-evaluation of the factors that either facilitate or inhibit the metacognitive de-
velopment.
3. Self-observation of the cognitive and psycho/physiological mechanisms
4. Self-regulation of any dysfunction that is observed
5. Adapting one’s own cognition in response to changing circumstances
6. Recognition of the totality that exists beyond the phenomena
7. Discrimination as a form of wise judging
8. Mnemosyne (which means memory in Greek) represents the internalized
knowledge that awakens and drives human towards independence and the fulfill-
ment of each one’s potential.
Although there has been growing interest in the research of metacognition, we still
lacking a solid theoretical grounding. In the present paper, we present the 8 layers X 8
pillars model of metacognition and propose relevant educational strategies.
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2 The 8 layers of 8 pillars of metacognition
2.1 The layer of stimuli – Training the observer to pay attention and keep all
channels of sensory influx available and in readiness
Understanding sensory processing system. The sensory system, the gateway to
human intelligence, provides constant access and processability to the sensory stimuli
[10] through a fundamental set of processes involved in transforming external and
internal sensory events into both temporary and long-lasting neural representations
[11]. Sensory awareness does not involve only the five senses, but it includes: the
exteroception (awareness of the external world), the interoception (awareness of the
inner world), and the proprioception (the awareness of motion) [10,12]. Sensory sig-
nals enter the perceptual and cognitive processing systems via encoding, a “top down”
process which converts stimuli into representations and it is based mainly on spatial
attention and visualization [13]
Self-evaluating the facilitators as well as the inhibitors of sensory processing.
Neurological disorders, sensory impairment, age, fatigue, stress play a crucial role in
sensory processing [14]. Attentional processes influence either positively or negative-
ly. Specifically, too much stimuli reduce attentional resources and slow down the
sensory processing. On the contrary selective and sustained attention accelerate pro-
cessing [15]. In addition, distraction, limited inhibition control slows down sensory
encoding whereas visual-spatial processes enhance the quality and the speed of en-
coding [11]. Iconic memory, a basic type of sensory memory, although it has a large
capacity, its duration is very limited. If the control procedures are not mediated, the
information will not pass to the short-term memory as well as the visuo-spatial
sketchpad, which is of great importance in learning [16-17]. Any delay reduces accu-
racy and inevitably leads to information loss [17]. Expectations and goals of the ob-
servers can determine whether a stimulus will capture the observer’s attention [13].
Emerging the observer of the external and internal environment. Attention al-
lows the observer to detect stimuli [15]. Observation of the sensations requires alert-
ness, vigilance so as to free the mind of extraneous thoughts and ruminations and
keep all channels of sensory influx available and in readiness to receive and process
the sensory input in accordance with the task or the goals to be achieved [18]. Any
lack of self-observation leads to behaviors that betray hyper-responsiveness or hypo-
responsiveness [12].
Regulating the physiological and sensory processes. People manage the cogni-
tive processes that take part in detecting, filtering, inhibiting, registering, processing,
responding and modulating sensory signals. Sensory processing disorder, autism,
depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, obsessive compulsive disorder, eating disorders
are but a small sample of the disorders which fail to self-regulate the aforementioned
processes [12].
Adapting sensory processes. People should be able to self-observe, to self-
regulate, to shift attention from automatic to controlled forms of sensory processing,
to regulate fight-or-flight reactions, in other words to be flexible and adaptable so as
to achieve their goals [11-12,19].
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Recognizing the stimuli, the different sensory features as well as the changes
in the visual field. Agents are bombarded by stimuli, not all of which are discernable
and hence not all registered as data [20]. Individuals should use strategies, during this
pattern recognition stage, for matching information in the sensory registers against the
long-term store in order to identify the sensory features [17]. Dyslexia is characterized
by a deficit in visuospatial attention which enables people to shed the spotlight of
attention and recognize the objects [21].
Discerning between competing or similar stimuli. Attentional control plays a
key role in sensory discrimination – the ability to make fine tuned perceptual judg-
ments about visual, auditory and other sensory stimuli [22]. Specifically, filtering
irrelevant stimuli and selecting between competing stimuli are the brain’s way of
controlling sensory input so as to take adaptive decisions [15, 17]. Attention allows
one to identify the differences between similar stimuli [15].
Recollecting sensory information. Sensory memory requires recollection of how
a stimulus looks, feels, sounds, etc. [23].
Useful strategies: Stimulating senses so as to enhance the ability to keep a balance
between alertness and agitation. Choosing sensory stimulation interventions such as
music, light therapy, animal-assisted therapy, acupressure, reflexology, massage and
aromatherapy [24]. Mindfulness practices play a key role in filtering input to primary
sensory neocortex and organizing the flow of sensory information in the brain [25].
Exposure to nature decreases glucose, mental fatigue and restores attention. Integra-
tive body-mind training reduces stress hormones, lower anxiety and improves atten-
tion [26]. Training attention and observation of external reality, objects, and situations
via all senses simultaneously, allowing the sensory memories contents to become data
by the procedure of observation [25-26].
2.2 The Layer of Data – Training the un-reflected observer to recognize the
objects, the patterns as well as the traces in memory
Understanding data processing. Sensory input consists of a series of raw and dis-
connected observations [27], indeed meaningless at first glance. Nevertheless, data is
not sterile but carries encrypted information [20].
Self-evaluating the factors that affect data processing. Information in short-term
memory is decaying at a rapid rate. Rehearsal increases the amount of time the infor-
mation remains in short-term memory and gives coding and other storage processes
time to operate [17].
Emerging the unreflected observer while noticing the processes of data syn-
thesis. Self-observation keeps the representations active, accessible and processable.
Because a large amount of stimuli enters the sensory register very quickly and then
decays, the subjects should develop observing strategies in an attempt to transfer the
selected portion of stimuli into the short-term memory [17].
Self-regulating the processes involved in data processing. Subjects regulate via
decisions the control processes involved in coding and transit between short- and
long-term memory. Regulation processes allow short-term memory to receive data
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from sensory registers as well as from long-term memory. In addition, it enables
short-term memory to transfer data to long-term memory [17].
Adaptation to the competing demands. The individual flexibly should divert
his/her effort between rehearsal and various coding operations in order to strengthen
the stored information and protect it from interference [17].
Recognizing the objects, the patterns as well as the traces in memory. Recogni-
tion relates to identifying patterns previously stored in the long-term memory [28].
Since long-term memory is extremely large, people should develop search strategies
to identify the appropriate traces in memory [17].
Discerning between data. The input of new items causes an existing one in the
buffer to be bumped out, excluding those in some way connected to the long-term
memory. The subject decides via attention and other control strategies which items to
select and keep active so as to maximize his/her performance [17].
Recollecting data from the long-term memory. Short term memory (STM) receives
input both from sensory registers and long-term memory in an attempt to maximize per-
formance. A sensory item cannot be entered into STM until a long term search and match
identifies the equivalent image. Familiarity accelerates the search and the match process.
In addition to familiarity, strong pre-existing associations already in long-term memory
contribute to successful search, detection and retrieval of data. [17].
Useful Strategies: Using strategies that facilitate encoding such as rehearsal,
chunking, grouping of information [17, 29]. Nutritional enhancers boost encoding,
reduce fatigue and help cognitive capacities, such as attention and working memory to
operate more effectively [30].
2.3 The layer of Information – Training the pre-reflective observer to keep
low level visualizations active, processable and convertible
Understanding information processing system. The central “engine” processing
information is located in the working memory [29]. Working memory keeps low level
visualizations active, processable and convertible to higher order ones [13, 31]. Ac-
cording to Baddeley’s model [32], the central executive, the metacognitive compo-
nent of working memory is capable of monitoring and controlling its own operations.
Nevertheless, the real supervisor of this network is attention, the control system that
constantly monitors, manages, directs and regulates the processes according to the
external demands and the internal goals [16,33]. Executive attention gives people
entry to the conscious state enabling them to gain awareness about their voluntary
ability to control their own mental processes [33-34].
Self-evaluating the inhibitors and the facilitators of information processing.
The attentional requirements of the tasks determine the individual’s attentional efforts
[14]. In addition, different people may have invariable attentional resources due to
factors such as age, health, experience, anxiety and fatigue. Overflow impairs pro-
cessing by narrowing the span of attentional control [29]. Personal goals, intentions
and motivations tend to accelerate or slow down attentional efforts. Information out-
side the attentional spotlight can be processed only superficially. Without focus, in-
formation is not processed. Active processing requires active inhibition [14]. Short-
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attention span and as a consequence high levels of distractibility are associated with
low working memory capacity which in turn explains the poor performance in key
learning areas such as reading and mathematics [35].
Emerging the pre-reflective observer while noticing the way information is
processed. The pre-reflective aspect of oneself corresponds to the personal pronoun
“I”, to a sense of being the immediate subject of experience [36].
Regulating information processing in service of goal directed behavior [22].
Regulation of the streams of information is necessary. The subject must decide
whether the available resources permit a parallel processing. If necessary, the tasks
should be prioritized and performed sequentially. Regulation also aims at balancing
the direction and focus of attention on task relevant information [14].
Adaptation requires flexibility to alternate the focus of attention between dif-
ferent tasks or resources of information [14].
Recognizing the most important information relevant to ongoing goals [15].
Working memory receives an overload of information some of which is relevant and
some of which irrelevant. The subject should be able to filter information in favor of
the most vital [15, 29].
Discerning the contents within the working memory. The observer selects in-
formation he/she will hold in working memory and removes no longer relevant in-
formation so as to avoid clutter [37].
Recollecting previously acquired information. Attention determines how well, fast
and accurately the target information is processed and whether the information will be
recalled [15].
Useful strategies: Τraining new skills, using mnemonic strategies [30]. Elaborat-
ing both during encoding and retrieval. Using a wide range of knowledge and senses
to make a memory as vivid as possible, yet also connected to prior knowledge. Con-
sidering how the hippocampus uses spatial properties to learn, by using the method of
loci [38]. Computer training enhances visual skills, such as visuo-spatial attention,
cognitive flexibility and working memory [30].
2.4 The layer of Knowledge – Training the reflective observer to organize
information into meaningful units
Understanding knowledge processing system. Knowledge is information that has
been taken to a higher level of processing and given meaning. Knowledge emerges
from analysis, reflection upon, and synthesis of information [27]. Well-structured
knowledge allows us to quickly understand the world around us and make conscious
decisions to control behavior. Knowledge structures aid memory encoding and con-
solidation of new experiences so we cannot only remember the past, but also guide
behavior in the present and predict the future [38].
Self-evaluating the facilitators and inhibitors of knowledge acquisition. Memo-
ries are stored in long-term memory by meaning. Semantic memory is the part of the
long term memory that allows us to acquire conceptual knowledge, in other words, to
understand concepts, principles, theories, models and classifications [16]. According
to Craik at al. [39] the more deeply an item is encoded, the more meaning it has and
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the better it is remembered. Elaborative rehearsal, which differs from simply repeat-
ing, encodes information in more meaningful ways. Very strong schemas can lead to
unwanted side effects such as false memories and misconceptions [38].
Emerging the reflective observer while noticing the way knowledge is con-
structed. The reflective self takes on a third-person perspective. The individual rec-
ognizes oneself both as the subject and the object of experience [40]. In other words,
individuals are reflectively aware of having a perspective. In this level, a subjective
feeling of identity emerges. Internal attention as a form of reflection [15] possibly
supports this demanding process [37]. Third-person perspective is a process of recon-
struction characterized by visualization of a remembered scene including oneself from
the perspective of the observer. During this process, the observer possibly gets access
to the representations in working memory [36].
Regulating the control processes and the mental abilities involved in knowledge
acquisition and organization. The control processes are strategies that facilitate the ac-
quisition, retention and retrieval of knowledge such as rehearsal, coding, and imaging
[17].
Adapting the processes involved in knowledge construction. People, consider-
ing the processes underlying encoding, reactivation, consolidation and integration of
knowledge should flexibly adapt existing schemas to new knowledge building de-
mands [38].
Recognizing one’s own knowledge and understanding. Knowledge in the indi-
vidual’s mind is characterized by the justifiable belief that he/she knows that some-
thing is true or it appears to be true [27]. This stage is more concerned with pattern
recognition and extraction of meaning [39].
Discerning between what one knows from what he/she does not understand.
Discrimination requires the ability to identify what is valid, significant and relevant
[27].
Recollecting previously acquired conceptual knowledge, learned rules and
past experiences. Thanks to schemas, one constructs new memories or making the
better connected by filling in holes within existing memories and interpreting mean-
ing based on past memories. Culture influences one’s schemas and thus can affect
how we remember and what we know [41].
Useful strategies: Reactivating prior knowledge when one learns new information,
applying retrieval strategies and finding links between newly learned information and
existing knowledge [38]. Retrieval practice incites meaningful learning. Equally im-
portant, sleep enhances knowledge consolidation [30].
2.5 Τhe layer of Expertise – Training the strategic observer to be fast, flexible,
decisive & visionary
Understanding Expertise. Experts are aware of their ability to understand infor-
mation. They have well-organized interconnected units of knowledge and have au-
tomatized steps within problem-solving strategies. Experts develop sophisticated
representations of problems. They recognize the unknown and predict the degree of
difficulty in problems. Expertise requires also high speed and accuracy in reaching
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appropriate solutions [42]. The true experts develop higher order social and emotional
skills [43].
Self-evaluating the inhibitors and facilitators to expertise. Expertise needs good
information processing and good strategy use. Experts possess superior short-term
capacity and extensive knowledge in the long term memory. Thereby, some aspects of
information processing become automatic with experience and systematic practice
allowing short-term memory to do other things simultaneously [44]. Working
memory and specifically its supervisory attention system overcomes the boundaries of
automaticity, proposes novel behavioral solutions and weighs options before deciding
a response [16]. Incredibly complex tasks become almost second nature after repeated
practice [14] because of procedural memory, the implicit part of the long term
memory [16]. On the contrary, low working memory is associated with difficulties in
making visual representations, transferring strategies from one area of learning to
another, to monitor more complex tasks [35]. Strong emotions [42], negative beliefs,
stereotyping are considered additional obstacles to expertise. Even experienced and
skilled performers fail under uncontrollable stress and excessive self-focus [16, 29].
However, when stress directs attention toward processes involved in the execution of
the skill, one expects a top performance. Positivity and motivation facilitate the flexi-
bility of attention improving the way one thinks, performs multiple tasks and solves
problems creatively [45].
Emerging the Strategic Observer who notices the processes of interconnection
of knowledge in cognitive and socio-emotional level. Social observers reflect on
their behaviors. This process requires the discernment between the self as the subject
and the self as the object that is known [43]. In a higher level, reflective observers can
recognize also the cause of a mental or emotional state [36]. Experts are carefully
monitoring their own problem solving strategies and processes [42]. In complex tasks,
they monitor the multiple sources of information [14]. In general, in this level of ob-
servation, the sense of self depends more on complex cognitive processing and less on
emotional and affective operations [36].
Self-regulating failures in cognitive as well as socio-emotional level. Taking
immediate decisions and altering strategies and plans are a form of self-regulation
[44]. Self-regulation in expertize depends mainly on top-down control processes,
which means that the current goals must determine what individuals focus on. Execu-
tive attention directs attention towards goals and plans, removes distractions and
temptations and keeps attention active on relevant information [37]. In social level,
people should be able to suppress automatic associations with stereotyped social be-
havior by regulating the way they process social information [29].
Adapting to various situational demands either cognitive or socio-emotional to
extract the best possible outcome. Experts consider alternatives to events, conceive
what others think, shift perspectives, mindsets and behavioral repertoires and imagine
themselves in situations which haven’t taken place yet [36, 46].
Recognizing the patterns of knowledge, the actions’ intentionality and the bi-
ased social judgements. Experts recognize the need for metacognitive strategy use
[44]. Entrepreneurs identify patterns of knowledge acquired through experience so as
to perceive connections between seemingly unrelated events [47]. In social level,
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experts recognize both their own as well as others’ mental and emotional states.
Recognition enables one to empathize, to accept others evaluations and most im-
portant to predict behaviors [43].
Discerning between alternative plans, strategies and behaviors [42]. Experts
cope with complexity by getting rid of those elements that are superfluous or redun-
dant. Professional work relies on the selection of relevant issues and the omission of
the irrelevant ones [29].
Recollecting relational knowledge consciously. The declarative memory permits
conscious recollection of facts, events, meanings and behaviors, whereas the non de-
clarative encodes sequences and permits one to develop skills such as motor skills [13].
Useful strategies: Focusing on repeated practice and experience [16]. Familiariza-
tion and task simplification turn a chaotic situation into a better structured. Mnemonic
techniques facilitate memory retrieval, which in turn supports problem-solving and
decision making. Alternating between verbal with visual code, using metaphorical
language [29], obtaining practical skills and being creative, pursuing paths of inquiry
that the others ignore or dread [42]. Remembering to work in teams, obeying the rules
of cooperation to overcome individual limitations (i.e. overflow) and increasing
productivity [29].
2.6 The layer of Self- Actualization – Training the “real you”-observer to
realize hidden competencies and real motives, think creatively and solve
problems of meaning
Understanding Self-actualization. Self-actualization refers to the realization of
the individual’s potentialities. Self-actualization needs self-awareness, intrinsic moti-
vation, originality, intuition, optimal experience and expansion of understanding [48].
Self-evaluating the inhibitors and facilitators. Conflicting thoughts and dysfunc-
tional emotions, cognitive/psychosocial schemes, defense mechanisms, a mind
crowded with content often imposed by external situations, expectations, wishes,
obligations are just some of the obstacles. Over-learned dysfunctional structures and
social stereotypes disrupt the appraisal of here-and-now reality [40]. Supportive learn-
ing environments play a major role in cultivating an early tendency toward self-
actualization [48].
Discovering the “real you” observer. Self-actualizers desire to explore and en-
large experiences, seek meaning in life in order to expand the sense of self [46].
Self-regulating defense mechanisms and adopting adaptive coping strategies.
Self-actualizers deal with the society pressures and cope with self-incongruities so as
to become fully functioning persons [49].
Adapting to new knowledge and experiences. To be flexible, a person needs to be
open, receptive and curious so as to avoid rigidity, reliance on stereotypes, conformity and
dogmatism. Self-actualizers are ready to modify their beliefs about their own self [46].
Recognizing the hidden competencies, the real motives, the higher needs. Self-
actualizers have the capacity to appreciate the basic goods of life with awe, pleasure
and wonder [50].
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Discerning between moral and immoral decisions. Self-actualizers make ethical
decisions due to their ability to discern right from wrong [50].
Recollecting information with reference to self-identity. Episodic retrieval of
autobiographical events contributes to the realization of one’s own identity [43].
Useful strategies: Learning experiences that facilitate creativity, deep understand-
ing of new concepts, acceptance of failure and the intrinsic motivation to move on-
ward. Reflective technologies, artificial intelligence and human-computer learning
systems can be instrumental in developing metacognitive abilities required for self-
actualization [48]. Cultivating and developing the need to know your real self, your
true abilities and your true potential. Training new abilities of visualization, reaction
speed, mental flexibility, creativity and new ways of perception. Training to see mul-
tiple dimensions in each situation, multiple interpretations and usabilities of the same
object [26,48].
2.7 The layer of universal knowledge –Training the rational observer to “see”
the global laws as the real substructure beyond phenomena
Understanding the underlying unity of knowledge. Scientists develop autono-
mous “knowledge domains”, each having their own methods, assumptions, data and
models. However, despite the differences, all these sectors develop their knowledge
domains in similar ways. The world as we experience it, appears to have a kind of
unity. Beyond the phenomena of the experienced world, there is an intelligibly orga-
nized reality. Everything exists interdependently [51]. According to Niels Bohr indi-
viduality is related to indivisibility and therefore to wholeness [52].
Self-evaluating the inhibitors and facilitators towards universal knowledge. All
knowledge is represented within a conceptual framework adapted to account for previ-
ous experience. However, any such framework may prove too narrow to comprehend
new experiences, to find a “common” language to interpret the different observations
[52]. Wisdom processing systems, like the human cognitive system, have much more
processing power, storage and network capabilities and consist of a group of powerful
expert systems connected together so as to exchange information in an attempt to make
predictions, make critical decisions and solve complex problems [53].
Revealing the Rational Observer. The Ultimate Reality becomes conscious of It-
self in human reason [54]. The rational observer does not trust subjective observations
but focus on objective scientific findings [55]. Reasoning would not be possible with-
out high working memory [56].
Self-regulating cognitive biases, false beliefs and fallacious reasoning. Self-
regulation depends on human ability to prevent subjective observations and personal
bias when tending to prioritize over objective scientific findings. Self-regulation de-
mands constant self-observation and self-evaluation so as to accurately assess the
world [55].
Adapting to the multiple dimensions of reality. Being flexible to develop superi-
or creativity in an attempt to see connections between seemingly unrelated things and
pull apart elements from an integrated whole [56].
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Recognizing the hidden dimensions of reality, the unity of knowledge as well
as the universality of emotions. The quest for the interpretation of the human nature
as well as the reality is reflected in Philosophy, Psychology, Science and Religion
[54]. Respectable scientists such Einstein and Minkowski as well as Nobel Laureates
developed universal theories identifying hidden dimensions of reality [57]. Many
scientists recognize consciousness as the building block of nature that is present at all
levels of the fabric of reality [58].
Distinguishing subjective from objective knowledge, meaningful from mean-
ingless theories [27, 57]. Scientists seek to discern between the interpretations of
reality and the absolute knowledge of reality itself [54].
Recollecting superior patterns. Superior pattern recognition constitutes the basis
of intelligence and permits human to reason, create symbols and produce new images
of the world in the absence of significant sensory input [59].
Useful strategies: Training visualization and scientific thinking skills (e.g., evi-
dence-based research, group discussions, evaluations of arguments) including open-
mindness, inquitiveness, the ability to test claims, data and theories, to analyze, to
interpret and to be informed consumer of information distinguishing good from bad
information. Courses and educational programs promoting scientific thinking adapted
for each grade level may provide students with the foundation of solid scientific
thinking skills and allow expansion of scientific thinking into other scholastic areas
and classes [13, 55]. Training the mind to see that everything is connected and interre-
lated. Training to see the global laws as the real substructure beyond phenomena [60].
2.8 The layer of transcendence - Training the mindful observer to be present
in deep silence fused with the vibrations of the Universe
Understanding the concept of transcendence. Transcendence means breaking the
barriers of self-limitations. The subject transcends self-focus needs and motivations and
reaches the highest forms of emotional intelligence developing self-transcendent positive
emotions like elevation, compassion, admiration, gratitude, love and awe [60]. Transcend-
ence usually emerges in life hardships like poverty, in failures, in unwanted circumstances
that one cannot avoid or resolve like illness, ageing or loss. Transcendence could be com-
pared with a state of sleep during which consciousness itself is kept alert, in a state of high
arousal and awareness of external sensorial stimulation [40].
Self-evaluating the inhibitors and the facilitators of self-transcendence. Our
limited minds, being individual parts of the cosmic consciousness, operate in time-
space energy constraints and inner conditioning that only partly can reflect the true
nature of reality [58].
Being the Mindful Observer. Mindful observer represents a dynamic totality, the
silent witness. The subject and the objects are fused into one [40]. Attention operates
without effort [61]. In mental states of decreased self-salience and increased feelings
of connectedness, the subjective sense of one’s self as an isolated entity can temporar-
ily fade. In other words, one transcends the sense of self [60, 62].
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Self-regulatory processes involve decentering, attentional broadening, reap-
praisal and savoring. Human takes distance from self-referential appraisals shifting
attention from egocentric to universe-centric processing, towards larger entities [62].
Adaptation requires openness to experience of deep silence. To be flexible, a
person needs to be receptive, curious and open. Openness and experience of silence
cultivates wisdom as well as an attitude of tolerance and compassion [46].
Recognizing some inexpressible truth communicated by a higher intelligence
[63]. Recognizing that each situation is different from any other and at the same time
driven from same source, increases compassionate style of communication [46].
Discriminating the Self across time and the Self in the present moment, here
and now [36,75].
Recollecting the Metacognitive Charioteer, the real holistic total Self. In the
Republic, Plato the Greek philosopher describes the tripartite structure of the psyche,
namely the rational part, the emotional and the vegetative. He explains his idea with
an allegory according to which a Charioteer, who represents the rational part of the
soul, drives a chariot pulled by two winged horses. The Charioteer directs the entire
chariot/soul, trying to stop the horses from going different ways, and to proceed to-
wards enlightenment [64]. According to Chun et al. [15], external and internal atten-
tion are on opposite ends of an axis, of a continuum which is under the law of the
goal-directed attention. According to Drigas et al. [7] metacognitive procedures, in
one word consciousness is the axis that supports the ladder of human intelligence. In
the level of Mnemosyne [9], human becomes the metacognitive charioteer who bri-
dles the two winged horses such as the internal and external attention.
Useful strategies: Spiritual exercises, meditation practices, enlightened mentors
can help one to ascend the road of transcendence dealing with disturbing emotions,
unwanted automatisms, dysfunctional schemes and defense mechanisms that come
from past life and prevent spiritual growth [40]. Mindfulness intervention, prayer
practices as well as brain stimulation could be used to reach more profound states of
consciousness [60]. Training Presence, silence, astonishment & fulfillment as the
main traits of Transcendence. Training to see and feel that everything is One. Know-
ing that everything is really motivated by seeking Knowledge of the Self & Universe,
Consciousness and Happiness [60, 75].
3 Discussion
Although we emphasize the importance of self-regulation in order to move from
the lower levels of existence to the higher, the value of self-observation tends to be
even more important. Self-observation makes us conscious. In an attempt to perceive
the observing self, a different more conscious observer emerges. This is an ongoing
process [65]. In philosophy, this form of metacognition corresponds to the recollec-
tion of past moments of consciousness, recalling both the perceived events and one-
self perceiving that event [36]. At first sight, such an infinitive process does not ex-
plain anything about self-observation [65]. However, such a finding may be of great
importance as it seems to be in line with what cybernetics underline; that the sense of
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self, as well as the sense of reality is just a construction. In other words, we create our
own reality [66].
Metacognition is an open-ended activity; as the cognitive system grows up or
evolves, the observer expands its description about its own cognitive system [66]. The
evolution of cybernetics seems to be aligned with the above statement. First-order
cybernetics focuses on the “observable systems”, in which an external observer
emerges (subject-object paradigm). Second-order cybernetics signals the transition to
the “observing systems”, in which an internal observer is embedded in the object of
observation (subject-subject paradigm). Second-order cybernetics depends on reflec-
tion. Third-order cybernetics refers to self-developing systems in which the subject is
a “self-developing poly-subject environment” (subject-metasubject paradigm). Third-
order cybernetics depends on interpretation [67]. The fourth-order cybernetics seeks
self-consciousness, rationality, universality, coherence, order, balance and harmony as
measures of the observer [68].
The transition to higher levels of observation brings about new types of control
[67]. In human cognition, control can be viewed in terms of a set of executive atten-
tional processes [15, 37]. Attention is the core property of all perceptual and cognitive
operations [15]. Attention enables us to observe both the cognitive processes as well
as the process of observation [37]. Indeed, attention participates in processes like
selection, filtering, inhibition, processing, storage, retrieval, prediction, monitoring,
regulation, adaptation, recognition, discrimination, recollection and transformation
of knowledge. According to the new layered model of metacognition, each level de-
scribes a higher-order control system which operates under the rule of the aforemen-
tioned attentional processes at an ever more refined/abstract level. The layered model
of Metacognition, in its deep structure, could be seen as layered model of meta-
attention. Attention is omnipresent in every component of metacognition, in each
stage of metacognitive development.
Although, attention has a variety of resource pools shared across multiple systems
[15], attention is mainly driven by consciousness [69]. What we pay attention deter-
mines the content of our consciousness [46]. The central executive, which is tightly
linked to attentional control processes [16], in other words internal attention, is closest
to human consciousness [70]. It is not accidental that heightened states of attention
regulate mental operations involved in higher order cognition and contribute to altered
states of consciousness [71].
Another key point of discussion includes the factors that either accelerate or slow
down the metacognitive development. Extensive literature has already documented
the deleterious effects of heavy metal toxins on the human brain and nervous system.
Lead and mercury exposure, airborne and organic chemical pollutants have a potential
damage to brain functioning. Air pollution can significantly affect the developing
nervous systems of children as well as the mature nervous systems of adults. Organic
chemical pollutants such as PCBs and dioxins are also increasingly viewed as emerg-
ing threats due to their prolonged persistence in the environment and ability to accu-
mulate in food chains [72]. For the above reasons, one major pillar of metacognition
is about learning about the inhibitors and facilitators of metacognitive development.
By learning about the risk factors, we gain the advantage to understand the im-
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portance of the factors that affect our cognitive and metacognitive abilities and predict
learning and other difficulties.
Dietary factors have an important impact on fundamental cognitive and emotional
processes. Specifically, dietary factors influence molecular systems and mechanisms
which in turn have a major impact on neuronal function and synaptic plasticity. Gut
hormones or other hormones produced in the brain itself can influence our mental
abilities. Understanding the molecular basis of the effects of food on cognition will
help us to determine the best way to manipulate diet in order to increase resistance of
neurons to insults and promote mental fitness [73].
The layered model of metacognition could be adopted to formulate a unified edu-
cation policy, since it provides a holistic proposal that can cover the needs of all lev-
els and forms of education. It is totally inclusive since it adjusts to the needs of 21st
century education and the special needs of each learner regardless of the mental level,
age, educational level, profession or the origin. The learner, according to our ap-
proach, is treated as a combination of physical, cognitive, emotional and spiritual
needs which gradually advance. Education in the 21st century is called upon to both
encourage individuals’ gifts and self-actualizing needs and prepare students to enter in
a high-consciousness society [76].
4 Conclusions
Through this study, we presented the new layered model of metacognition in terms
of consciousness. In accordance with our approach, metacognition is composed of
eight constituents structured in eight interconnected stages of consciousness plus
supporting each one of the eight intelligences of Gardner’s theory (Figure 1,2) [7,9,
74]. On the basis of our model, the core metacognitive components such as self-
observation, self-regulation, flexibility, recognition, discrimination and recollection
are considered as multi-layered and not at any rate one dimensional. The same applies
to the cognitive processes and abilities such as attention, memory, perception, and
pattern recognition. At each higher level, they display more advanced or refined at-
tributes and functions responding to the necessity of creating more abstract mental
representations and upper class motivations, thoughts and emotions.
Ascending from lower to higher levels of metacognition entails moving to ad-
vanced forms of self-awareness, higher levels of self-observation which in turn as-
sumes ever higher control systems. Each layer of metacognition describes a higher-
order control system which operates under the rule of a series of attention processes at
an ever more refined, abstract, united level. Similarly, the sense of self, as a necessary
mental construction, is multi-layered too and follows the uphill road that gradually
disembodies multiplicity and reveals unity. The layered model of metacognition does
not merely aim at presenting an alternative approach but seeks to clarify that meta-
cognition goes through strictly defined stages of development. We come to the con-
clusion that it is essential to create appropriate metacognitive learning environments
based on the systematic training of each particular metacognitive level.
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Fig. 1. The layered model of metacognition is composed of eight pillars structured in eight
interconnected stages.
Fig. 2. The new layered model of Metacognition stands on 8 Intelligences X 8 Pillars X 8
layers of Consciousness.
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6 Authors
Athanasios Drigas is a Research Director at N.C.S.R. ‘Demokritos’, Institute of
Informatics and Telecommunications - Net Media Lab & Mind-Brain R&D, Agia
Paraskevi, 153 10, Athens, Greece (e-mail: dr@iit.demokritos.gr).
Eleni Mitsea is with Institute of Informatics and Telecommunications - Net Media
Lab & Mind-Brain R&D, Agia Paraskevi, 153 10, Athens, Greece and University of
the Aegean, Information and Communication Systems Engineering, Samos, Greece
(e-mail: e.mitsea@gmail.com).
Article submitted 2021-04-26. Resubmitted 2021-07-08. Final acceptance 2021-07-10. Final version
published as submitted by the authors
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