Insects as food in Sub-Saharan Africa

Abstract

Data on insects as food in sub-Saharan Africa were collected by reviewing the literature and conducting interviews in a number of African countries. A list of about 250 edible insect species from Africa was compiled. Of these, 78 percent are Lepidoptera (30%), Orthoptera (29%) and Coleoptera (19%), and 22 percent Isoptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera, Heteroptera, Diptera and Odonota. Insects are rich in protein, vitamins and minerals, and a good source of iron and B-vitamins. Examples of insects being toxic are given, but often traditional methods are used to remove the poison. Whether or not insects are eaten depends not only on taste and nutritional value, but also on customs, ethnic preferences or prohibitions. The harvesting of insects is often done by women. The way of collecting depends on insects' behaviour. For example, inactivity at low temperatures enables easy catching of locusts and grasshoppers in the morning. Night flyers (termites, some grasshoppers) can be lured into traps by light and some insects like palm weevils can be attracted to artificially created breeding sites. Some species (crickets, cicadas) can be located by the sound they make. A number of tools are used to facilitate capturing such as glue, sticks, nets and baskets. Because most insects are only seasonally available, preservation by drying is often practised. Some examples of how to prepare them as food are given from important insect groups.To manage insects in the interest of food security more attention should be given to environmentally sustainable harvesting methods. They should be made better available throughout the year by developing improved conservation methods or by farming this minilivestock. Considering the economic, nutritional and ecological advantages of this traditional food source, its promotion deserves more attention both from national governments and assistance programmes.

Full text

Insects as food in Africa 163
Insect Sci. Applic.
Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 163–185, 2003
Printed in Kenya. All rights reserved 0191-9040/03 $3.00 + 0.00
© 2003 ICIPE
Corresponding author: AVH.
E-mail: arnold.vanhuis@wur.nl 163
REVIEW ARTICLE
INSECTS AS FOOD IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
A. VAN HUIS
Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University,
P.O. Box 8031, 6700 EH Wageningen, the Netherlands. E-mail: arnold@vanhuis.com
(
Accepted
14
August
2003)
Abstract—Data on insects as food in sub-Saharan Africa were collected by reviewing the literature
and conducting interviews in a number of African countries. A list of about 250 edible insect species
from Africa was compiled. Of these, 78 percent are Lepidoptera (30%), Orthoptera (29%) and
Coleoptera (19%), and 22 percent Isoptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera, Heteroptera, Diptera and
Odonota. Insects are rich in protein, vitamins and minerals, and a good source of iron and B-vitamins.
Examples of insects being toxic are given, but often traditional methods are used to remove the
poison. Whether or not insects are eaten depends not only on taste and nutritional value, but also on
customs, ethnic preferences or prohibitions. The harvesting of insects is often done by women. The
way of collecting depends on insects’ behaviour. For example, inactivity at low temperatures enables
easy catching of locusts and grasshoppers in the morning. Night flyers (termites, some grasshoppers)
can be lured into traps by light and some insects like palm weevils can be attracted to artificially
created breeding sites. Some species (crickets, cicadas) can be located by the sound they make. A
number of tools are used to facilitate capturing such as glue, sticks, nets and baskets. Because most
insects are only seasonally available, preservation by drying is often practised. Some examples of
how to prepare them as food are given from important insect groups.
To manage insects in the interest of food security more attention should be given to
environmentally sustainable harvesting methods. They should be made better available throughout
the year by developing improved conservation methods or by farming this minilivestock. Considering
the economic, nutritional and ecological advantages of this traditional food source, its promotion
deserves more attention both from national governments and assistance programmes.
Key Words: sub-Saharan Africa, entomophagy, edible insects, insects as food
Résumé—Des données sur le rôle des insectes dans l’alimentation humaine ont été collectées dans
la littérature et lors d’enquêtes effectuées dans un certain nombre de pays africains. Une liste d’environ
250 insectes comestibles a été établie. Soixante dix-huit pour cent sont des Lépidoptères (30%),
Orthoptères (29%) et Coléoptères (19%) et 22% sont des Isoptères, Homoptères, Hyménoptères,
Hétéroptères, Diptères et Odonotes. Les insectes sont riches en protéines, vitamines et minéraux et
sont des sources importantes de fer et de vitamine B. Des examples d’insectes toxiques sont cités
mais dans de nombreux cas des méthodes traditionnelles sont utilisées pour éliminer les toxines.
Les insectes sont consommés ou non en fonction des traditions, des préférences ethniques ou des
interdictions. La récolte des insectes est souvent effectuée par les femmes. La façon de récolter dépend
du comportement des insectes, par exemple, l’inactivité de certains insectes à basse température
(criquets et sauterelles) les rend vulnérables à la récolte le matin; les insectes nocturnes volants

164 A. VAN HUIS
(termites, certaines sauterelles) peuvent être piégés avec la lumière; certains insectes tels que les
vers du palmier peuvent être attirés par des sites de pontes artificiels; les insectes chanteurs (criquet,
cigales) peuvent être localisés par les sons qu’ils produisent. Un certain nombre d’outils, tels que la
glue, des bâtons, des filets et des paniers peuvent être utilisés pour faciliter la capture. Certains
insectes étant disponibles seulement à certaines saisons, la conservation par séchage et souvent
pratiquée. Des exemples de recettes d’insectes sont donnés pour les groupes d’insectes les plus
importants.
L’exploitation des insectes dans une optique de sécurité alimentaire demande qu’une attention
particulière soit portée aux méthodes de récolte respectueuses de l’environnement. Les insectes
comestibles devraient être disponibles tout au long de l’année par l’amélioration des méthodes de
conservation ou par création de mini élevages de ces arthropodes. Au vu des avantages tant
économiques, nutritionnels qu’écologiques, la promotion de cette source alimentaire traditionnelle
mérite une attention plus grande de la part des gouvernements nationaux et des programmes de
coopération pour le développement.
Mots Clés: insectes comestibles, Afrique sub-saharienne, entomophagie
INTRODUCTION
Insects are eaten as a delicacy in many parts of
the world, particularly in the tropics. In
contrast, people in most of the Western world
tend to see human entomophagy as an aberration.
They are very reluctant to even consider eating
insects, and often associate it with primitive or
barbaric attitudes. This may be the reason that
such traditional foods have received very little
attention in assistance programmes on food
security. DeFoliart (1999) mentioned in his
overview of insects as food that “Westerners
should become aware of the fact that their bias
against insects as food has an adverse impact,
resulting in a gradual reduction in the use of
insects without replacement of lost nutrition and
other benefits”. Ramos-Elorduy (1990) also
indicated that “Insects have long been a significant
dietary factor in the poorer regions of the world,
and it is high time that scientists recognise this
fact and begin to build on it, rather than
discouraging or ignoring the practice”.
One of the reasons that entomophagy in the
Western civilisation is rare may be that only in
tropical zones are insects available seasonally in
large numbers and can therefore be gathered; in
temperate zones there are too few of them. In the
event that they are more plentiful, they may be
more readily consumed in temperate zones as
well. One example exists in the Netherlands: when
outbreaks of the oak processionary caterpillar
(Thaumetopoea processionea Linn.) occurred in 1995
and 1996 (Stigter et al., 1997), it was put on the
menu of one restaurant. The prejudice against
eating insects is not justified from a nutritional
point of view. Insects are not inferior to other
sources of protein such as fish, chicken or beef.
The bias has caused people in Western civilisations
to believe that the eating of insects in the
developing world is prompted by starvation—
that overcoming the aversion to use insects as food
is a survival tactic.
In this article we argue that the eating of insects
is common practice in sub-Saharan Africa, and
that this traditional food source deserves more
attention. It deals with the history of eating of
insects in Africa, the large variety of species eaten,
the toxicity of some edible insects, the importance
of edible insects in the diet, their nutritional value,
the gathering techniques, and the preparation,
conservation and marketing in different parts of
Africa. It is also argued that this local traditional
food source has been neglected in the past and
should receive more attention in the future, in
particular on how to manage this sustainable food
source in the interest of food security.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The information presented here was collected by
reviewing the literature and by personal
interviews. The interviews were conducted in the
years 1995 and 2000 and concentrated on the
traditional, nutritional and medical uses of
arthropods and their products as well as on their
role in religion, witchcraft, art, song, music, dance,
children’s games, mythology and literature. Some
of the results obtained in 1995 have been
published (van Huis, 1996). In total, 308 persons
from 27 countries in West, East and southern
Africa were interviewed: Benin 19 persons (6

Insects as food in Africa 165
ethnic groups or tribes/sub-tribes), Burundi 2 (2),
Burkina Faso 5 (2); Cameroun 30 (14), Central
African Republic 2 (2), Congo 2 (2), Chad 17 (10);
Gambia 2 (2); Guinea Bissau 1; Kenya 13 (5);
Madagascar 24; Malawi 1; Mali 10 (7);
Mozambique 8 (7); Namibia 1; Niger 15 (6);
Nigeria 18 (4); Rwanda 1; Senegal 17 (7); South
Africa 6 (1); Sudan 23 (11); Togo 11 (5); Uganda 15
(8); Zambia 23 (9); Zanzibar 9 (1); and Zimbabwe
13 (3). To avoid misunderstandings about the
identity of the arthropod species or taxa, most of
the people interviewed were scientists or
technicians trained in entomology. When there
was doubt, pictures from books were used or
insect museum collections were consulted.
Twenty-two of those interviewed acted as resource
persons on specialised areas (e.g. termites, insects
as food or medicine). These included 2 from
Cameroon, 2 Kenya, 5 from South Africa, 8 from
Sudan, 3 from Togo, 3 from Zambia, and 1 from
Zimbabwe. In these cases the ethnic origin of the
information was not considered relevant. The
remaining 286 persons came from about 125
different ethnic groups or (sub)tribes (which at
times crossed political borders).
Findings for a particular country or tribe were
only specified if information was received from
more than one informant, or if the information
given during interviews was confirmed in the
literature. When a country and tribe are
mentioned, it is just an indication that an
informant from that tribe provided this
information. Therefore, generalisations for tribes
or countries cannot and should not be made. The
qualitative character of the information provided
is emphasised. When literature sources used local
insect names, these records were not taken into
account.
A number of insects are eaten for medical
purposes. Such practices have not been included
in this overview. Some insect products which are
eaten (honey, termite soil, lerp), are only
mentioned a few times. The use of insects as food
for livestock has not been included.
For the taxonomic status (order, family) of the
insect species mentioned in this article, see Table
1. When no literature reference is indicated in this
table, it means that information was collected by
the author. Bergier (1941), Bodenheimer (1951),
Netolitzky (1919) and Silow (1976) are used in the
table as reference when they cite very early
references from difficult accessible sources. Valid
(most recent) species names are used, and only
for some well-known species, old names are
added in brackets. Contrary to International Code
of Zoological Nomenclature convention, the
names of the authors are not parenthesised to
indicate a species and genus combination that is
different from the one used for the original
description, as it would have required an
inordinate amount of bibliographic searching to
ascertain the historical status of names and
accurate use of parentheses. For some insect
species encountered in the literature an author
name could not be found. In the table only one
superfamily (Acridoidea) is mentioned (in
parentheses); subfamilies are indented.
HISTORY
Early hominids, either Homo or Australopithecus
robustus in southern Africa, used bones as tools to
harvest termites from their nests for nearly a
million years (Blackwell and d’Errico, 2001). This
was concluded from wear patterns on the
purported bone tools. They drove the bones down
into the termite hills, forcing the termites to come
out, then collected them. Although capture by
destruction of the termite hill is also possible,
Joulian and Roulon-Doko (1994) describe more
sophisticated techniques used by the Gbaya in the
Central African Republic and by chimpanzees
(Pan troglodytes) in Tanzania. Quin (1959, p. 111–
112) states that termites appear to be of greater
significance in primitive diets than ants. Ledger
(1971) also found at Melville koppies in South
Africa, that from 100.000 BC till recent termites
and bees were of possible food value to man. He
listed two termites species, Trinivitermes
trinervoides and Hodotermes mossambicus, and the
wild honeybee Apis mellifera unicolor.
The greek historian Diodorus described an
Ethiopian community of acridophagi (locust
eaters) in the first century BC and recalls that this
group attempted to preserve the locusts in salt for
times of scarcity (Brothwell and Brothwell, 1998).
Sutton (1990) asked the question why females eat
more insects than males in human populations
and higher primates. He argues that early hominid
males controlled the procurement of vertebrate
meat. Therefore, females having less access to
vertebrate protein and needing it because of their
childbearing responsibilities, compensated by
collecting edible insects as part of their normal
gathering routine.
That insects were an important food resource
for early hominids is beginning to be appreciated,

166 A. VAN HUIS
and that they still are for humans is increasingly
being recognised.
HOW MANY INSECT
SPECIES ARE EATEN?
DeFoliart (1997) assumed the number of insect
species to be eaten worldwide to be about 1000,
of which in African countries: 30 in Congo, 22 in
Madagascar, 36 in South Africa, 62 in the
Democratic Republic of Congo (D.R. Congo), and
32 in Zimbabwe. Ramos-Elorduy (1997)
mentioned 1391 insect species eaten worldwide,
of which 524 are eaten in 34 countries of Africa
representing 38% of all species consumed. She
listed as most important countries the Central
Republic of Africa with 185 species, D.R. Congo
with 51, and Zambia with 33. Probably these are
conservative estimates as little research on human
entomophagy has been conducted in sub-Saharan
Africa. In countries where intensive research has
taken place, the numbers are impressive. For
example, Ramos-Elorduy (1997) in Mexico listed
348 species, which is the highest number recorded
for one country in the world. Similarly, Malaisse
(1997), after intensive studies in the region
inhabited by the Bemba (Bantu-speaking people
inhabiting the northeastern plateau of Zambia and
neighbouring areas of the D.R. Congo and
Zimbabwe), listed only 38 different species of
caterpillars. The first systematic studies in Africa
were carried out by Bodenheimer (1951) and Silow
(1976), with the latter concentrating on mid-
western Zambia. The higher number of edible
insect species (524) mentioned by Ramos-Elorduy
(1997) for Africa compared to the number
mentioned in this article (246) is that we only took
into account records of scientific names.
From the 1391 species listed by Ramos-Elorduy
(1997), most belong to the Coleoptera (24%),
followed by the Hymenoptera (22%), Orthoptera
(17%), Lepidoptera (16%), Heteroptera (7%),
Homoptera (5%), Isoptera (3%), Diptera (2%), and
others (4%). By reviewing the literature and from
our own observation we arrived at a list of 246
species (most at species and only a few at genus
or family level) eaten in sub-Saharan Africa (Table
1). Of these, the majority are Lepidoptera (30%),
Orthoptera (29%) and Coleoptera (19%); below
10% are the Homoptera (7%), Isoptera (6%),
Hymenoptera (5%), Heteroptera (3%), Diptera and
Odonota (1%) (Fig. 1). For the Gbaya in the Central
African Republic with 96 edible insect species, the
Orthoptera and the Lepidoptera were also the
most important, viz.: locusts and grasshoppers
(40%), caterpillars (36%), termites (10%), beetles
(6%), and others such as cicadas and crickets (8%)
(Roulon-Doko, 1998). Comparing our data of the
percentage of edible insect species recorded for
sub-Saharan Africa (Fig. 1) with those recorded
worldwide (Ramos-Elorduy, 1997), we find
differences in the sense that in sub-Saharan Africa
the Coleoptera and Lepidoptera are almost twice
as frequently recorded, and the hymenopterous
species more than four times less so.
HOW NUTRITIOUS ARE INSECTS?
The nutritional value (amount of proteins, fat,
vitamins and calories) of insects compares very
favourably with that of meat and fish (Nkouka,
1987). Insects contain a high amount of crude
protein. In g/100 g dry weight, caterpillars contain
50–60, palm weevil larvae 23–36, Orthoptera 41–
91, ants 7–25, and termites 35–65 (Bukkens, 1997).
One hundred grams of caterpillars provide 76%
Fig. 1. The percentage of insect species per order eaten worldwide. (Source: Ramos-Elorduy (1997) and in sub-
Saharan Africa (this article)
30 Africa: 246 species
Worldwide: 1391 spp.
20
Number of species (%)
10
0
Lepidoptera
Orthoptera
Coleoptera
Homoptera
Isoptera
Hymenoptera
Heteroptera
Diptera
Others

Insects as food in Africa 167
Table 1. List of arthropod species consumed in sub-Saharan Africa
Order/Family/
Subfamily Species Countries and Reference
Coleoptera:
Curculionidae Eugnoristus monachus Oliv. Madagascar (Bodenheimer, 1951)
Rhyna sp. Madagascar (Bodenheimer, 1951)
Rhynchophorus sp. Madagascar (Bodenheimer, 1951)
Rhynchophorus phoenicis Fabr. Angola (Santos Oliveira et al., 1976),
Cameroun (Bodenheimer, 1951),
Congo (Bani, 1995; Nkouka, 1987; Takeda, 1990),
Nigeria (Fasoranti and Ajiboye, 1993)
Polyclaeis equestris Boheman South Africa (Quin, 1959)
P. plumbeus Guerin South Africa (Quin, 1959)
Sipalinus aloysii-sabaudiae Camerano Tanzania (Bodenheimer, 1951; Harris, 1940)
Carabidae Scarites sp. Angola (Bergier, 1941), Madagascar
(Decary, 1937)
Buprestidae Sternocera funebris Boheman Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976; Gelfand, 1971)
S. interrupta Oliv. Cameroun (Seignobos et al., 1996)
S. orissa Buq. Botswana (Nonaka, 1996),
South Africa (Bodenheimer, 1951; Quin, 1959),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976; Gelfand, 1971)
Cerambycidae Acanthophorus maculatus Lameere Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
A. capensis White Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
A. confinis Laporte Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
Ancylonotus tribulus Fabr. Gabon and Senegal (Netolitzky, 1919),
West Africa (Bergier, 1941)
Ceroplesis burgeoni Breuning Southern Africa (Malaisse, 1997)
Dorysthenes forficatus Fabr. North Africa (Ghesquière, 1947)
Mallodon downesi Hope Central Africa (Bergier, 1941),
South Africa (Bodenheimer, 1951)
Macrotoma edulis Karsch Sao Tomé and Principe (Netolitzky, 1919)
M. natala Thomson Botswana (Roodt, 1993)
Petrognatha gigas Fabr. Gabon (Bergier, 1941), Senegal (Netolitzky, 1919)
Plocaederus frenatus Fåhraeus Central Africa (Bergier, 1941)
Pycnopsis brachyptera Thomson D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997)
Sternotomis itzingeri katangensis Allard D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997)
Zographus aulicus Bertolini D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997)
Dytiscidae Cybister hova Fairm. Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
Elateridae Tetralobus flabellicornis Linn. Central Africa (Bodenheimer, 1951)
Lucanidae Cladognathus serricornis Latr. Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
Passalidae sp. Madagascar (Bodenheimer, 1951)
Scarabaeidae
Cetoniinae Goliathus cacicus Voet Central Africa (Bergier, 1941)
G. regius Klug Central Africa (Bergier, 1941)
G. cameronensis Central Africa (Bergier, 1941)
G. goliathus D.R.ury Central Africa (Bergier, 1941)
Dynastinae Augosoma centaurus Fabr. Cameroun (Bodenheimer, 1951),
Congo (Bani, 1995; Nkouka, 1987),
D.R. Congo (Takeda, 1990)
Oryctes boas Fabr. Congo (Bani, 1995; Nkouka, 1987),
Nigeria (Fasoranti and Ajiboye, 1993),
South Africa (Bergier, 1941; Netolitzky, 1919)
O. monocerus Oliv. South Africa (Bergier, 1941; Netolitzky, 1919)
O. nasicornis Linn. Madagascar (Bergier, 1941)
O. owariensis Palisot Congo (Bani, 1995; Nkouka, 1987),
South Africa (Bergier, 1941; Netolitzky, 1919)
Melolonthinae Lepidiota mashona Arrow Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976; Gelfand, 1971;
Weaving, 1973) Continued on next page

168 A. VAN HUIS
Order/Family/
Subfamily Species Countries and Reference
L. anatina Brenske Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976)
L. nitidicollis Kolbe Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976)
Proagosternus sp. Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
Tricholespis sp. Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
Rutelinae Popillia femoralis Klug Cameroun (Bodenheimer, 1951)
Scarabaeinae Pachylomera femoralis Kirby Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
Trichiinae Platygenia spp. Africa (Ghesquière, 1947)
P. barbata Afzelius D.R. Congo (AD.R.iaens, 1951)
Tenebrionidae xylophagus insects Congo (Nkouka, 1987)
Diptera:
Chaoboridae Chaoborus edulis Edwards East African lakes (Bergier, 1941; Owen, 1973),
Tanzania (Bodenheimer, 1951; Harris, 1940),
Uganda, Kenya
C. pallidipes Theob. Uganda (Bergier, 1941)
Chaoborus sp. East African lakes (Bergier, 1941)
Heteroptera:
Belostomatidae Belostoma sp. Congo (Bani, 1995; Nkouka, 1987)
Coreidae Petascelis remipes Signoret Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976; Weaving, 1973)
P. wahlbergi Stål Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976)
Nepidae Nepa sp. Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
Pentatomidae Agonoscelis versicolor Fabr. Sudan
Tessaratomidae Natalicola delegorguei Spin. South Africa (Faure, 1944),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976; Bodenheimer, 1951)
N. pallidus Westwood Zimbabwe (author, Weaving, 1973)
Homoptera:
Cicadidae Afzeliada sp. Congo (Nkouka, 1987)
Afzeliada afzelii Stål D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997)
Afzeliada duplex Diabola D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997)
Ioba horizontalis Karsch D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997)
I. leopardina Distant D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997), Zambia (Mbata, 1995),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976; Malaisse, 1997)
Monomatapa insignis Distant Botswana (Roodt, 1993)
Munza furva Distant D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997)
Orapa sp. Botswana (Roodt, 1993)
Platypleura adouma Distant Congo (Nkouka, 1987)
P. stridula Linn. Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
Sadaka radiata Karsch D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997)
Ugada limbalis Karsch Congo (Nkouka, 1987),
D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997), Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
U. giovanninae Boulard Congo (Nkouka, 1987)
U. limbimaculata Karsch Congo (Nkouka, 1987), D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997)
Flatidae Phromnia rubra Signoret1Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
Fulgoridae Pyrops tenebrosa Fabr. Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
Psyllidae Arytaina mopane Pettey1Botswana (Sekhwela, 1988),
Zimbabwe (Weaving, 1973)
Hymenoptera:
Apidae Apis adansoni Latr. D.R. Congo (Takeda, 1990),
Tanzania (Harris, 1940), Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
Apis mellifira Linn. Senegal (Gessain and Kinzler, 1975),
Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
Dactylurina staudingeri Gribodo D.R. Congo (Takeda, 1990)
Trigona sp. D.R. Congo (Takeda, 1990)
T. ferruginea gambiensis Moure Senegal (Gessain and Kinzler, 1975)
T. occidentalis Darchen Senegal (Gessain and Kinzler, 1975)
T. ruspolii Mag. Senegal (Gessain and Kinzler, 1975)
T. senegalensis Darchen Senegal (Gessain and Kinzler, 1975)
Contd. from previous page
Continued on next page

Insects as food in Africa 169
Order/Family/
Subfamily Species Countries and Reference
Formicidae Anomma nigricans Illiger (eggs) Cameroun (author)
Oecophylla spp. Cameroun, Congo (Bani, 1995; Nkouka, 1987)
Camponotus sp. Botswana (Nonaka, 1996)
Carebara vidua Smith South Africa (Bodenheimer, 1951; Quin, 1959),
Zambia (Mbata, 1995; Silow, 1983),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976; Jackson, 1954 in
Gelfand, 1971)
C. lignata Westwood Southern Africa (author)
Isoptera:
Macrotermitidae Acanthotermes spp. Tanzania (Bodenheimer, 1951; Harris, 1940)
A. militaris Hagen Angola (Silow, 1983)
A. spiniger Sjöstedt D.R. Congo (Bequaert, 1921),
Zambia (Silow, 1983)
Hodotermes mossambicus Hagen Botswana (Grivetti, 1979; Nonaka, 1996)
Macrotermes spp. D.R. Congo (Takeda, 1990),
Tanzania (Bodenheimer, 1951; Harris, 1940),
Zimbabwe (Jackson,1954 in Gelfand, 1971)
M. bellicosus Smeathman CAR (Roulon-Doko, 1998),
Congo (Nkouka, 1987),
Malaisse (1997),
D.R. Congo (Bequaert, 1921), Nigeria (Fasoranti
and Ajiboye, 1993)
M. falciger Gerstäcker Zambia (Mbata, 1995; Silow, 1983),
Malaisse (1997),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976)
M. subhyalinus Rambur Angola (Santos Oliveira et al., 1976),
Zambia (Mbata, 1995; Silow, 1983),
Malaisse (1997)
M. swaziae Full South Africa (Bodenheimer, 1951)
M. vitrialatus Sjöstedt Zambia (Mbata, 1995; Silow, 1983)
Microhodotermes viator Latr. South Africa (Bodenheimer, 1951)
Odontotermes sp. Zimbabwe (Weaving, 1973)
O. badius Haviland South Africa (Quin, 1959), Zambia (Silow, 1983)
Termes spp. Tanzania (Bodenheimer, 1951; Harris, 1940)
Lepidoptera:
Eupterotidae Strichnopteryx edulis Boisduval Southern Africa (Bergier, 1941)
Hesperidae Coeliades libeon Druce Congo (Bani, 1995; Nkouka, 1987)
Lasiocampidae Catalebeda jamesoni B.-Bak. Zambia (Silow, 1976)
Bombycomorpha pallida Distant South Africa (Quin, 1959),
Borocera madagascariensis Boisduval Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
Brachiostegia sp. Zimbabwe (Bodenheimer, 1951)
Gonometa postica Walker South Africa (Quin, 1959), Zambia (Silow, 1976)
Mimopacha aff. knoblauchi Dew. Central Africa (Silow, 1976)
Pachypasa bilinea Walker Zambia (Silow, 1976)
Limacodidae sp. D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
Noctuidae Nyodes prasidones Prout D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
Sphingomorpha chlorea Cr. Zambia (Silow, 1976)
Spodoptera exempta Walker Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
S. exigua Hübner Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
Notodontidae Antheua insignata Gaede D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980),
Elaphrodes lactea Gaede D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997; Malaisse and
Parent, 1980)
Desmeocraera sp. Zambia (Silow, 1976)
D.R.apetides uniformis Swinhoe D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
Notodontinae Amerila madagacariensis Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
Nephela comma Hopffer Zambia (Silow, 1976)
Continued on next page

170 A. VAN HUIS
Order/Family/
Subfamily Species Countries and Reference
Rhenea mediata Walker D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
spp. (2) D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
Thaumetopoeinae Anaphe sp. Congo (Bani, 1995),
D.R. Congo (Latham, 1999; Takeda, 1990),
Equatorial Africa (Bergier, 1941)
A. gribodoi D.R. Congo (Takeda, 1990)
A. panda Boisduval D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980; Takeda,
1990), Tanzania
(A. infracta) (Bodenheimer, 1951; Harris, 1940),
Zambia (Silow, 1976)
A. venata Butler Nigeria (Ashiru, 1988), Zambia (Silow, 1976)
Hypsoïdes cajani Vinson Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
H. diego Coquerel Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
H. radama Coquerel Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
spp. (2) D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
Psychidae Deborrea malgassa Heylaerts Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
Eumeta cervina Druce. Equatorial Africa (Bergier, 1941)
(=Clania moddermanni)
Saturniidae Anthocera teffraria Gabon (Bergier, 1941)
Athletas gigas Sonthonnax D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
Athletas semialba Sonthonnax D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
Bunaea alcinoë Stoll Cameroun/D.R. Congo/Gabon/Zambia (Silow,
1976),
(=B. caffraria Stoll) D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980),
Tanzania (Bodenheimer, 1951; Harris, 1940),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976; Weaving, 1973),
Zambia (Silow, 1976), southern Africa
Cinabra hyperbius Westwood D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980),
Zambia (Silow, 1976)
Cirina forda Westwood Burkina Faso, D.R. Congo (Latham, 1999; Leleup
and Daems, 1969), Zambia (Mbata, 2002)
(=C. butyrospermi Vuillot) Malaisse and Parent (1980), Mali (Bergier, 1941),
Nigeria (Fasoranti and Ajiboye, 1993),
South Africa (Quin, 1959),
Southern Africa (Oberprieler, 1995),
Zambia (Silow, 1976),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976)
Gonimbrasia aurantiaca Rothschild D.R. Congo (Leleup and Daems, 1969; Malaisse
and Parent, 1980), Zambia (Silow, 1976)
G. belina Westwood Malawi (Munthali and Mughogho, 1992),
South Africa (Bodenheimer, 1951; Quin, 1959),
Southern Africa (Oberprieler, 1995),
Zambia (Mbata, 1995; Silow, 1976),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976)
G. hecate Rougeot D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
G. tyrrhea Cramer Namibia (Oberprieler, 1995)
G. zambesina Walker D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980),
Zambia (Mbata, 2002; Silow, 1976)
Goodia kuntzei Dewitz D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
Gynanisa ata Strand D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
G. maia Klug. Malawi (Munthali and Mughogho, 1992),
Namibia (Oberprieler, 1995),
South Africa (Quin, 1959),
Zambia (Mbata, 2002; Oberprieler, 1995; Silow, 1976)
Heniocha dyops Maassen and Weymar Southern Africa (Marais, 1996; in Illgner and
Nel, 2000)
Contd. from previous page
Continued on next page

Insects as food in Africa 171
Order/Family/
Subfamily Species Countries and Reference
Holocerina agomensis Karsch Zambia (Silow, 1976)
Imbrasia dione Fabr. D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980; Takeda,
1990)
I. cytherea Fabr. Zambia (Silow, 1976)
I. epimethia Drury Congo (Bani, 1995), D.R. Congo (Kodondi et al.,
1987; Malaisse and Parent, 1980),
Zambia (Mbata, 2002; Silow, 1976),
Zimbabwe (Gelfand, 1971; Weaving, 1973),
I. ertli Rebel Angola (Santos Oliveira et al., 1976),
D.R. Congo (Latham, 1999),
Southern Africa (Oberprieler, 1995)
I. macrothyris Rothchild D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
I. obscura Butler Congo (Bani, 1995)
I. (=Nudaurelia) oyemensis Congo (Bani, 1995),
D.R. Congo (Kodondi et al., 1987)
I. rectilineata Sonthoanax D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997; Malaisse and
Parent, 1980)
(=Gonimbrasia richelmanni Weymer)
I. rubra Bouvier D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980),
Zambia (Mbata, 2002)
I. truncata Aurivillius Congo (Bani, 1995),
D.R. Congo (Kodondi et al., 1987)
Lobobunaea goodi Holland D.R. Congo (Takeda, 1990)
L. phaedusa Drury D.R. Congo (Latham, 1999)
L. angasana Westwood D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980),
Zambia (Silow, 1976)
Melanocera menippe Westwood Gabon (Bergier, 1941)
M. parva Rothchild D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980),
Zambia (Silow, 1976)
Micragone ansorgei Rothchild D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997), Zambia (Silow, 1976)
M. herilla Westwood Cameroun (Bodenheimer, 1951)
M. cana Aurivillius D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
Micragone sp. Equatorial Africa (Bergier, 1941)
Pseudantheraea discrepans Butler D.R. Congo (Leleup and Daems, 1969; Silow,
1976; Takeda, 1990)
Saturnia marchii Gabon (Bergier, 1941)
Saturnia sp. D.R. Congo (Takeda, 1990)
Tagoropsis flavinata Walker D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
Urota sinope Westwood D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980),
Gabon (Bergier, 1941), southern Africa
Usta wallengrennii Felder Namibia (Oberprieler, 1995)
U. terpsichore Maassen and Weymer Angola (Santos Oliveira et al., 1976),
D.R. Congo (Malaisse and Parent, 1980)
Sphingidae Herse convolvuli Linn. Botswana (Nonaka, 1996),
South Africa (Quin, 1959), Zambia (Silow, 1976)
Odonata: larvae Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
adults Nigeria (Bodenheimer, 1951)
Trithemis arteriosa Burmeister D.R. Congo (Malaisse, 1997)
Orthoptera:
Acrididae Acanthacris ruficornis Fabr. Sahel, Congo (Bani, 1995, Nkouka, 1987),
(Acridoidea) Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980),
Zambia (Mbata, 1995),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976)
A. ruficornis citrina Serville Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Acorypha clara Walker Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
A. nigrovariegata Bolivar Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
Continued on next page

172 A. VAN HUIS
Order/Family/
Subfamily Species Countries and Reference
A. glaucopsis Walker Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
A. picta Krauss Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Acrida bicolor Thunberg Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976)
A. sulphuripennis Gerstäcker Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
A. turrita Linn. Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Acridoderus strenuus Walker Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980), Sahel
Acrotylus blondeli Saussure Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980)
A. longipes Charpentier Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980)
Afroxyrrhepes procera Burmeister Congo (Nkouka, 1987)
Anacridium burri Dirsh Southern Africa (Malaisse, 1997)
Anacridium melanorhodon Walker Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999),
Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980), Sahel
A. wernerellum Karny Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980), Sahel
Brachycrotaphus tryxalicerus Fischer Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Cataloipus fuscocoeruleipus Sjöstedt Sahel
C. haemorrhoidalis Krauss Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980)
C. cymbiferus Krauss Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Chirista compta Walker Congo (Nkouka, 1987)
Cyathosternum spp. Zimbabwe (Gelfand, 1971)
Cyrtacanthacris aeruginosas Stoll Nigeria (Fasoranti and Ajiboye, 1993),
Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
C. tatarica Linn. Botswana (Nonaka, 1996),
Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
Diabolocatantops axillaris Thunberg Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999),
Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980), Sahel
Exopropacris modica Karsch Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Gastrimargus africanus Saussure Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999),
Congo (Nkouka, 1987),
Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980), Sahel
G. procerus Gerstäcker Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999),
Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980)
Harpezocatantops stylifer Krauss Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999),
Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980)
Heteracris pulchripes guineensis Krauss Congo (Nkouka, 1987)
Hieroglyphus daganensis Krauss Sahel Africa
Homoxyrrhepes punctipennis Walker Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Humbe tenuicornis Schaum Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980)
Kraussaria angulifera Krauss Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999), Sahel
Krausella amabile Krauss Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Lamarckiana cucullata Stoll Botswana (Nonaka, 1996)
Locusta migratoria capito Sauss. Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
Locusta migratoria migratoriodis Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999),
Congo (Nkouka, 1987),
Tanzania (Bodenheimer, 1951; Harris, 1940),
Zambia (Mbata, 1995),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976; Gelfand, 1971)
Locustana pardalina Walker South Africa (Quin, 1959),
southern Africa, Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
Mesopsis abbreviatus Palisot de Beauvois Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Nomadacris septemfasciata Serville Congo (Nkouka, 1987), South Africa (Quin, 1959),
Tanzania (Bodenheimer, 1951; Harris, 1940),
Zambia (Mbata, 1995),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976; Gelfand, 1971),
eastern Africa
Oedaleus nigeriensis Uvarov Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Contd. from previous page
Continued on next page

Insects as food in Africa 173
Order/Family/
Subfamily Species Countries and Reference
O. nigrofasciatus De Geer Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
O. senegalensis Krauss Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980)
Ornithacris sp. Zimbabwe (Weaving, 1973)
O. cyanea Stoll Zimbabwe (Gelfand, 1971)
O. turbida cavroisi Finot Congo (Bani, 1995),
Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980), Sahel
Orthacanthacris humilicrus Karsch Niger (Lévy-Luxereau, 1980)
Orthochtha venosa Ramme Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Oxycatantops congoensis Sjöstedt Congo (Bani, 1995; Nkouka, 1987)
O. spissus Walker Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999),
Congo (Bani, 1995; Nkouka, 1987), Sahel
Paracinema tricolor Thunberg Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Schistocerca gregaria Forskål Africa, Congo (Nkouka, 1987),
Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999),
Tanzania (Bodenheimer, 1951; Harris, 1940),
Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
Sherifuria haningtoni Uvarov Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Truxalis johnstoni Dirsh Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Truxaloides constrictus Schaum Zimbabwe (Gelfand, 1971)
Tylotropidius gracilipes Brancsik Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Pyrgomorphidae Chrotogonus senegalensis Krauss Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
(Acricoidea) Phymateus viridipes Stål Congo (Bergier, 1941),
(=Borborothis brunneri Bolivar) southern Africa (Malaisse, 1997)
Pyrgomorpha cognata Krauss Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Zonocerus variegatus Linn. Central African Republic (Barreteau, 1999),
Nigeria (Fasoranti and Ajiboye, 1993)
Z. elegans Thunberg Mozambique, South Africa (Quin, 1959)
Blattidae sp. Cameroun (Bergier, 1941)
Gryllidae Acanthoplus sp. Botswana (Nonaka, 1996)
Acheta sp. Zambia (Mbata, 1995),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976)
Brachytrupes membranaceus Drury Congo (Bani, 1995; Nkouka, 1987),
D.R. Congo (AD.R.iaens, 1951),
Nigeria (Fasoranti and Ajiboye, 1993),
Tanzania (Bodenheimer, 1951; Harris, 1940),
(East, central and southern Africa),
Zambia (Mbata, 1995),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976;Gelfand, 1971;
Weaving, 1973)
Gryllus bimaculatus DeGeer Zambia (Mbata, 1995)
Gryllotalpidae Gryllotalpa africana Palisot Uganda (Bodenheimer, 1951),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976; Gelfand, 1971;
Weaving, 1973)
Mantidae Tarachodes saussurei Giglio-Tos Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Tettigoniidae Ruspolia differens Serville The whole of East (Owen, 1973) and southern Africa
[= Homococoryphus nitidulus vicinus D.R. Congo (Bergier, 1941; Bequaert, 1921),
Walker Tanzania (Bodenheimer, 1951); Harris,
1940), Zambia (Mbata, 1995),
Zimbabwe (Chavanduka, 1976; Gelfand, 1971;
Weaving, 1973)
Thespidae Hoplocorypha garuana Giglio-Tos Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999)
Class Arachnida Epeira nigra Vinson Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
Nephila madagscariensis Vinson Madagascar (Decary, 1937)
For explanations: see Materials and Methods.
1From these homopterans the secreted product is eaten (that of Arytaina mopane is called ‘lerp’).

174 A. VAN HUIS
of an individual’s daily protein requirement, and
more than 100% of the daily requirements for
many of the vitamins and minerals (Santos
Oliveira et al., 1976). In the majority of food
insects, either tryptophan or lysine is the first
limiting amino acid (Bukkens, 1997). However,
three caterpillars in the D.R. Congo proved to be
a rich source of lysine, important in
complementing lysine-poor staple cereals
(Kodondi et al., 1987). Also Macrotermes bellicosus,
collected in Nigeria, is probably also valuable in
complementing maize protein, while others, like
Macrotermes subhyalinus from Angola were not
(Bukkens, 1997). The nitrogen in chitin, main
component of the exoskeleton of insects, is not
available, because of the absence of the enzyme
chitinase in the human digestive tract. Insects in
general are rich in fat, in particular caterpillars,
palm weevil larvae and termites (Bukkens, 1997).
Of the micronutrients, iron and vitamin A
deficiency affects about 50 percent of the children
in Africa (ACC/SCN, 2000). Insects are a good
source of iron (Fe), and the A- and B-vitamins are
well represented (Bukkens, 1997). Being an animal
food, they contain even more bio-efficacious
micronutrients than vegetables. There are quite a
number of studies dealing with the nutritional and
calorific value of several insect species in Africa
(Chitsiku, 1989; Bukkens, 1997, Kitsa, 1989;
Malaisse, 1997; Santos Oliveira et al., 1976),
including caterpillars (Latham, 1999), Anaphe sp.
(Ashiru, 1988); the mopane worm Gonimbrasia
belina (Dreyer and Wehmeyer, 1982; Hobane,
1995), termites (Phelps et al., 1975; Tihon, 1946),
and the secretion (mopane bread) of the mopane
psyllid Arytaina mopane (Ernst and Sekhwela,
1987; Sekhwela, 1988). Bukkens (1997) concludes
that given the high nutritional value of insects,
efforts should be made to retain the tradition of
entomophagy where it is still alive.
HOW IMPORTANT ARE
INSECTS AS FOOD?
There are only a few systematic studies on the
importance of insects as food, and most are not
too recent. Simmonds (cited in Bodenheimer, 1951,
p. 202) mentioned in 1885 that the inhabitants of
Madagascar are ill fed for half the year. Insects
probably met only a part of their food
requirements, but not to the dislike of the people,
as he adds, “they are fond of fried grasshoppers
and silkworm, esteeming the latter a great
delicacy”. It is a misconception to believe that
insects are only eaten because of lack of
alternatives or because people are hungry. Often
my interviewees indicated that they eat insects
because they are just delicious, in particular
termites, the cricket Brachytrypes membranaceous,
the palm larvae Rynchophorus sp., and the
tettigoniid Ruspolia differens [vernacular name
“edible grasshopper”; see reference to this species
also in Mors, (1958)].
In the period before the harvest (during the
rainy season), main staples are scarce. Insects are
then abundant and can become an important food
item. For example, in Madagascar, this is the
period when there is not much rice (Decary, 1937).
In the Central African Republic (Bahuchet, 1975,
1990) and in the D.R. Congo (Pagezy, 1975)
caterpillars are a very important food item for the
pygmies during a period between July to October.
However, Schebesta (1957), studying the Bambuti-
pygmies in the Ituri forest of the D.R. Congo,
stated that insects were eaten only as a supplement
to other meat sources, although their importance
in nutrition should not be underestimated.
In Malawi, Mikkola (1997) interviewed 110
persons: 86% consume termites, 68% caterpillars,
46% grasshoppers, and 17% lake flies, but they
were not considered a very important protein
source. Five percent of the food of the Gbaya in
the Central African Republic consists of
invertebrates (96 different insect species), which
is about 15 percent of their meat diet (Roulon-
Doko, 1998). The Nganda in the D.R. Congo
recognised 128 insect species, of which 39% are
considered edible (Takeda and Sato, 1993). In six
provinces of the D.R. Congo, insects constituted
10% of the animal protein in the human diet (being
the highest in the two western provinces, viz. 15
and 22%), similar to beef (also 10%). However, fish
was the most important part of the diet (47%),
followed by game meat (30%) (Gomez et al., 1961).
In the city Kananga, in the south west of the D.R.
Congo, 28% of the inhabitants eat insects, mainly
termites, caterpillars and beetle larvae (Kitsa,
1989). This amount was considered low, probably
due to a deficient market infrastructure. The
average monthly consumption was 2.4 kg per
person. On the market it appeared that only palm
beetle larvae and soldier termites (20% of the
edible insect species) were found throughout the
year, while the rest (in particular caterpillars and
flying termites) were only seasonally available
(December to April). Adriaens (1951) indicated

Insects as food in Africa 175
from the southwest of the D.R. Congo that animal
protein in the dry season is obtained from eating
large game, crickets and grasshoppers, during the
rainy season from caterpillars, and throughout the
year from fish, rodents, reptiles and various insect
larvae. The estimate for the district of Kwango in
the D.R. Congo between 1954 and 1958 was close
to 300 tonnes a year of dried caterpillars.
In southern Africa, emperor moth caterpillars
(Saturniidae) are widely consumed during one of
the most food-deficient periods of the year—the
months preceding the harvest. Fortunately during
this period caterpillars can be harvested from
forest trees which put forth leaves before the start
of the rainy season. Their larvae can be dried and
stored. The most well known emperor moth is
Gonimbrasia belina, the so-called ‘mopane worm’.
Large quantities are harvested annually (in the
early 1980s the annual sales in South Africa were
estimated to be 1600 tonnes; Dreyer and
Wehmeijer, 1982), and sometimes exported to
other countries. A mopane worm canning factory
was set up in South Africa years ago. However,
the unpredictable nature of their occurrence and
numbers, and the as yet unsuccessful attempts to
farm them on a large scale, has made this and
other similar enterprises unprofitable
(Oberprieler, 1995). The population dynamics of
the species are studied in order to obtain a more
predictable and sustainable harvest with
consequent economic stability (Frears, 1995).
When honey is harvested, the honey, wax,
combs and larvae can be separated, but often
mixtures are consumed, including the honeybee
larvae (Gessain and Kinzler, 1975).
TOXICITY OF EDIBLE INSECTS
Although some insects are considered toxic, they
are still eaten. For instance Zonocerus variegatus in
Cameroun (Barreteau, 1999) and Nigeria. The
larvae have to be prepared specially, such as by
repeated cooking. The tessaratomid Natalicola
delagorguei in Zimbabwe and South Africa excretes
a pungent fluid (Bodenheimer, 1951; Faure, 1944)
which can cause severe pain and even temporary
blindness if it comes in contact with the eyes
(Scholtz, 1984). Therefore, the fluid is removed by
squeezing the thorax and by diluting the ‘poison’
by putting the insect in hot water. The
consumption of caterpillars with hairs containing
toxic substances can be very dangerous and these
have to be burned off by shaking them in a
recipient with glowing coals (Tango Muyay, 1981).
There have also been reports of seasonal ataxic
syndrome after people consumed the silkworm
Anaphe venata in southwest Nigeria (Adamolekun,
1993). This may occur in poorly nourished people
who are marginally thiamine deficient as a result
of a mainly carbohydrate diet containing
thiamine-binding cyanogenetic glycosides, and
who experience seasonal exacerbation of their
thiamine deficiency from thiaminases in seasonal
foods. The silkworm contains such thiaminases.
Bouvier (1945) observed in D.R. Congo that
when grasshoppers and locusts are consumed
without removing the legs, intestinal constipation
may occur, caused by the large spines on the tibia.
Surgical removal of locust legs is then often the
only remedy. Autopsy of dead monkeys during
locust invasions also proved that the consumption
of locusts proved to be fatal for the same reason.
Another problem is the pesticide applications
against locusts and grasshoppers, which can cause
problems because of their toxic residues.
ETHNIC PREFERENCES AND
PROHIBITIONS IN ENTOMOPHAGY
The publications of Barreteau (1999) and Lévi-
Luxereau (1980) give a detailed account of the
Latin names of locusts that are eaten. Both deal
with locusts from the Sahelian region, the first in
the extreme north of Cameroun and the second
from the Maradi area in Niger. It appears that the
different ethnic groups have different preferences,
for example the Mofu-Gudur in Cameroun eat a
number of grasshopper species (Acorypha picta, A.
glaucopsis, Acrida bicolor, Oedaleus senegalensis,
Pyrgomorpha cognata, Truxalis johnstoni), which are
not eaten by the Haussa in Niger, and vice versa
(Humbe tenuicornis).
There are also prohibitions to eat insects, for
example the Pygmies eat the larvae and the
nymphs of the Goliath beetle, but not the adult
which is considered sacred and used in fetishes
(Bergier, 1941: p. 60). Members of termite clans in
Malawi, Tanzania, Mozambique, Zambia and
Zimbabwe have certain termite species as totems,
and members are forbidden to eat winged termites
(Silow, 1983: p. 115). The Logo-Avokaya in north-
central Africa have rules determining the
consumption of termites, which take into account
the state of being married or pregnant, as well as
the swarming behaviour of the termites
(Costermans, 1955). Members of the Ire clan of the
Yoruba tribe in Nigeria (predominantly

176 A. VAN HUIS
blacksmiths) do not eat crickets, because the
worshipped Iron God Ogun does not accept
animals that have no blood (Fasoranti and
Ajiboye, 1993). Any woman of the grasshopper
clan of the Baganda in Uganda may catch and cook
the edible grasshopper R. differens for her
husband, though she is not allowed to eat any
herself (Roscoe, 1965). The Bahaya in Tanzania
also seem to have a number of rules related to the
eating of this particular insect (Mors, 1958).
Pagezy (1975) mentions for the Oto and Twa in
the D.R. Congo quite a number of prohibitory
rules relating to eating beetle larvae, termites and
caterpillars depending on the person’s sex, age,
physiological status (e.g. pregnancy), and/or
being a twin.
COLLECTION AND CAPTURE
OF EDIBLE INSECTS
The ways in which insects are caught have to do
with their behaviour (e.g. resting places, response
to light), which is often influenced by
environmental factors such as temperature. They
can be collected by using tools, such as traps, sticks
with glue, nets, bow and arrow, or by hand. Their
location can sometimes be detected by the sound
they make.
Use of glue
For some insects found in trees or in bushes, glue
which is smeared on the tip of a branch, twig, stick
or stem may be used. The Mofu-Gudur in
northern Cameroun use as glue the sap from
Diospyros mespiliformis or from the mistletoe
(Barreteau, 1999). The Gbaya in the Central
African Republic use a stick from Lantana
rhodesianus or grass stems of Andropogon gayanus
with glue at the end, to collect edible flower beetles
(Cetoniinae), cicadas and grasshoppers (Roulon-
Doko, 1998). In southern Africa children trap
cicadas by climbing trees or by using long poles,
the ends of which have been dipped in glue
(Malaisse, 1997) fabricated from certain plant galls
and tree resins. Pemberton (1995) mentions this
method, using latex from a jackfruit tree
(Artocarpus spp.) for catching edible dragonflies
in Bali, Indonesia. In northern Cameroun, children
insert a stick with glue at one end to catch crickets
in their holes (Seignobos et al., 1996).
Capturing devices
To capture insects on the soil the San women in
the Central Kalahari use small brooms, and beetles
are trapped using nets attached to the ends of
millet stems (Nonaka, 1996). In Maghreb countries
locusts have been collected with the aid of an
eight-by-four-metre cloth into which they are
driven (Bergier, 1941). The appearance of the East
African Lake fly Chaoborus edulis producing the
‘Kungu’ cake (already mentioned by Livingstone;
see also Cotterril, 1968, p. 415–418), drifting in
masses over the lake, is according to lunar cycles
(Owen, 1973; MacDonald, 1956). Clouds of these
flies move to the lakesides, where they are
collected in whirling baskets attached to long
handles (Armitage et al., 1995; Harris, 1940; Owen,
1973, p. 135). Bouvier (1945) mentions from the
D.R. Congo that grasshoppers are caught using a
bow and arrow, the latter made from bamboo with
divergent points. Some crickets are caught in traps
baited with certain fruits (Seignobos et al., 1996).
Capturing early in the morning
The San women in the Central Kalahari collect the
grasshoppers Cyrtacanthacris tatarica and
Lamarckiana cucullata by hand in the morning and
the evening from trees and huts (Nonaka, 1996).
To collect locust and grasshoppers, Gbaya women
in the Central African Republic, very early in the
morning use brooms made from leaves or
branches to sweep the savanna vegetation which
has been cut the day before, in order to catch the
jumping insects (Roulon-Doko, 1998). At this time
of day the insects are easy to catch because of their
low body temperature. In Madagascar there is a
proverb “how can you capture ovipositing
grasshoppers and have a late morning at the same
time?”. It indicates that you can only catch the very
much appreciated gravid female grasshoppers
very early in the morning (Houlder, 1960). In
Tanzania, in addition to collecting the edible
grasshopper R. differens early in the morning,
people lit fires so the smoke keeps down the flyers
(Mors, 1958).
Use of light
The tettigoniid R. differens is eaten as a delicacy in
the whole of central, eastern and southern Africa.
There are two ways of collecting them (Harris,
1940): (1) small boys herding cattle, catch them
and impale them on skewers, usually grass stems;

Insects as food in Africa 177
(2) during their mass flight in November, large
numbers of people can be seen in the cities
collecting these insects from electric street lights
(Owen, 1973: p. 132).
Use of sound
People in the D.R. Congo have a peculiar way of
finding out the appropriate moment to harvest
edible larvae of weevil, longhorn and scarab
beetles, which occur in standing or rotting Elaeis,
Raphia, Chamaerops and Cocos nucifera palm trees
(Ghesquière, 1947). They do this by listening to
the sound made by the nibbling beetle by putting
their ears against the palm tree. In Cameroun my
informants indicated that they used this method
in order to harvest the right instar of
Rhynchophorus larvae from the palm tree. From the
Central African Republic, Roulon-Doko (1998)
also mentions that women listen at the trunk of
the tree in order to collect beetle larvae. Adriaens
(1951) mentioned from the D.R. Congo that
children at darkness locate the cricket Brachytrupes
membranaceus by its sound. Then they either
dazzle the insect with a straw torch and/or block
the nearby hole with a hoe or knife after which
they capture the insect. During the day crickets
can be dug out from their holes.
Collecting at resting places
The pentatomid Agonoscelis versicolor, a pest of
sorghum in Sudan, is collected during the dry
season, when they amass in mountain cracks
(Delmet, 1975). Seignobos et al. (1996) also
mention such a heteropterous insect in North
Cameroun. An edible oil is extracted from the
insects which can also be used for cooking and as
a dermatological product for horses and sheep.
Another heteropterous insect, Natalicola
delegorguei, eaten in South Africa and Zimbabwe,
congregates in large numbers at the end of the
rainy season (Bodenheimer, 1951).
Collecting beetle larvae
To collect some cerambycids, the Gbaya in the
Central African Republic cut several Burkea
africana trees around the village. A few days later
the cerambycids arrive to attack the tree, and a
waiting person near the trunk is then able to
collect them (Roulon-Doko, 1998). The same tribe
earlier collected the dung beetles by searching in
the excrements of buffaloes. However, in the
seventies the buffaloes were replaced by cattle,
and the method can no longer be used.
Collecting caterpillars
Tango Muyay (1981) mentioned from the D.R.
Congo that when somebody finds a tree with
edible caterpillars ready to be harvested in the
forest, this person automatically becomes the
owner. Women climb the trees to collect them
(Roulon-Doko, 1998; Tango Muyay, 1981).
Sometimes branches or even whole trees are cut
in order to facilitate collecting. However, this
practice is now often prohibited by law (Tango
Muyay, 1981). It is also possible to make a fire
below the tree. By adding green leaves there will
be so much smoke that the caterpillars drop to
the soil. Some of the caterpillars are collected when
they come down from the trees in order to pupate
in the soil, and at that moment they do not have
any excrements in their body.
For the Gbaya in the Central African Republic,
Roulon-Doko (1998) mentions 59 different
caterpillar species that are eaten. Twenty-five
species live isolated (not more than 4 per plant)
and those are not systematically collected. About
16 species are found in densities of up to 30 per
plant, and 14 species are found in even greater
numbers per plant. The local names given to these
caterpillars often refer to the plant they are found
on. They are mainly harvested during the first
months of the dry season or in the middle of the
rainy season.
When a nest of caterpillars is found, it can also
be transferred to certain host trees nearer home
where they can further develop (Adriaens, 1951;
Chavanduka, 1976).
Collecting termites
Winged termites are collected in various ways. In
urban areas, they are attracted to electric light and
are trapped in a receptacle with water which is
placed under or near the light source. In rural
areas, they are often caught at the termite mound
itself. When emerging they are attracted by the
light of a grass torch and then swept with a broom
into a dug-out hole. In parts of the DRC a basket
is put upside down over an emergence hole and
the termites which cling to the bottom of the
basket are then detached every few minutes by
shaking the basket (Bergier, 1941: p. 56). Another
method is to build a dome-shaped framework of
sticks or elephant grass covered with banana,

178 A. VAN HUIS
Maranta leaves or a blanket to cover part of the
emergence holes (Bergier, 1941: p. 54; Osmaston,
1951; Roulon-Doko, 1998: pp. 269–270). Other
emergence holes outside the structure are closed,
forcing the termites to emerge from the holes
within the tent structure. The tent structure has
an opening at one side to which the flying termites
are attracted by light (from the sun, moon, torch
or fire) and near this opening there is a receptacle
into which they are collected (Bergier, 1941: p. 50;
Harris, 1940; Ogutu, 1986). Osmaston (1951)
mentions from Uganda a complicated structure
of clay pipes constructed over the emergence holes
which leads them to the receptacle. Ogutu (1986),
Owen (1973, p. 131), Roulon-Doko (1998, p. 268)
and several of my informants reported that
continuous beating and drumming on the ground
around the hill triggers certain termite species to
emerge.
Soldiers from the larger termite species are also
eaten (D.R. Congo: Bequaert, 1921; Bergier, 1941:
p. 54; Owen, 1973, p. 131. Central African
Republic: Roulon-Doko, 1998, pp. 260–263.
Zimbabwe: Chavanduka, 1976). To extract them
from the mounds, women or children lower saliva
wetted grass blades (Uganda), often of Imperata
cylindrica (Roulon-Doko, 1998: p. 261), or parts of
tree pods or barks (Takeda, 1990) into the shafts
of termite mounds opened by machete. The
Ngandu from the D.R. Congo also blow smoke
from charcoal from certain trees into the opening
(Takeda, 1990). In defence, the soldiers bite into
the grass blades, which are then pulled out and
the soldiers stripped into a container. The inside
of the basket may be lined with the slippery leaves
from the Sarcophrynium shweinfurthianum tree to
prevent the termites from climbing out (Takeda,
1990).
As the nest of the harvester termite H.
mossambicus is undetectable, the San women in
Botswana dash out in the direction of the swarm,
to identify the site of the nest (Nonaka, 1996).
WHO COLLECTS EDIBLE INSECTS?
It depends often on how important the catch is,
whether the women, men or children that collect
the insects and whether it is done on an individual
or community basis. When the catch is
considerable the men also collect insects, such as
in the case of locusts, the edible grasshopper or
winged termites. Normally however, the women
are responsible for catching insects. When the
catch is very small (cicadas, termite soldiers, some
grasshopper species) or difficult (cicadas, crickets)
then it is only the children who do the collection.
For example, cicadas are difficult to catch as they
are attached to the bark, often high in the tree
(Bergier, 1941: p. 76). The same is true for hunting
crickets, which requires quite some patience and
skills for a small catch.
Roulon-Doko (1998) mentions 16 edible beetle
species whose larvae are collected by the Gbaya
in the Central African Republic. However, only
five are deliberately looked for by adults, another
five by children and the rest are collected when
accidentally found. Although 17 locust and
grasshopper species are eaten in this country, the
women actively search for only seven species. The
29 caterpillar species from the D.R. Congo are
normally collected by the women (Tango Muyay,
1981).
Female farmers in Niger recognised more
locusts and grasshopper species than men,
probably because they are responsible for the
capture and preparation of the insects (A. de
Groot, pers. commun.). The Azande and
Mangbetu in the Uele district in northwestern D.R.
Congo consider termite hills as private property
(Bequaert, 1921). Also in East Africa termite
mounds are often owned and protected by
individual families (Owen, 173: p. 131). The
reproductive form of the termites, whose
individuals emerge from the termite nest with the
first rains after the dry season, is collected by
everyone in the village. Chavanduka (1976) also
mentions that if a woman finds a tree with young
caterpillars, she ties a piece of bark around the
trunk of the tree to establish her right to harvest.
Termite soldiers can only be collected in small
quantities. Therefore, they are only collected by
women or children (Roulon-Doko, 1998: p. 261).
Unlike the winged reproductives, the soldiers can
be gathered any time during the year. Only small
quantities of the harvester termite, H. mossambicus,
can be collected. Therefore, the capture is often
carried out by children or young women (Roulon-
Doko, 1998).
PREPARATION, PRESERVATION
AND MARKETING
Because many insects are only seasonally
available, they are frequently conserved for later
consumption. This is often done by drying insects
in the sun, over ashes or in the oven. Preservation

Insects as food in Africa 179
with salt after boiling is also common. Some
insects are not prepared at all and are eaten alive.
For example, in most parts of Africa a small
quantity of termites is eaten alive as a relish during
collection. In South Africa, the heteropteran insect
N. delegorguei is also eaten alive. In discussing the
preparation, preservation and marketing of
insects, the insect groups will be treated in order
of importance.
Lepidoptera
There are several ways of getting the excrements
out of caterpillars. They can be squeezed or
purged out (Adriaens, 1951; Chavanduka, 1976),
kept alive without food for a number of days, or
washed in water (Tango Muyay, 1981). The
irritating hairs on the body of caterpillars are often
burned off, for example by the Azande (Bergier,
1941: p. 70). Caterpillars are often cooked in salted
water until all the water has evaporated (Tango
Muyay, 1981). They can also be smoked after being
boiled. To store them, or before taking them to the
market, they are then dried in the sun.
Large outbreaks of the hawk moth, Herse
convovuli on Ipomoea sp. occur in January/
February in the central Kalahari (Nonaka, 1996).
San women collect the caterpillars, squeeze out
the intestines and roast them in hot ash and sand.
After sun-drying they are stored in bags in the
hut and eaten for several months. They can also
be pounded into powder and mixed together with
stewed watermelon.
The Bambaras in Mali and Burkina Faso eat
the caterpillar Cirina forda which is a pest of the
karité tree, Butyrospermum parkii. Before being
fried in karité butter, the caterpillars are boiled in
water (Bergier, 1941: p. 66).
In Tanzania the caterpillars of the wild silk
moth Anaphe panda are sought and eaten (Harris,
1940). These caterpillars are gregarious and build
communal nests of strong yellow silk in the
branches of the trees on which they feed
(generally, if not exclusively, on Bridelia micrantha).
The caterpillars are cooked fresh, or dried and
powdered for storage.
In Madagascar, the chrysalids of a psychid and
several bombycid silk worms are killed in hot
water then eaten (Decary, 1937).
The Zulus and the Bushmen reportedly also
eat butterflies (Bergier, 1941: p. 72).
Orthoptera
Both the adult and hopper stages of all locust
species (the brown, desert, migratory and red
locust) are consumed when and wherever they
occur (Harris, 1940). Many univoltine adult
grasshopper species are also eaten, in particular
in the Sahel. The larger species, in particular the
females, are preferred (Barreteau, 1999). At the end
of the rainy season they contain a lot of fat and
the females hold many eggs. In the Sahelian region
the sale of harvested and marketed grasshoppers
and locusts may yield more revenue for farmers
than millet. This is one of the reasons that farmers
prefer not to treat their crops with pesticides. The
spiny legs and wings of hoppers are removed.
Some tribes also remove the head together with
the intestines, and sometimes only the thorax is
eaten (Sudan). The insects are cooked, fried or
roasted. The San women in the central Kalahari
roast them in hot ash and sand (Nonaka, 1996)
after picking off the heads and removing the
internal organs, which are considered to be
excrement. Flying locusts and grasshoppers (and
to a greater extent hoppers) are sun-dried before
storage, pounded in a mortar to powder, and eaten
with porridge.
The tettigoniid R. differens is considered a
delicacy in the whole of central, eastern and
southern Africa. In Uganda, the tettigoniid is
called ‘nsenene’ which is in Ganda the word for
the month of November during which the
grasshopper appears in large numbers. Butchery
owners and fishmongers are affected because few
customers go then for meat or fish (Mulissa, 1997).
Before frying them, the antenna, legs and wings
are removed.
The Naro in D’kar make grasshopper powder
by pounding them in a mortar, to mix it with
maize flour in porridge.
From the Cameroun there are records that
stinking blattid cockroaches are eaten (Bergier,
1941, p. 80). After removing the elythra they are
fried and mixed with a porridge of vegetables or
fruits.
Coleoptera
Larvae of the palm weevil Rynchophorus spp. (Col.:
Curculionidae) are eaten in Asia, Africa and the
Americas. The African species is R. phoenicis,
which is often grilled or fried in ashes. From other
beetles, such as flower beetles or cerambycids,
both the larvae and the adults are eaten, often

180 A. VAN HUIS
grilled. The elytra are removed from the adults.
Larvae can also be prepared by squashing them
in a mortar with different condiments, then
cooking them (Bergier, 1941: p. 61).
The San in the central Kalahari collect the
buprestid beetle Sternocera orissa in January during
outbreaks from the leaves of Acacia mellifera and
Kyllinga alba (Nonaka, 1996). The quarry is roasted
in hot ash and sand and then the hind wings are
removed. The heads are picked off if they are eaten
directly. It can also be pounded and mixed with
fruits or wild plants to form a paste. Especially
liked are females containing eggs.
Isoptera
Of termites, the queen, the soldiers and the
reproductive form are eaten. The most popular
are the sexual winged forms of the larger species
(Macrotermitinae) which emerge from holes at the
mound after the first rains, often during the night.
The termites are killed by boiling or roasting for a
few minutes the morning after the swarming, and
then they are sun-dried or smoke-dried, or both,
depending on the weather (Silow, 1983: p. 127).
Sometimes they are then crushed to a mush with
a pestle and motar and eaten with honey (Ogutu,
1986). Termites are fried in their own fat. This fat
can also be used to fry meat (Bequaert, 1921), as
by the Azande and pygmies in the D.R. Congo
(Bergier, 1941: p. 51). The pygmies also use the oil
to treat their body and hair. The oil is also obtained
by pressing dried termites in a tube (Costermans,
1955). Termites can also be steamed or smoked in
banana leaves (Uganda). In many East African
towns and villages, sun-dried termites can be
bought at the local market at the right season of
the year (Osmaston, 1951; Owen, 1973: p. 131).
Fried or dried termites contain 32–36% protein
(Nkouka, 1987; Tihon, 1946) and in most parts of
Africa they are considered a delicacy. The queen
in particular is considered an exquisite dish and
often reserved for special occasions (Owen, 1973,
p. 131). Queens are often fed to children (Uganda
and Zambia).
Of the harvester termite, H. mossambicus, the
San women in Botswana collect the winged
reproductives and roast them in hot ash and sand
(Nonaka, 1996). The workers and soldiers are not
collected as they taste bitter.
Soldiers from the larger termite species are
either fried or pounded into a cake. Sometimes
only the heads are eaten (Uganda).
Hymenoptera
In southern and East Africa the queens of the thief
ant, Carebara spp. are eaten. These ants live in the
earthen walls separating the roomy galleries and
chambers of termites. The worker ants are small
enough to slip unobtrusively in and out of the
termite nest chambers, feeding on the termites and
their larvae. The males and females are vastly
larger than the workers, the weight differential
being a factor 4000 (Wheeler, 1927; Hölldobler and
Wilson, 1990). These reproductive forms emerge
during their nuptial flight during the day. They
are caught in large numbers, their gasters torn off,
and eaten raw or fried with salt (Skaife, 1979).
Roulon-Doko (1998) mentions that the Gbaya
in the Central African Republic use ants as a spice.
The women pierce the nest in a tree after which
they are brushed into a receptacle. She also
indicates that children eat ant eggs. Of one species
they just collect and eat the raw eggs which are
brought outside the nest by the ants. From another
ant species they collect the stored eggs by digging
out the nest. These eggs are fried before being
eaten. In Cameroun several informants also
indicated that dug-out eggs are fried and eaten.
The San in the central Kalahari collect
Camponotus sp. by poking a nest with a digging
stick and tapping the ground by hand around the
nest (Nonaka, 1996). At home they pound wild
plants and when well pounded, the ants are mixed
in. This adds a sweet-sour flavour to the mixture
which enhances the taste of the plants.
To alleviate thirst the pygmies in the D.R.
Congo seek ant nests (probably an Oecophylla sp.)
in the trees, and the nymphs from the nest are
pressed in order to obtain a sweet-sour liquid
(Bergier, 1941, p. 66).
Nests of wild bees are exploited not just for
honey; bee larvae are also collected for food
(Owen, 1973: p. 135). In Tanzania, the larvae are
generally eaten raw in their combs (Harris, 1940).
They can also be shaken out and added with
honey to porridge. In the D.R. Congo, bee larvae
and pupae are preferably grilled (Bergier, 1941: p.
76).
As earlier reported by Decary (1937), larvae of
wasps were eaten in Madagascar. However, by
that time the custom was already disappearing.
Heteroptera
In Sudan, the local people roast the pentatomid
A. versicolor, which is a serious pest of rainfed

Insects as food in Africa 181
sorghum. Oil is also made from these insects for
use in food preparation and for treating the scab
disease in camels.
Diptera
Clouds of the aquatic fly Chaoborus edulis emerging
from the East African lakes are collected by
whirling baskets. They are ground and dried in
the sun and the resulting cake is an important
source of protein in Uganda and elsewhere in East
Africa.
Odonata
The larvae of several Odonata species are collected
from abandoned rice fields or in marshes in the
highlands of Madagascar (Decary, 1937). The
Pangwe in Cameroun also eat Odonata larvae for
their diuretic properties (Bergier, 1941, p. 76).
Other arthropods
In Madagascar two spider species are eaten, both
are fried in oil or fat (Decary, 1937). In the Central
African Republic ground-dwelling bird spiders
are eaten by children (Roulon-Doko, 1998).
Spiders were the only arthropods other than
insects encountered as food. Scorpions and
millipedes are taken orally but only as medicine.
MAINTAINING AND DEVELOPING THE
INSECT FOOD RESOURCE BASE
The development of rearing methods for edible
insects, rather than relying on natural harvesting,
would allow a continuous supply (Fasoranti and
Ajiboye, 1993). Is it possible to farm edible insects
and to treat them as mini-livestock (DeFoliart,
1995)? Cerda et al. (2001) gave suggestions of how
to rear the South American palm weevil
Rhynchophorus palmarum on other crops and even
on artificial diet. Munyuli Bin Mushambanyi
(2000) started to mass-rear A. panda in cages on
leaves of Bridelia micrantha, because of the
revenues realisable from the sale of edible insects.
For instance, in the D.R. Congo edible insects are
more expensive than other kinds of protein (fish
and beef). On the Bukavu market, 100 caterpillars
weighing 0.25 kg fetched 3 US$ in March 1999,
the same as 1 kg of beef. In the A. panda mass
rearing, twelve pairs of adult butterflies could
produce 9.3 kg of caterpillars. The life cycle is
about 140 days, making possible at least two
generations a year; in nature there is only one
generation a year. The last larval stage is about 5
cm long. The mean weight gain in 49 days of
caterpillar’s feeding is 2.7 g for a 400 g of total
food consumed. To exploit such resources, agro-
zoological techniques have to be developed
concentrating on issues like food regimes,
pathology, parasitism, bio-ecology and
reproduction.
Several lepidopteran species cannot only be
utilised as a food resource but also for silkworm
production. These include such representatives of
the genera Borocera, Gonometa, Mimopacha,
Pachypasa (Lasiocampidae), Anaphe (Notodontidae)
and Goodia (Saturniidae). The International Centre
of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) in
Nairobi has explored the possibilities of increasing
the survival of these silkworms, and protective
measures include the use of fine net sleeves which
reduce the high natural mortality rate (about 80%)
of Gonometa sp. by about 60 percent (ICIPE, 1998).
Another silkworm, A. panda, also has potential for
silk production and as human consumption; its
huge silk nests are commonly woven by 20–105
silkworms. The host tree Bridelia micrantha is
widely distributed in Kenya, Tanzania and
Uganda (ICIPE, 1998).
The supply of edible insects is dependent on
the season. However, the abundance of insects
may vary widely from year to year, as a result of
overexploitation (Ferreira, 1995) or other factors.
This variation was mentioned as one of the
problems with setting up a canning factory for the
mopane worm in South Africa (Oberprieler, 1995).
The abundance/scarcity of certain edible arboreal
caterpillars was also investigated in the Kwango
region of the D.R. Congo by Leleup and Daems
(1969). They mentioned as reasons for the
fluctuations in caterpillar abundance the effect of
parasitoids and the timing of bush fires. The latter
factor had a great influence on the life cycle of the
insect, either by destroying the insects or by
disrupting the coincidence of the appearance of
the larvae and the right stage of tree foliage. They
mentioned that before 1938 it was prohibited to
cut trees for the purpose of harvesting Cirina forda
caterpillars from the upper parts of the trees.
Besides, there was a strict regulation that the bush
fires were only allowed in June. These practices
vanished with the gradual loss of authority by the
traditional chiefs in favour of colonial

182 A. VAN HUIS
administration. In addition to the above measures,
Leleup and Daems (1969) also proposed to
inoculate trees with C. forda eggs after the bush
fires.
Most of the caterpillar species live on trees. In
Africa, there are 42 trees species with edible
caterpillars (Turk, 1990). The author has suggested
a number of ways to manage forests to protect the
caterpillars. The demand for land in the face of
growing human population and wood
exploitation have degraded forests to Savanna,
which is accompanied by a loss in edible
caterpillar species. Forests have also been
mismanaged by overexploitation, as caterpillars
are an important source of food and income
(Ferreira, 1995). In Malawi, farmers adjacent to
Kasungu National Park, have now been allowed
to harvest at certain times in the Park to diversify
their income base and to win their support for
wildlife conservation programmes (Munthali and
Mughogho, 1992). By allowing rural people to use
the parks and reserves sustainably, the
preservation of the country’s biodiversity is
enhanced. A management programme involved
the adoption of a rotation burning policy that
promotes vegetation coppicing, eases harvesting
and promotes high caterpillar yields. Mbata et al.
(2002) mentioned that in Zambia two popular
commercial caterpillar species, Gynanisa maia and
Gonimbrasia zambesina, are traditionally harvested.
This involves: (i) monitoring 20 tree species for
caterpillar development and abundance and for
changes in caterpillar habitats; (ii) protection of
host plants and moth eggs against late bush fires
through the use of a special fire technology; and
(iii) temporal restriction of edible caterpillar
harvesting.
In recent years a number of insect cookbooks
have been published (Gordon, 1998; Ramos-
Elorduy, 1998; Taylor and Carter, 1996; Thémis,
1997). African insect recipes are found in Grimaldi
and Bikia (1985).
The use of traditional food is sustainable and
has economic, nutritional and ecological benefits
for rural communities in sub-Saharan Africa.
Future studies should focus on sustainable ways
of harvesting wild populations, the use of
improved conservation practices, the
enhancement of cottage industries for farming
insects and the development of economically
feasible ways of mass-rearing edible species.
Acknowledgements—The Wageningen University
in the Netherlands provided the funds for the
author to travel to a number of African countries
and several European libraries in 1995 and 2000.
Yde Jongema of our Laboratory spent a lot of effort
in checking the correct scientific names of the
arthropods mentioned in Table 1. His assistance
is very much appreciated. The list of persons in
Africa, who provided me with assistance and/or
information is too large to be mentioned here, but
their cooperation is acknowledged. For the critical
reading of the manuscript I would like to thank
Kees Eveleens and Frans Meerman.
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