Analysis of Construction Workers’ Health and Safety in Cold Weather Conditions

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Analysis of Construction Workers’Health and Safety in Cold
Weather Conditions
Sanjgna Karthick
1
; Sharareh Kermanshachi, Ph.D., P.E., F.ASCE
2
;
Apurva Pamidimukkala, S.M.ASCE
3
; and Mostafa Namian, Ph.D., M.ASCE
4
Abstract: Extreme cold weather conditions affect construction workers’health and safety performance. Hence, the goal of this article is to
identify and analyze these challenges so that effective measures can be developed and implemented to mitigate or eliminate them. To this end,
a questionnaire was created and circulated through the online platform QuestionPro. The Kruskal–Walli’s test was used to examine the phys-
ical and mental health issues identified by the 111 responders, and quantitative analysis was performed by using physiological indicators such
as heart rate and personal indicators, including degree of comfort and acclimation. The results showed that physical obstacles such as hypo-
thermia and respiratory issues were perceived differently based on heart rate and garment comfort; and mental issues, such as poor concen-
tration and frequent mood swings, varied with the workers’heart rate and level of acclimatization. Some of the strategies developed for
protecting the workers are ensuring that they wear sufficient layers of clothing and heated gloves and have access to technologies such as
infrared heaters. Existing practices and legislation that control construction “workers”safety in extreme cold weather conditions are also ad-
dressed. The findings of this article will help construction industry professionals effectively manage projects while ensuring their workers’
safety in harsh cold weather conditions. DOI: 10.1061/JCRGEI.CRENG-687.© 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Worker safety; Worker health; Health challenges; Cold weather; Extreme weather.
Introduction
The effects of cold weather on human physiology are more indirect
(Bonafede et al. 2016) and occur slowly, over a period of time, and
consequential mortalities are more gradual (Allen and Sheridan
2018;Sugg et al. 2019;Karthick et al. 2021). Due to this, there
are only very limited studies focusing on the effects of cold on
human health compared with studies on hot weather health effects.
The health challenges experienced by those who work outdoors in
extreme cold need to be explored so that measures can be taken to
protect their health and reduce the number and severity of work-
place accidents (Kiefer et al. 2016).
In cold weather conditions, workers are vulnerable to physical
problems such as cold stress, frostbite, hypothermia, cardiac strain,
physical fatigue, and changes in the rate of respiration (Angelova
2017). They are also at risk for reduced cognitive function, mental
fatigue, and lowered concentration levels, which increase the num-
ber of accidents that occur and compromise workplace safety
(Kiefer et al. 2016). Engineering challenges may arise due to
cold working conditions, necessitating increased effort in design
and construction, heightened maintenance requirements, and
improved visibility for equipment operators (Giudici et al. 2020;
Claros et al. 2021;Ameen et al. 2022). Some of the operations dur-
ing winter require workers to perform labor-intensive tasks, includ-
ing clearing sites (Perkins and Bennett 2018), excavating (Colgan
and Arenson 2013), operating equipment with a vibration mecha-
nism, and developing sites (Perkins and Bennett 2018), which
involve health risks. Complicating this problem is the nonunifor-
mity of cold exposure, because some individuals are more vulner-
able to the cold than others. Several studies have explored the
populations who are at higher risk of health problems when ex-
posed to extreme heat, but only a few have focused on those ex-
posed to extreme cold and cold weather injuries or on developing
regulations and standards for outdoor workers in cold weather con-
ditions (Haman et al. 2022;Karthick et al. 2022b).
The influence of extreme weather on human health can be mon-
itored by using physiological parameters (such as body tempera-
ture, breathing rate, blood pressure, etc.) and environmental
indices. Physical signs such as increased heart rate, blood pressure
levels, and oxygen intake, as well as personal indicators such as
type of garments worn, age, drinking habits, and level of acclima-
tization, all influence the physiological responses generated during
extreme weather conditions (Pilch et al. 2014;Austad et al. 2018;
Pamidimukkala and Kermanshachi 2023). The environmental fac-
tors of humidity, temperature, wind speed, pollution, and radiation
are also important environmental indices. Despite an increase in
workplace accidents, still few general regulatory measures are in
place to safeguard workers against climate-related hazards (Kiefer
et al. 2016). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to (1) identify
the physical and mental obstacles that construction workers en-
counter as a result of working in extremely cold weather, (2) ana-
lyze the health issues of those who work in cold weather based on
workers’heart rate, and (3) analyze the health issues faced by
workers based on personal variables such as personal protective
clothing comfort and “workers”acclimation to cold weather condi-
tions. In order to evaluate and assess the issues faced by
1
Ph.D. Student, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Texas at Arlington,
Arlington, TX 76019. Email: sanjgna.karthick@mavs.uta.edu
2
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Texas at
Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019 (corresponding author). Email: sharareh
.kermanshachi@uta.edu
3
Ph.D. Student, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Texas at Arlington,
Arlington, TX 76019. Email: apurva.pamidimukkala@mavs.uta.edu
4
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Construction Management, East Carolina
Univ., Greenville, SC 27858. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1375
-8761. Email: namianm19@ecu.edu
Note. This manuscript was submitted on June 29, 2022; approved on
May 17, 2023; published online on November 2, 2023. Discussion period
open until April 2, 2024; separate discussions must be submitted for indi-
vidual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Cold Regions Engineer-
ing, © ASCE, ISSN 0887-381X.
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construction employees in cold weather, a self-administered survey
was created and distributed. The results of the survey and findings
of this study will help legislators and construction industry profes-
sionals establish precise rules and regulations that will protect their
workers from hazards stemming from exposure to extreme cold
weather conditions.
Literature Review
Thermoregulation in Cold Temperatures
When exposed to extremely cold weather, the human body at-
tempts to maintain its core temperature by preventing heat loss
(DeGroot and Kenney 2007), because cold stress is a result of fail-
ing to do so (Rodahl 2003). The body’s optimal temperature is
around 98°F or 37°C, also known as the core body temperature
(CBT), as measured by a rectal thermometer, and deviations may
cause discomfort as well as other physiological effects, including
cold stress (Osilla et al. 2018). When the mechanism of thermoreg-
ulation fails, the CBT becomes lower, resulting in various direct
and indirect changes in the body. The direct effects of reduced
CBT are hypothermia, shallow breathing (known as hypoventila-
tion), and impaired functioning of the heart and brain. The indirect
effects of a lowered CBT are pneumonia, frostbite, influenza, and
shivering (Conlon et al. 2011;Gronlund et al. 2018).
In the initial stages of exposure to cold weather, when the body
is trying to sustain heat, extremities begin to cool down by allowing
vasoconstriction of skin. During this process, oxygenated blood is
pumped to core organs to sustain their functionality, but if there is
continued heat loss, the body exhibits symptoms such as shivering,
difficulty in breathing, and rapid heart rate. It is important that those
experiencing these symptoms be immediately removed from the
harsh temperatures so that they do not experience more severe con-
ditions such as impaired brain function and/or stroke (Analitis et al.
2008;Launay and Savourey 2009;Conlon et al. 2011). The body’s
reactions to extreme cold exposure are briefly summarized in
Fig. 1.
Health Challenges in Cold Weather
According to international standards, workplaces with tempera-
tures below 10°C are considered cold (Ikäheimo and Hassi 2011;
Karthick et al. 2022c), and those who work in those conditions
without appropriate protective gear are at risk of experiencing frost-
bite, numbness of exposed body parts, necrosis, and trench foot or
immersion foot (Golant et al. 2008;Imray et al. 2011;Angelova
2017;Rakhmanov et al. 2018). They may also experience skin
problems such as dry and irritated skin (Rodahl 2003), respiratory
issues in both the upper and the lower respiratory tracts (Rodahl
2003;Harju et al. 2010;Hyrkäs-Palmu et al. 2018;Sugg et al.
2019), hypothermia, constricted blood vessels (Rodahl 2003;
Castellani et al. 2010;Budhathoki and Zander 2019), cardiovascu-
lar diseases such as myocardial infarction, abdominal distress
(Ikäheimo and Hassi 2009;Urban et al. 2014;Farbu et al. 2021),
and musculoskeletal disorders that range from wrist pain and/or
shoulder pain to complete body pain (Borstad et al. 2009;Burstrom
et al. 2013;Farbu et al. 2019;Renberg et al. 2020). Inappropriate
and tight-fitting personal protective clothing can also induce a hob-
bling effect in workers, which can reduce their dexterity in handling
tools (Cheung 2015;Ray et al. 2018). Where slippery surfaces
exist, an increase in slips and falls is likely to be experienced
(Bonafede et al. 2016).
Workers who are exposed to cold weather can experience psy-
chological distress, disorientation, aggressiveness, and hallucina-
tions (Tiwary and Gangopadhyay 2011) as well as reduced
coordination between their mental and muscular functions (Rodahl
2003), all of which contribute to less productivity and impaired
safety performance (Tiwary and Gangopadhyay 2011).
Population Vulnerable to Cold Weather Conditions
The rising number of cold weather mortalities in countries such as
the United States, Korea, Brazil, Canada, Norway, Sweden, Den-
mark, Greenland, Russia, and some parts of India and China em-
phasizes the importance of addressing cold weather health issues
and developing stringent cold weather policies (Conlon et al.
2011). Individuals’sociodemographic characteristics determine
the extent to which their health is impacted by cold weather,
which means that some are more susceptible than others to the ef-
fects of cold weather exposure. It is, therefore, important to identify
these characteristics so that effective welfare policies can be intro-
duced (Conlon et al. 2011;Haman et al. 2022) and workplace inju-
ries and accidents can be prevented. One of the more vulnerable
groups is elderly people (above 65 years of age), with older females
being more likely to die from exposure to cold weather than their
male counterparts (Conlon et al. 2011;Zeka et al. 2014). This
may be attributed to an aging and compromised thermoregulatory
mechanism (Conlon et al. 2011;Kingma et al. 2011;Karthick
et al. 2022a). Gradually acclimating to the cold temperatures is
an effective process that can be undertaken to reduce weather-
related health problems, and without it, those from countries that
have extreme heat, such as individuals of African descent, could
be more vulnerable to cold-related injuries (DeGroot et al. 2003;
Burgess and Macfarlane 2009;Maley et al. 2014).
Regulations and Recommendations to Protect Workers
in Cold Environments
According to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), employers need to make their employees aware of the con-
sequences of working in cold weather and train them to identify and
recognize the warning signs of problems. Workers should also be fa-
miliar with first aid measures, the effectiveness of personal protec-
tive equipment (PPE), engineering controls, and safe work
practices that can reduce the risks of cold stress. Employers should
install a sufficient number of radiant heaters and shield work areas
from wind to reduce the wind chill factor. Wearing appropriate
clothing can help retain heat in cold weather (Farbu et al. 2019),
thereby reducing the risk of cold stress that could result in serious
health problems or even death.
Despite the severity of cold stress, the United States lacks spe-
cific standards for working in a cold environment; a general clause
states that employers are responsible for providing a safe work-
place, free of hazards, including cold stress (Brown 2019). Other
countries such as Finland, have more specific legislations and reg-
ulations in place that control the required number of layers of cold-
weather clothing, for which the employer pays, and temperatures at
Fig. 1. Concise representation of internal reactions and responses in
cold temperatures.
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which construction work is halted (Mäkinen et al. 2006a;Mäkinen
2009). In Europe, standards covering PPE to protect workers from
cold are highlighted specifically under a “Directive on Personal
Protective Equipment”(Mäkinen 2009). There is a pressing need
to introduce stringent standards, policies, and regulations that can
protect workers in the United States from cold weather hazards
in the workplace.
Cold Stress Assessment Methods
Cold stress occurs when an individual’s thermoregulatory function
fails in cold weather. Given the uncontrollable nature of environ-
mental factors, it becomes necessary to engage in behavioral ac-
tions. Environmental factors such as wind, ice, snow, and cold
air may further aggravate the situation by causing the workers
mental stress that often results in a higher rate of accidents
(Baumgartner et al. 2008;Holmér 2009), emphasizing the need
for international standards and risk management programs for
those who labor in cold temperatures. One of the methods of
cold stress assessment follows these three stages: (1) observation,
(2) specialist, and (3) expert. In the observation stage, the work
site is assessed by using a checklist that may include factors such
as whether the workers’hands and feet are protected and whether
they are in direct contact with any cold surfaces. The observed fac-
tors are then graded, based on the level of risk (i.e., no problem,
slight problem, or severe problem). In the specialist stage, an ergon-
omist or occupational hygienist is called in to make more reliable
evaluation and assessments, which may include physiological mea-
surements and a heat balance analysis. Physiological measurements
include heart rate and oxygen consumption, which can be observed
by adopting wearable sensors (Gatti et al. 2014;Aryal et al. 2017)
that can serve as an early warning system. In the expert stage, an
expert is called in to set up a risk assessment program that includes
a medical examination so that increased protective measures can be
provided for workers with pre-existing medical conditions (Holmér
2009).
Research Methodology
The research methodology for this paper was accomplished in four
phases. A detailed literature analysis was conducted in the first
phase to better understand the issues faced by construction workers
working in extremely cold weather. Then, the obstacles potentially
encountered by outdoor workers in extremely cold weather were
determined and divided into two broad categories: physical and
mental challenges. In the second phase, the highlighted issues
were incorporated into an online survey that was used to validate
and identify more probable challenges faced by the working popu-
lation in cold weather. The survey involved human subjects and the
questionnaire was evaluated (and approved) by the university’s In-
stitutional Review Board (IRB). The survey was pilot-tested and
participants used online survey via a web-based software. A total
of 111 responses were received from the survey distribution,
which was sent to approximately 500 people whose contact infor-
mation was collected through the construction companies’websites
as a random sample, and the responses were ranked on a seven-
point Likert scale. In phase three, the data gathered from the survey
were analyzed descriptively and quantitively. The descriptive data
analysis was performed by assessing the data based on the “partic-
ipants”demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, ethnicity,
job experience, and the type of construction sector. Acclimatiza-
tion, clothing comfort, and heart rate were considered by using
the Kruskal–Wallis test, which was used to perform a quantitative
analysis of the most important health challenges faced by workers
in cold weather conditions. The outcomes of the data analysis were
concluded and discussed in phase four of the study. Fig. 2repre-
sents the research methodology.
In this study, the challenges faced by the workers were tested
based on two categories: physiological (heart rate and blood pres-
sure) and personal indicators (clothing comfort and level of accli-
matization) using the Kruskal–Wallis test. The hypothesis used
for the study is shown in Table 1.
Kruskal–Wallis Test
As the survey results were based on the seven-point Likert scale,
the Kruskal–Wallis test was used to evaluate them. The
Kruskal–Wallis test is a nonparametric test that evaluates the differ-
ences between the medians of multiple groups that do not have a
normal distribution. The statistic for the Kruskal–Wallis test is pro-
vided in Eq. (1) as follows:
H=12
n(n+1) 
k
i=1
r2
i
ni
−3(n+1) (1)
Fig. 2. Research methodology.
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In the aforementioned Kruskal–Wallis equation, n=total num-
ber of observations; K=number of groups; r=rank of each group;
and n
i
=number of observations in a group (Montgomery and
Runger 2003).
Data Collection
Survey Development
The survey was comprised of 25 questions that were divided into
several areas pertaining to demographics, behavior, and recognizing
physical and mental issues associated with cold weather. The work-
er’s age, level of education, industry experience, specialization, and
pre-existing medical issues were identified by the responses to the
demographic questions. Their drinking habits, smoking habits,
and awareness of extreme weather-related concerns were identified
by the responses to the behavioral questions. A majority of the ques-
tions required seven-point Likert-scale answers; only a handful gave
binary options (yes or no). The survey was created on Questionpro,
an online tool designed for creating, developing, and distributing
surveys, and was distributed throughout the United States. Partici-
pants, who were required to be over the age of 18 and work in a
construction-related field, were selected from the websites of the or-
ganization that employed them and were contacted via email. They
were not compensated for their participation.
Descriptive Data Analysis
The survey’s 111 responses were descriptively examined to learn
more about the “respondents”demographic profiles and revealed
that approximately 86% of the participants were males; 39% were
over the age of 50, 12% were between the ages of 30 and 40, and
29% were between the ages of 21 and 30. The ethnicity of the sub-
jects was 63% Caucasian, 30% Asian, and 4% Hispanics, approxi-
mately 45% of whom worked in the commercial sector, 25% in
infrastructure, and 9% in heavy construction and residential build-
ing, respectively. The duties of the participants ranged from man-
agement (construction project manager, project engineer, etc.) to
specialized employment (masonry foreman, roofing specialist, iron-
worker, concrete layer, plumber, etc.) About 24% of the respondents
had worked more than 30 years of experience in the construction
sector, while 23% had less than 5 years of experience. Fig. 3illus-
trates the demographic information of the survey participants.
Quantitative Data Analysis
Results and Discussion
Identifying Significant Challenges in Cold Weather Based on
Workers’Acclimatization
The Kruskal–Wallis test was used to statistically analyze the re-
sponses, as the majority of the questions were based on the seven-
Table 1. Research hypothesis
Number Null hypothesis (H
o
) Alternate hypothesis (H
a
)
1 Health challenges caused by working in extreme cold weather conditions
do not vary based on workers’acclimatization.
Health challenges caused by working in extreme cold weather
conditions vary based on workers’acclimatization.
2 Health challenges caused by working in extreme cold weather conditions
do not vary based on workers’heart rate.
Health challenges caused by working in extreme cold weather
conditions vary based on workers’heart rate.
3 Health challenges caused by working in extreme cold weather conditions
do not vary based on discomfort due to protective clothing.
Health challenges caused by working in extreme cold weather
conditions vary based on discomfort due to protective clothing.
Fig. 3. Demographic information of survey respondents.
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point Likert scale. The p-values for the cold weather conditions,
based on the workers’acclimatization characteristics, are given in
Table 2.
Of the 13 physical health challenges listed in Table 2, 6 of them
can be attributed to inadequate acclimatization to cold weather: hy-
pothermia, frostbite, trench foot, inability to work due to freezing of
exposed body parts, wrist pain, and abdominal distress. Gradual ex-
posure to cold weather for short durations allows the body to gen-
erate more heat and delays or eliminates the onset of shivering and
other cold-related symptoms. When the core body temperature falls
below the optimal thermos-regulatory range, mechanisms such as
vasoconstriction and shivering occur and can lead to hypothermia
(Weant et al. 2010), but workers who have been acclimated to
cold weather generate more metabolic heat and can often avoid
the cold weather challenges, possibly because of more efficient
thermal insulation of the skin and reduced vasoconstriction
(Castellani and Young 2016). Acclimatization also helps improve
localized sensitivity, i.e., in fingers, wrists, and other extremities
exposed to the cold, and acclimatized workers are less prone to ex-
periencing more serious forms of trench foot, which may be due to
their increased cold-induced vasodilation (O’Brien and Frykman
2003).
Some construction workers experience abdominal issues that
can be related to gastrointestinal issues or kidney or bladder infec-
tions (Deacon 2003). Cold temperatures intensify the risk of gastric
issues (Morral-Puigmal et al. 2018), but acclimatization reduces the
impact by improving tolerance. Abdominal pain that is caused by
kidney or bladder issues is often due to a lack of sufficient sanitary
facilities on construction sites (Kulkarni 2007;Loganathan and
Kalidindi 2016), which is a global problem, and cold weather con-
ditions make it even more challenging (Leblanc et al. 2019). Three
of the five mental challenges perceived to be significant in cold
weather conditions—inability to concentrate, mental stress, and
frequent mood fluctuations—are influenced by acclimatization lev-
els, and their p-values are represented in Table 3.
As confirmed by previous studies (Rintamäki 2001;Mäkinen
et al. 2006b), workers’mental health seems to improve after they
become accustomed to cold weather conditions, as is evidenced
by their ability to concentrate, control their temper, and self-pace,
while experiencing fewer mood swings. Slips and falls on construc-
tion sites seem to occur irrespective of workers’acclimatization. In
summary, acclimating to cold working conditions has an impact on
workers’physiological and mental challenges and needs to be em-
phasized prior to new employees beginning work. Laws that man-
date that workers be paid and acclimatized need to be enforced in
the workplace so that workers are protected from severe health-
related hazards.
Identifying Significant Challenges in Cold Weather Based
on Workers’Heart Rate
The heart rate of an individual is a significant physiological param-
eter that serves as an indicator of cold stress. Table 4presents the
outcomes of the analysis of survey responses, which focused on
the workers’perception of the significance of heart rate during
physical exertion in extreme cold weather conditions, and the con-
sequential physical challenges. The statistical significance of the re-
sults was determined by the p-value.
In cold weather conditions, 10 of the 13 physical challenges
were found to vary among worker groups based on heart rate:
Table 2. p-Values for testing the significance of physical challenges based
on workers’acclimatization
Category # Factors/challenges
p-Values based
on workers’
acclimatization
Physical challenges
in cold weather
conditions (PCW)
PCW1 Inflammation 0.204
PCW2 Frequent slips and
falls
0.731
PCW3 Hypothermia 0.003
a
PCW4 Frostbite <0.001
a
PCW5 Trench foot 0.006
a
PCW6 Skin problems 0.854
PCW7 Inability to work due
to freezing body
parts
0.018
a
PCW8 Respiratory issues 0.603
PCW9 Major injuries/
accidents in the
workplace
0.085
PCW10 Wrist pain <0.001
a
PCW11 Increase in muscular
load
0.068
PCW12 Abdominal distress <0.001
a
PCW13 Physical fatigue 0.534
a
Denotes 95% level of confidence.
Table 3. p-Values testing the significance of mental challenges based on
workers’acclimatization
Category # Factors/challenges
p-Values based
on workers’
acclimatization
Mental challenges in
cold weather
conditions (MCW)
MCW1 Inability to
concentrate
0.043
a
MCW2 Lack of manual
dexterity while
handling tools
0.578
MCW3 Mental stress 0.045
a
MCW4 Frequent mood
fluctuations
0.025
a
MCW5 Need for longer
breaks
0.171
a
Denotes 95% level of confidence.
Table 4. p-Values testing the significance of physical challenges based on
heart rate
Category # Factors/challenges
p-Values
based on heart
rate
Physical challenges in
cold weather
conditions (PCW)
PCW1 Inflammation 0.001
a
PCW2 Frequent slips and
falls
0.247
PCW3 Hypothermia 0.038
a
PCW4 Frostbite 0.019
a
PCW5 Trench foot 0.075
PCW6 Skin problems 0.053
PCW7 Inability to work due
to freezing body
parts
0.027
a
PCW8 Respiratory issues <0.001
a
PCW9 Major injuries/
accidents in the
workplace
<0.001
a
PCW10 Wrist pain 0.001
a
PCW11 Increase in muscular
load
<0.001
a
PCW12 Abdominal distress <0.001
a
PCW13 Physical fatigue 0.003
a
a
Denotes 95% level of confidence.
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inflammation, hypothermia, frostbite, inability to work due to
freezing of exposed body parts, respiratory issues, major accidents,
wrist pain, increase in muscular load, abdominal distress, and phys-
ical fatigue. When the body is in a rewarming phase, the heart rate
increases; it is also affected by hypothermia, freezing of body parts
due to shivering, and frostbite (Schellenberg et al. 2020). Pozos and
Danzl (2001) found that hypothermia, which occurs when the body
temperature becomes low, results in reduced heart tones (Pozos and
Danzl 2001). Changes in the heart rate have also been observed in
cold weather when respiratory issues, such as shortness of breath,
arise. Workers’perceptions of physical fatigue and increased mus-
cular load that can result in muscle damage caused by reduced
blood flow (Gregson et al. 2011) are also influenced by a change
in the heart rate caused by physically demanding activities in
cold weather. When the thermoregulatory mechanism increases
to prevent heat escaping from the body, the heart rate can be an in-
dicator of distress. Workers experiencing injuries and accidents are
likely to exhibit a more varied heart range than those who are work-
ing in a safer environment, and wearable technologies with heart
rate sensors can be helpful in identifying workers who are at risk
(Kazar 2020). Four of the five mental challenges were significant
in cold weather conditions: inability to concentrate, lack of dexter-
ity, mental stress, and frequent mood fluctuations; their p-values are
given in Table 5.
An elevated heart rate can be a source of distraction for employ-
ees, leading to diminished levels of manual dexterity and cognitive
focus as the body works to regulate its temperature. This compro-
mised mental state can manifest as psychological stress, reduced
ability to concentrate, frequent fluctuations in mood, and an in-
creased need for extended breaks. The challenges vary, based on
the workers’heart rate, and provides more evidence that the
heart rate is an important indicator of cold strain (Ohashi et al.
2018). Both an increased and a decreased heart rate can be related
to cold stress, and embedded heart rate technology sensors are ef-
fective for monitoring employees who are exposed to extreme
weather conditions so that their distress can be identified in the
early stages.
Identifying Significant Challenges in Cold Weather Based
on Workers’Clothing
Properly fitted personal protective clothing (PPC) plays an impor-
tant role in entrapping heat in cold weather conditions. Loosely fit-
ted PPC cannot provide adequate insulation, and tightly fitted PPC
can cause a hobbling effect and discomfort. The significant physi-
cal challenges that were identified based on workers’clothing com-
fort in cold weather are presented in Table 6.
Insulated clothing is a significant factor in the comfort and
safety of those working in cold weather conditions, as indicated
by the p-values derived from the Kruskal–Wallis test, which indi-
cate that 8 of the 13 physical challenges are related to PPC: frequent
slips and falls, hypothermia, skin problems, inability to work due to
freezing of body parts, respiratory issues, wrist pain, increase in
muscular load, and physical fatigue. Poorly fitted PPC can cause
a hobbling effect in workers that leads to slips and falls and exposes
body parts that results in freezing of tissues and physical fatigue.
Four of the five identified mental health challenges were found to
be significant in cold weather: inability to concentrate, mental
stress, lack of dexterity, and a need for longer breaks. Table 7pre-
sents those that were identified based on workers’clothing comfort
in cold weather.
Insufficiently insulated clothing adds mental stress to workers,
because they become distracted as their bodies try to adjust to
lower temperatures thermos-physiologically. Extremities get cold
quicker than other body parts, and cold fingers lose sensitivity to
cold and become dexterous. Consequently, the materials that
gloves are made of play an important role in protecting the fingers
and maintaining dexterity. An increase in metabolic energy caused
by poorly fitted clothing made of substandard materials makes it
difficult to conserve heat and makes workers more vulnerable to in-
creased physical fatigue and a need for longer breaks; therefore,
Table 6. p-Values testing the significance of physical challenges based on
clothing
Category # Factors/challenges
p-Values
based on
clothing
Physical challenges in
cold weather conditions
(PCW)
PCW1 Inflammation 0.820
PCW2 Frequent slips and falls 0.023
a
PCW3 Hypothermia 0.007
a
PCW4 Frostbite 0.266
PCW5 Trench foot 0.161
PCW6 Skin problems 0.008
a
PCW7 Inability to work due to
freezing body parts
0.006
a
PCW8 Respiratory issues 0.005
a
PCW9 Major injuries/
accidents in the
workplace
0.083
PCW10 Wrist pain 0.026
a
PCW11 Increase in muscular
load
0.002
a
PCW12 Abdominal distress 0.284
PCW13 Physical fatigue 0.003
a
a
Denotes 95% level of confidence.
Table 5. p-Values testing the significance of mental challenges based on
heart rate
Category # Factors/challenges
p-Values based
on heart rate
Mental challenges in
cold weather conditions
(MCW)
MCW1 Inability to
concentrate
<0.001
a
MCW2 Lack of dexterity
while handling
tools
0.006
a
MCW3 Mental stress <0.001
a
MCW4 Frequent mood
fluctuations
0.008
a
MCW5 Need for longer
breaks
0.510
a
Denotes 95% level of confidence.
Table 7. p-Values testing the significance of mental challenges based on
clothing
Category # Factors/challenges
p-Values
based on
clothing
Mental challenges in cold
weather conditions
(MCW)
MCW1 Inability to concentrate 0.014
a
MCW2 Lack of manual
dexterity while
handling tools
0.001
a
MCW3 Mental stress 0.006
a
MCW4 Frequent mood
fluctuations
0.237
MCW5 Need for longer breaks 0.038
a
a
Denotes 95% level of confidence.
© ASCE 04023022-6 J. Cold Reg. Eng.
J. Cold Reg. Eng., 2024, 38(1): 04023022
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clothing comfort is directly related to workers’need for longer
breaks.
Conclusion
The goal of this paper was to identify the most important physical
and mental challenges that construction workers encounter while
working in cold weather so that their employers can mitigate
their effects. To achieve this, the 111 responses received from ques-
tionnaire survey were gathered and statistically analyzed based on
the workers’level of acclimatization, heart rate, and personal pro-
tective clothing.
Acclimatization and well-fitted PPC are important factors for
workers performing in cold weather conditions. Workers who
have had time to adjust to the weather conditions they work in
are less likely to suffer from physical conditions such as hypother-
mia, frostbite, freezing of body parts, and trench foot and mental
health challenges such as the inability to concentrate and frequent
mood fluctuations than those who were not acclimatized. Percep-
tions of physical challenges such as slips and falls, freezing body
parts, and physical fatigue, as well as mental challenges such as
the inability to concentrate, a need for longer breaks, and mental
stress were also different among workers with comfortable and un-
comfortable protective clothing. Monitoring workers’heart rates in
cold weather conditions helps identify workers who are experienc-
ing cold stress so that challenges such as inflammation, frostbite,
hypothermia, freezing of body parts, increased muscular load,
physical fatigue, and dexterity can be identified and addressed
early.
This study contributes to the limited existing body of knowledge
by identifying and analyzing the physical and mental health chal-
lenges experienced by construction workers who are exposed to
cold temperatures. It is, however, an empirical study that is con-
strained by a lack of clinical evidence that would contribute to a
more precise understanding of workers’health challenges in cold
weather conditions. Monitoring workers’heart rates to identify
those undergoing cold stress, ensuring that workers are acclima-
tized before exposing them to severe cold conditions, and provid-
ing well-fitted and high-quality PPC significantly reduce the
challenges inherent in working in cold weather. The results of
this study can be used by professionals in the construction industry
to identify the challenges that workers face in cold weather and take
measures to prevent them.
Data Availability Statement
All data generated or analyzed during the study are available from
the corresponding author by request.
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