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Acta Astronautica 204 (2023) 1–10
Available online 22 December 2022
0094-5765/© 2022 IAA. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
The effect of three body positions on colour preference: An exploration of
microgravity and lunar gravity simulations
Ao Jiang
a
,
b
,
c
,
*
, Yusen Zhu
d
, Xiang Yao
d
, Bernard H. Foing
b
,
c
, Stephen Westland
e
,
Caroline Hemingray
e
a
Dyson School of Design Engineering, Imperial College London, UK
b
ILEWG EuroMoonMars at ESTEC ESA, Netherlands
c
EuroSpaceHub, Netherlands
d
Xiangtan University, China
e
University of Leeds, UK
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Head inclination
Simulated space environment
Colour preference
ABSTRACT
Understanding the colour preference in microgravity environments will enable better design of future spacecraft
and extra-terrestrial environments. In this study, a space station’s crew cabin was simulated and evaluated in 33
different colours by 55 participants using a standard body position change methodology in controlled conditions.
Three body positions were tested, and included normal sitting position (SP), to reect terrestrial conditions; −15◦
head-down (HD) bed rest, to simulate a microgravity state; and 9.6◦head-up tilt (HU) bed rest, to simulate a
lunar gravity state. VR devices were worn by participants to ensure an immersive environment in which to
evaluate the different coloured environments across the three different body positions. The results show that in
all colour environments, there was no signicant difference in the colour preference between SP and HU, but
there was a signicant change in the colour preference in HD compared to SP and HU. In the three positions, the
participants appeared to prefer lighter colours rather than darker ones, warmer colours in ST and HU, and cool
colours in HD. In this short-term simulation study, no evidence of gender differences in colour preference by
body position was found, but in each body position, men and women had different preference levels for basic hue
and chroma brightness.
1. Introduction
In long-term manned spaceight, the isolation and monotony of the
crew can be alleviated through the interaction between the crew and the
internal environment of the habitat [1–3]. This includes the use of ma-
terials, interfaces, colours, lights, sounds and smells to actively support
the crew [4]. Among them, the habitat factors related to vision are
particularly poignant because vision is closely related to the perfor-
mance of astronauts in almost all missions [5,6]. In the early stage of the
U.S. space program, the Skylab missions considered the internal colour
of the space station to support visual perception, and suggested that light
blue or green were preferred in the crew module instead of the existing
tan and brown. They also underlined the necessity to differentiate the
colours of small objects to increase the contrast between them and the
background, in order to more easily recognise oating items inside the
spacecraft [7,8]. In a Soviet orbital space station – Salyut 6 – the interior
colour was manipulated to provide a more homely atmosphere by
selecting soft pastel colours [9]. In Salyut 7, the pastels were replaced by
a right/left colour distinction – the left wall was painted apple green and
the right wall a beige to help the astronauts in space orientation [10]. A
systematic review found that colour has an important effect on the
physiological and emotional state [11]. Green arouses the most positive
subjective responses and is associated with relaxation, calm and
happiness [12]. Red is associated with danger, so it will cause avoidance
behaviour [13]. A cross-cultural study concluded that a colour envi-
ronment that matches human preferences may contribute to a positive
emotional state and relieve monotony and isolation [14].
Human perception of colours in the terrestrial environment is not
necessarily applicable to space. During long-term orbital ights, NASA
found that the visual ability of astronauts may change in a microgravity
environment [8]. Soviet researchers said that weightless vision is reli-
able and does not affect space missions [15]. But various studies have
* Corresponding author. Dyson School of Design Engineering, Imperial College London, UK.
E-mail address: aojohn928@gmail.com (A. Jiang).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Acta Astronautica
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/actaastro
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2022.12.017
Received 15 December 2021; Received in revised form 10 December 2022; Accepted 15 December 2022
Acta Astronautica 204 (2023) 1–10
2
shown that the perception of colour by the human eye will be different
[16]. Kitayev-Smyk [17] found in a study on “Achromatic and colour
comfort during short-term weightlessness” that colour comfort is related
to brightness-chroma under microgravity conditions. They also pointed
out that microgravity will cause changes in colour intensity, including a
decrease in brightness and a decrease in contrast. The study attributed
this phenomenon to excessive movement of the retinal image. In early
parabolic ight experiments, it was found that the contrast sensitivity of
the colour of the human eye will increase under microgravity condi-
tions, and the contrast will be greater when the colour is saturated [18].
A recent expert survey of spatial environments found that colour pref-
erence signicantly depends on people’s applicability and comfort
evaluation of colour applications in different scenarios or different tasks
[19]. Therefore, colour preference is a direct factor affecting human
visual comfort [20,21], but human colour preference in microgravity
and lunar gravity has not yet been investigated.
So far, it is thought that related factors including lighting conditions,
the surrounding environment of colour stimulation, gender, age, and
nationality of the observer, may all affect human colour preferences
[22–25]. More and more studies have proven that there are cultural
differences in colour preferences [25,26]. For example, Europeans pre-
fer blue, but this colour preference is not found in Brazil, Hong Kong and
Canada [27]. In addition to cultural differences, the study also found
differences in colour preference between genders. A series of studies
have shown that men prefer soft colours such as yellow and green, while
women prefer colours such as pink and purple [28–30]. On the other
hand, according to the theory of social structure, the difference in colour
preference may reect efforts to improve gender role equality in society
[31]. Moreover, there are studies on colour preference and age. Walsh
[32] found that children generally prefer red and white more than adults
do. Zhang [30] found that with age, preferences for orange and red in-
crease, while preferences for blue, yellow, black, and dark colours
decrease. Furthermore, Camg¨
oz [33] believes that when studying colour
preference, it is very important to analyse hue, chroma and brightness,
which are sufcient to distinguish one colour from another in terms of
perception.
The head-down bed rest test is widely used to simulate the physio-
logical effects of microgravity [34–37]. In particular, a large number of
studies use −6◦or −15◦head-down bed rest to simulate microgravity
[34,35,38]. A 9.6◦head-up tilt (HU) bed rest method has also been
developed to simulate the physiological effects of lunar gravity [38,39].
Therefore, this study used three methods to simulate the effects of
different human positions on colour preference, including; normal
sitting position (SP) to reect conditions on Earth; −15◦head-down
(HD) bed rest to simulate microgravity state; and 9.6◦head-up tilt
(HU) bed rest to simulate lunar gravity state. Gender differences in
colour preference were also considered.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
Fifty-ve Chinese participants with an average age of 23.7 ±2.6
years were used in the study. The group was composed of 29 men and 26
women. They were all right-handed and had normal vision (none were
near-sighted). All participants passed the Ishihara colour-blindness test,
and no one was colour-decient. All participants had participated in a
course on the use of head-mounted displays (HMD) and had an under-
standing of the functions and denitions of the crew cabin of the space
station. All had passed a health screening assessment, had no heart or
cerebrovascular disease nor any history of neurological and/or psychi-
atric disorders, and had undergone a physical examination including a
tilt test. During the experiment, all subjects were asked to avoid caffeine,
alcohol, prescription drugs and smoking. The experiment was reviewed
and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the University of
Leeds (FAHC 19–073).
2.2. Scene setting
Before the study, a preliminary investigation was conducted on the
Chinese “Tiangong-2” space laboratory, and the already announced in-
ternal environment of the China “Tianhe” core cabin, to simulate a
typical crew cabin environment (Fig. 1). The ceiling and oor of the
standard laboratory cabinets on both sides of the environment are
covered with one main colour, while the handrails, docking hatch and
inherent equipment use the original colour of the product as the sec-
ondary colour. The Keyshot 9.0 version rendering program was used to
simulate the space station cabin scene, and the average illuminance of
400lx and the correlated colour temperature of 4500 K were congured
in accordance with the lighting requirements of the space station’s crew
cabin. The Unity (2020.2.0a21) 3D modelling tool was selected as the
method for generating realistic internal perspective drawings, and a
head-mounted display (HMD) was imported as the experimental scene.
This method has been used in previous studies [40–42], and veried for
its accuracy in representing actual scenes [43].
2.3. Values of colour scenes
A total of 33 colours were chosen to render the simulated crew cabin
environment. This consisted of a white (W) and four chroma-brightness
levels of eight different colours (red (R), orange (O), yellow (Y), green
(G), cyan (C), blue (B), grey (GR) and purple (P)). The four chroma-
brightness levels for each colour were “Dark” (D), with low brightness
and low chroma; “muted” (M) with medium brightness and low chroma;
“light” (L) with high brightness and low chroma; and “saturated” (S)
with a high chroma. The selection of these varying chroma-brightness
conditions is a method used in related research also exploring colour
preference [30]. Full coverage rendering was performed on the inner
wall of the cabin to reduce the interference of other colours. Instead of
mimicking more ecologically valid environments to which astronauts
may be exposed in a space station, in this study it was important to use
full coverage colours to see if there are any preference differences. The
colours were converted to a CIE (Commission Internationale de
L’Eclairage) L * a *b * space to be generated and calibrated on a com-
puter (Table 1). It is important to note that although the HTC Vive
system is widely used in studies of the effect of colour on human
behaviour and performance, the colour values in colour studies only
describe the colours specied by the colour system and do not indicate
the actual amount of light displayed by the HTC Vive HMD [77,78].
However, numerous virtual reality studies consider this to be a minor
problem. As the system has a relatively high spatial frequency, chro-
matic aberrations due to optical techniques are not perceived by the
human eye, and are not easily identied in experiments due to the
usually smooth luminance transitions used by the system in natural
texture stimuli [79,80]. 33 colours were used in this laboratory inves-
tigation, so the contrast between the set colour values and the colours
displayed by the HMD was relative, i.e. the contrast between the
different colours was always relatively consistent.
2.4. Apparatus and materials
The experiment was carried out in a standard body position change
laboratory. The rotating bed controlled by the software program can
assume any position from +90◦to −90◦. The VR scenes were congured
using the HTC Vive VR system (HTC) and SteamVR. The resolution of
each eye of the head-mounted display (HMD) was 2160 ×1200 pixels,
and the refresh rate was 90 Hz. The eld of view was 100◦horizontally
and 100◦vertically.
2.5. Experimental procedure
The experiment took place between September to October 2022.
Participants were taken to the laboratory at 9:00 a.m., and rested for 30
A. Jiang et al.
Acta Astronautica 204 (2023) 1–10
3
min after entering, to relax and adjust their surroundings. The experi-
ment was carried out in a room without sunlight. Before the experiment,
all participants conrmed that they fully understood the content and
precautions of the experiment, and signed an informed consent form.
The experiment included three positions. For the SP position, the
participants wore the HMD in a normal sitting position for testing. For
the HD position, the participants rested in the −15◦head-down bed rest
position for 3 h, to induce the microgravity effect, and then wore the
HMD to complete the test. For the HU position, the participants rested in
a 9.6◦head-up position for 3 h, before wearing the HMD to complete the
test. The sequence between the three positions was balanced to mini-
mize potential deviations due to the sequence. Each participant had a
48-h break between each position test to avoid potential carryover
effects. The specic test content and timeline are shown in Fig. 2.
Prior to starting the SP test, participants were in the SP position for 3
h in a D65 light source environment. Due to ethical approval re-
quirements and participant suggestions, we made this part more user-
friendly. Participants were allowed to read, do course homework
(paper-based), listen to audio and eat during this time, but were still not
allowed to use mobile phones, computers or other devices that would
have interfered with the light source. Before the start of the SP position
test, each participant was asked to wear an HMD to watch a white screen
for 3 min to allow for chromatic adaptation. Subsequently, 33 3D colour
environments appeared on the VR HMD in a random order, and stayed
for 5 s for the participants to experience the environments. After each
colour environment experience, a transition to a 3 s dim white envi-
ronment (dim<6lx) took place to alleviate the legacy effect brought on
by the previous colour [44]. After all presentations were completed, the
33 colour environments appeared on the screen in a random sequence.
The participants’ preference for each colour was evaluated on a 9-point
scale, with 1 representing “least favourite” and 9 representing “most
favourite”. The order of the colour environments experienced by each
participant was randomised. In addition, after the participants had
experienced all 33 colour environments, the arrangement of all colour
environments that appeared on the screen was also randomised to pre-
vent potential repetition effects.
In the HD and HU positions, the participants rst had a −15◦head-
down bed rest, and a 9.6◦head-up tilt bed rest respectively, for 3 h
under the D65 light source environment. They could chat, listen to
music, rest or do other activities during this period, but they were not
allowed to use mobile phones, computers and other devices that inter-
fere with light sources. After resting in bed for 3 h, they wore the HMD to
watch the white screen for 3 min to allow for chromatic adaptation, and
then the experiment was the same as for the SP position.
2.6. Statistical data analysis
A mixed measure design of 3 (position) x [8 (hue) x 4 (chroma
brightness level) +one white] x 2 (gender) was used, this method has
been used frequently in previous studies [72,73]. The participants
experienced each of the 33 colour environments and completed a pref-
erence questionnaire while in each body position. The order of body
positions completed by different participants were balanced, and the
colour environments were randomised for each participant. The
dependent variables were the participants’ preference ratings for each of
the 33 colour environments during the three positions.
Firstly, a repeated measures ANOVA was used to examine differences
in hue and chroma brightness levels during the different positions.
Secondly, a mixed measures ANOVA was used to examine differences in
Fig. 1. The virtual reality scene of the crew cabin of the space station in 33 colours.
Table 1
CIE L * a *b * values for each scene colour.
No. Hue L* a* b* R G B
1 Saturated red 56.4 68.8 33.8 244 64 82
2 Light red 88.2 13.9 4.2 250 212 214
3 Muted red 62.8 37.5 15.2 218 124 127
4 Dark red 33.9 41.5 16.0 140 45 57
5 Saturated orange 74.0 31.2 66.4 254 158 53
6 Light orange 89.2 11.2 18.2 255 216 190
7 Muted orange 66.1 22.0 28.8 209 145 110
8 Dark orange 42.4 34.6 53.3 140 86 55
9 Saturated yellow 93.8 −10.2 81.0 251 241 60
10 Light yellow 97.2 −3.3 25.0 255 248 198
11 Muted yellow 76.3 4.4 46.1 216 184 101
12 Dark yellow 50.7 42.0 83.9 143 117 46
13 Saturated green 59.808 −41.659 8.317 34 163 128
14 Light green 92.4 −15.2 5.0 205 242 223
15 Muted green 61.638 −32.597 1.045 71 165 146
16 Dark green 44.561 −29.106 2.921 37 118 99
17 Saturated cyan 65.516 −27.371 −24.404 52 174 202
18 Light cyan 90.9 −13.2 −4.0 198 237 236
19 Muted cyan 63.211 −25.560 −21.361 62 167 190
20 Dark cyan 48.261 −25.641 −11.783 34 127 134
21 Saturated blue 63.810 −16.024 −38.201 64 165 222
22 Light blue 80.668 −2.916 −27.399 171 203 251
23 Muted blue 60.614 −10.401 −33.692 87 153 205
24 Dark blue 43.887 −9.196 −28.182 53 110 150
25 Saturated purple 49.7 58.8 −56.9 174 71 217
26 Light purple 72.4 25.5 −28.3 205 162 230
27 Muted purple 55.145 21.070 −31.672 147 120 187
28 Dark purple 38.951 17.618 −32.732 98 83 145
29 Saturated Grey 53.364 −1.167 −11.300 117 129 147
30 Muted Grey 88.0 −0.4 −0.1 220 221 221
31 Light Grey 93.0 −0.2 2.1 236 235 231
32 Dark Grey 27.242 −0.992 −1.184 135 133 133
33 White 93.188 0.266 −10.287 254 251 255
A. Jiang et al.
Acta Astronautica 204 (2023) 1–10
4
hue and chroma brightness levels during the different positions and
between genders. To nd out whether there were any signicant dif-
ferences in colour preference for hue and/or chroma brightness between
positions and genders, and to determine statistical signicance,
α
<0.05
was considered statistically signicant. After any statistical signicance
(p <0.05), an LSD test was performed to follow up on statistical sig-
nicance, and Bonferroni correction was used. The Statistical Package
for Social Sciences (SPSS v25.0) was used for all analyses in this study.
3. Result
3.1. Colour preference in the three positions
The colour preferences of the three positions are summarized in
Fig. 3. The results show that among the three positions, the participants
had signicant differences in preference for the 33 colour environments
(F (2,162) =27.197, P =0.0075 <0.01,
η
2 =0.316). Further post-hoc
tests found that the colour preferences of HD differed signicantly from
those of SP and HU (P <0.05), but there was no signicant difference in
colour preferences between SP and HU (P =0.069 >0.05). Specic
analysis of the colour preference in each body position found signicant
differences between the 33 colours in SP (F(32,1782) =14.381,p =
0.0052 <0.01,
η
2 =0.314), HD (F(32,1782) =40.162,p =0.022 <0.05,
η
2 =0.399) and HU (F(32,1782) =16.21,p =0.0081 <0.01,
η
2 =
0.287). Among them, the participants’ most favourite was light yellow
in SP and HU ((SP:M =6.41, SD =1.53); (HU:M =6.44, SD =1.69))
while their least favourite colour was dark red ((SP: M =2.89, SD =
1.62); (HU:M =2.77, SD =1.71)). In HD, their most favourite colour
was light cyan (M =5.78, SD =1.84) and their least favourite colour was
dark grey (M =1.62, SD =1.14). A post-hoc test of the colour preference
of each body position found that the participants in the three positions
had no signicant differences in preference between red, orange, yellow,
cyan, green, blue, and grey in the light (L) condition (P >0.05), but the
preference of red, yellow, orange, green, cyan, blue and grey in the light
(L) condition was signicantly different from that of the other 27 colours
(P <0.05).
3.2. Basic colour preference in the three body positions (eight colours and
white)
Differences in preference between the nine hues during the three
positions were examined using a repeated measures ANOVA. The results
Fig. 2. Experimental design.
Fig. 3. Participants’ mean colour preference for the 33 colours in the three body positions.
A. Jiang et al.
Acta Astronautica 204 (2023) 1–10
5
show that the basic colour preference was signicantly different (F
(8,486) =16.008, P =0.027 <0.05,
η
2 =0.309). For SP and HU, the
most favourite colour was yellow ((SP:M =4.85, SD =1.84); (HU:M =
4.55, SD =1.67)), followed by orange ((SP:M =4.29, SD =1.39); (HU:
M =4.14, SD =1.77)), while red ((SP:M =4.05, SD =2.04); (HU: M =
4.27, SD =2.05)) was the least favourite colour, followed by purple
((SP:M =3.89, SD =2.02); (HU: M =3.77, SD =1.74)). The post-hoc
test of the nine hues in SP and HU showed that there was no signi-
cant difference between yellow and orange (P >0.05), but there were
signicant differences between (yellow and orange) and the other six
colours (P <0.05). But in HD, blue (M =3.67, SD =1.43) and cyan (M
=3.59, SD =1.25) were the most favourite colours, while red (M =2.67,
SD =1.49) and orange (M =3.13, SD =1.54) were the least favourite.
The post-hoc test found that there was no signicant difference between
Fig. 4. Chroma and brightness preference in the three body positions.
A. Jiang et al.
Acta Astronautica 204 (2023) 1–10
6
blue and cyan (P >0.05), but there were signicant differences between
(blue and cyan) and other colours (P <0.05). Besides, the results also
show that there was no signicant difference in the preference of the
nine basic hues of SP and HU (P >0.05), but the preference of the basic
hue in the HD was signicantly different from that of SP and HU (P <
0.05). Particularly signicant differences were found in red, orange,
cyan and blue (P <0.05).
3.3. Chroma and brightness preference in the three body positions
To examine the effects of the three positions on the preferences of the
participants in terms of brightness and chroma, in addition to hue, an
ANOVA involving three positions (HU, HD, SP) ×eight hues (red, or-
ange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, purple, grey) ×four chroma-brightness
levels (saturated (S), light (L), muted (M), dark (D)) was performed, The
results show that there was no signicant difference in the light chroma-
brightness level (F(2,162) =8.014, P =0.063 >0.05,
η
2 =0.105), but
the saturated (F(2, 162) =12.117, P =0.017 <0.05,
η
2 =0.216), muted
(F(2, 162) =15.251, P =0.032 <0.05,
η
2 =0.294) and dark (F(2, 162)
=19.726, P =0.0092 <0.01,
η
2 =0.355) levels showed signicant
effects.
A further post-hoc test found that during the three body positions, for
different chroma-brightness levels, the participants’ most favourite were
light colours, followed by saturated colours, whereas dark colours were
the least favourite (P s <0.05). However, there are some interesting
situations. In the three body positions, it was found that for saturated
blue, the participants preferred muted blue (P <0.05). In HD and SP,
there was no signicant difference between muted cyan and saturated
cyan (P >0.05). Muted grey was preferred to saturated grey (P <0.05)
during HU. The preference order of the other colours was exactly the
same for each hue, namely: light >saturated >muted >dark (P s <
0.05). In general, the participants preferred light-coloured environments
the most, and dark-coloured environments the least in all three body
positions (Fig. 4).
3.4. Gender differences in preference for nine basic colours in the three
body positions
We examined male and female preferences of the basic colours in the
three positions, and the results show that the body position did not affect
the basic colour preferences of men and women (F (1,1813) =5.17, P =
0.093 >0.05,
η
2 =0.0109). Further analysis of the preferences of men
and women for basic colours in the three body positions, A9 (hue: red,
orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, purple, grey, white) ×2 (gender)
showed that the main effect of hue was signicant (F(8,1476) =62.11,
P =0.026 <0.05,
η
2 =0.418), and a signicant two-way interaction (F
(8,1476) =6.93, P =0.029 <0.05,
η
2 =0.335) was seen. In the three
body positions, men and women had signicant differences in prefer-
ence for the yellow environment (F (1, 163) =5.127, P =0.037 <0.05,
η
2 =0.194), the cyan environment (F [1, 163] =6.173, P =0.028 <
0 0.05,
η
2 =0.156),the green environment (F (1, 163) =13.594, P =
0.049 <0.05,
η
2 =0.113) and the white environment (F (1, 163) =5.93,
P =0.047 <0.05,
η
2 =0.069). Men preferred cyan (P <0.05) and green
(P <0.05) more than women did. Women preferred yellow (P <0.05)
and white (P <0.05) compared to men.
3.5. Gender differences in preference for four chroma and brightness
levels in the three body positions
We examined male and female preferences of chroma-brightness in
the three body positions, and the results show that body position did not
affect the chroma-brightness preferences of men and women (F
(1,1758) =5.106, P =0.071 >0.05,
η
2 =0.0114). Further analysis of
the preferences of men and women for chroma-brightness in the three
body positions, A 8 (hue: red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, purple,
grey) ×4 (chroma-brightness level: saturated (S) and light (L), soft (M),
dark (D)) ×2 (gender) showed that the main effect of hue was (F(7,432)
=17.152, P =0.033 <0.05,
η
2 =0.217) and of the chroma-brightness
level (F (3,656) =21.015,P =0.041 <0.05,
η
2 =0.326); all interactions
were signicant (P s <0.05). Among the three body positions, men
preferred muted cyan, muted orange, muted green, saturated orange,
muted grey and light grey more than women did (P <0.05). Women
preferred light orange, light yellow, light red, light purple and white
compared to men (P <0.05). Basically, men preferred muted colours,
while women preferred light colours, as shown in Fig. 5.
4. Discussion
This study evaluated the participants’ preferences for 33 colour en-
vironments during normal sitting position (SP), −15◦head-down bed
rest (HD), and 9.6◦head-up tilt bed rest (HU). The results show that in
all colour environments, there was no signicant difference in the colour
preference between SP and HU, but there was a signicant change in the
colour preference in HD compared to SP and HU. In the three body
positions, it seems that the participants preferred lighter colours rather
than darker ones, preferred warmer colours in SP and HU, and preferred
cool colours in HD. Besides, no evidence of gender differences in colour
preference by body position was found, but in each body position, men
and women had different preference levels for basic hue and chroma
brightness. Men preferred cyan while women preferred yellow, and men
preferred muted colours while women preferred light colours.
4.1. Hue and chroma-brightness preference in the three body positions
The results of this study show that the colour preference of the
participants in HD was signicantly different from that in SP and HU. In
HD, the participants preferred light cyan, light green and light blue,
compared to the SP and HU positions where they preferred light yellow,
followed by light orange and light green. In the preference results of the
nine basic hues, it was also found that in the SP and HU positions, yellow
and orange were the most popular, while in the HD position, cyan and
blue were the most popular. According to theory relating to cool and
warm colours [45,46], the results show that participants who were
resting in bed with their head down to simulate weightlessness preferred
cool-colour environments such as cyan and blue, which is consistent
with previous studies which found that cool-colour environments can
alleviate the discomfort caused by brain fatigue and brain congestion
caused by excessive head pressure, and can also make people feel calm
[47–49]. Also, a large number of participants stated that they felt
relaxed and relieved in cool-colour environments, and that these could
reduce the increase in eye pressure and fatigue caused by resting head
down in bed, which is consistent with the ndings of Mahnke [50].
Torres believes that red or orange gives people a sense of warning,
impulsivity and stress, and can also signicantly arouse human physi-
ological activities [51]. Besides, in another long-term head-down bed
rest experiment, it was also found that red will increase people’s
attention resources, which leads to more fatigue, but when it is neces-
sary to engage in highly vigilant work, the performance level of red
environment was much higher than that of a blue environment [52].
However, our participants preferred a light yellow or light orange
environment in SP and HU, which is consistent with colour studies of
some normal environments, which indicate that warm colours in the
environment can make people feel warm, and can make the environ-
ment appear more spacious and more interesting [19,53]. This also
shows that there is no difference between the colour preference of the
9.6◦head-up tilt bed simulating the gravity effect of the lunar envi-
ronment and the colour preference in the normal earth environment.
However, the signicant difference in colour preference between HD,
compared to SP and HU, may be caused by the head-ward uid shift
during the microgravity effect. Early in the construction of the
A. Jiang et al.
Acta Astronautica 204 (2023) 1–10
7
Fig. 5. Preference for the four chroma-brightness levels in the three body positions.
A. Jiang et al.
Acta Astronautica 204 (2023) 1–10
8
International Space Station, in an anecdotal report from NASA, several
astronauts reported that a light blue or green crew cabin environment
can be more comfortable than a brown or orange colour scheme. They
considered it difcult to nd small objects like spoons or ballpoint pens
in a brown-yellow environment [54]. Vakoch [55] reported that during
an 11-day space mission, the astronauts all agreed that they felt heart
palpitations in yellow and brown environments, and even some nausea,
but blue alleviated this effect to a certain extent. In our study, the par-
ticipants had the same chroma-brightness preference in all three body
positions. They all preferred light-coloured environments, and most did
not favour dark-coloured environments, which is consistent with many
studies considering normal terrestrial environments, indicating that a
light-colour environment makes people feel spacious, bright and
comfortable, and can signicantly improve work efciency [12,19,47].
In the study of Stone’s [56] reading, performance in dark colour envi-
ronments was signicantly lower than in light-colour environments, and
it was easy to produce negative emotions such as irritability and
drowsiness. Besides, an interesting nding is that white is not the most
preferred colour, although there is a high preference for white in Asian
countries, which is related to the purity and cleanliness of the colour
[57]. In early studies of some extreme environment, it was found that a
white environment will cause visual monotony and fatigue, and
strengthen the impact of lighting on the eyes [58–61].
4.2. Differences in colour preference between men and women in the three
body positions
We found that the effects induced by different short-term body po-
sitions did not affect men’s and women’s preferences for hue and
chroma-brightness levels. However, in the three body positions, two
colours showed signicant gender differences. Men preferred cyan,
while women preferred yellow. Although no relevant differences in
colour preference between men and women have been found in other
space studies, this is similar to some conclusions in the normal envi-
ronment. Zhang [30] tested 1290 participants and found that men
preferred cyan and blue, while women preferred yellow and white. In
addition, for the chroma-brightness level, we found that men preferred
muted colours such as muted cyan, muted blue and muted yellow, while
women preferred light colours such as light yellow, light yellow and
light cyan. Some studies believe that this difference may be due to the
association of different specic objects between the two genders, which
is developed from childhood and gradually forms the specic gender
roles in adulthood [30,31,62]. However, according to some studies, a
more complete and evidence-based model is needed to fully explain the
gender differences in colour preference, including culture, customs, re-
gion etc. [63,64].
4.3. Potential benets of colour preference for space missions
Based on the results of this study, the overall layout and atmosphere
of the interior of an orbiting spacecraft or deep-space manned spacecraft
in microgravity conditions could be designed in lighter, cooler colours
for future space missions, which could mitigate the potential stress
response due to microgravity effects. In the case of lunar or Mars habitat
interiors, lighter, warmer colours could be used to optimise long-term
habitability. In addition, this study also found that male and female
colour preferences exist regardless of body position. This means that
colour could be customised in the design of future spacecraft or habitats
for different male and female areas such as sleeping areas, hygiene areas,
or use of equipment in order to help counterbalance any negative
emotions of the crew during long periods away from Earth.
All of the experiments in this study were conducted during the day,
and although the participants completed the experiments in a laboratory
without daylight, some studies have shown that people’s environmental
colour preferences differ between day and night. This may be due to
changes in the state of life (mood, lifestyle rhythm, etc.) brought about
by differences in the nature of human work and life during the day and at
night [74,75]. During the daytime, people may prefer colours to activate
their working state, to awaken motivation and to optimise productivity.
At night, people prefer colours that are relaxing, warm and soothing [76,
81,82]. It is also worth considering whether this inuences people’s
colour preferences. This aspect is important for space missions because
in space, the external environment does not have the same sunrise and
sunset as on Earth. This is true for present-day space stations in orbit,
future deep space probes or lunar or Mars habitats. Circadian rhythms
and the simulation of day and night must be taken into account in
habitat design to aid the normal functioning of the crew. Therefore,
designing the most benecial colour environment or lighting to help
regulate the crew’s routine, and thus optimise the habitability of the
mission environment, offers potential benets to the success of space
missions.
4.4. Limitations and future directions
Regarding possible limitations, this study used a short-term, 3-h
−15◦head-down bed rest and a 9.6◦head-up tilt bed rest experiment
to induce different physical effects in order to evaluate differences in
colour preference. This study is the rst part of a series of simulated
gravity experiments designed to explore potential colour effects using
short-term simulations. In contrast, many previous studies carried out
experiments with long-term head-low bed rest (15 days and longer) to
explore the simulation of human performance in different microgravity
environments [65]. Therefore, in future, bed rest time should be
extended to explore the colour preferences of different time periods
during head-down and head-up tilt bed rest. Besides, some literature
suggests that simulating the sensory-motor effects of microgravity
would yield more rigorous data. This includes parabolic ight [68],
prolonged dry immersion [69] and the use of weight support systems or
devices to eliminate the effects of gravity on individual limbs, either
systemically or partially [70,71], to help simulate different gravities.
This approach not only allows the participants to simulate microgravity
under static tasks, but also helps them experience movement or
manipulation more realistically. Also, for studies comparing different
gravity effects using different body positions, it would be more rigorous
to use specialist rotational tilt sitting devices to allow participants to sit
in xed positions at different tilt angles to simulate different gravity
effects. Therefore, these experimental paradigms or devices should be
used in the future to simulate the sensory-motor effects of microgravity
in order to further validate the current data.
55 Chinese people participated in this study to examine the effect of
different body positions on colour preference, but this study did not
consider the inuence of culture, region, and other factors on colour
preference. The sample size should therefore be expanded in the future
and include samples from different cultures and regions to ensure more
comprehensive results. Besides, our participants were all Chinese un-
dergraduate or graduate students, while the age of astronauts is gener-
ally between 40 and 55 years. In the future, consideration should be
given to selecting potential astronaut populations, such as pilots and
soldiers, to conduct experiments in order to obtain more realistic results
regarding the colour preferences of astronauts. We propose to follow on
these investigations with future simulation campaigns in the frame of
ILEWG EMMESI EuroMoonMars Earth Space Innovation and other
relevant programmes [66,67,83,84].
5. Conclusion
This article investigated differences in preference in hue, chroma,
and brightness levels between normal sitting position, −15◦head-down
bed rest and 9.6◦head-up tilt bed rest. We found that the colour pref-
erence changed in the HD position, with participants favouring the cyan
and blue environments the most. In terms of chroma-brightness pref-
erence, light colours were the most favoured among the three body
A. Jiang et al.
Acta Astronautica 204 (2023) 1–10
9
positions, while dark colours were the least favoured. Women liked
yellow, orange, cyan, white and light colours, while men liked cyan,
blue, yellow, green and muted colours. Therefore, this study provides
new empirical evidence for the inuence of physical effects induced by
different body positions on colour preference, and provides some
enlightenment for future research on the colour design of spacecraft
environments or lunar or Mars habitat environments.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to inuence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We thank the team of IMA, HI-SEAs, Blue Planet Energy Lab, ILEWG
at ESA for support in the preparation of the experiment. This work is
supported by a research project of a research project of the National
Social Science Fund of China (No. 20BG115), a scholarship from the
China Scholarship Council and the University of Leeds (No.
201908430166).
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