Construction and validation of a scale to measure tourist motivation to consume local food

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Construction and validation of a scale to measure tourist motivation to consume
local food
Yeong Gug Kim
a
,
*
, Anita Eves
b
,
1
a
Department of Tourism Administration, College of Business Administration, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon-si, Kangwon-do 200-701, Republic of Korea
b
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
article info
Article history:
Received 26 January 2011
Accepted 20 January 2012
Keywords:
Scale development
Motivation
Food consumption
Local food
Tourism marketing
abstract
Although the importance of the role of local food in tourism has begun to form an academic debate in the
last decade, little effort has been invested in understanding what tourist motivations influence
consumption of local food and beverages in a tourist destination and to develop a measurement scale for
those motivations. Thus, this study adopted the comprehensive procedures of measurement scale
development recommended by prior studies. The scale development procedure yielded a five factor
measurement scale with acceptable levels of reliability and validity. Five underlying motivational
dimensions of local food consumption were labelled: cultural experience; interpersonal relation;
excitement; sensory appeal; and health concern. The outcomes and applications of the developed scale
are discussed both in terms of theoretical and managerial implications.
Ó2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
In the context of tourism, motivation refers to a set of internal
psychological needs that cause a person to act in a certain way or
stimulate their interest in travel and participation in a tourist
activity (Crompton & McKay, 1997; Fodness, 1994). Previous studies
exploring tourist motivation have also suggested that tourists tend
to choose the destination or type of holiday that can satisfy their
desires or needs (Crompton & McKay, 1997; Fodness, 1994;
McIntosh, Goeldner, & Ritchie, 1995). Therefore, McIntosh et al.
(1995) emphasised that tourist motivation is fundamental to
gaining an understanding of tourist behaviour, and they further
indicated that improved tourist motivation theory should benefit
research on both travel behaviour and travel choice. Tourist moti-
vation, therefore, has been extensively examined in the tourism
literature, however, the discussion of motivation has not been
expanded to consumption of local food at a tourist destination.
Consumption of food and beverages can contribute to the
competitive marketing of tourist destinations and promoting
tourist destinations (Boniface, 2003; Kivela & Crotts, 2006). For
instance, the Minister of Industry of Canada (2003) announced that
between 1987 and 2003 tourism spending on food and dining out
in Canada by both domestic and international tourists averaged
16.2% of total expenditures, amounting to 45,966 million Canadian
dollars, ranked second following tourist expenditure on trans-
portation. Additionally, the Singapore Tourism Board (2007)
reported that food and beverage spending by tourists accounted
for more than S$1 billion or about 12% of international tourists’total
expenditure in 2006. It is focusing on food and beverages as one of
the key attractions of tourism, targeting 17 million tourists and
S$30 billion by 2015. Local food and beverages have developed from
being a crucial necessity for tourists to being recognised as an
important part of the local culture that tourists consume (Kim,
Eves, & Scarles, 2009; Kivela & Crotts, 2006). Tasting local food is
thus an essential part of the tourism experience, since it serves as
both a cultural activity and entertainment. It plays an important
role in introducing a tourist to flavours and different traditions at
destinations (Fields, 2002; Kivela & Crotts, 2006).
Relatively little attention has been given to examining tourist
motivation to taste local food and beverages in a tourist destination
(Fields, 2002; Kim et al., 2009). Despite an awareness of the need
for tourist motivation theories regarding local food experiences
(Fields, 2002; Kim et al., 2009), they have not been developed to
empirically evaluate tourist motivations to taste local food. Also,
efforts to understand motivational factors affecting tourists’local
food consumption have been ignored in research into food choice
and food preference. Accordingly, by integrating two disparate
streams of research on tourist motivation and food choice, this
study aims to develop a measurement scale that can be used in
understanding tourist motivations to taste local food and bever-
ages. That is, given the relatively well-established literature in
*Corresponding author. Tel.: þ82 0 33 2506169; fax: þ82 0 33 2529518.
E-mail addresses: yeongkim@kangwon.ac.kr (Y.G. Kim), a.eves@surrey.ac.uk
(A. Eves).
1
Tel.: þ44 0 1483 686337.
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Tourism Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman
0261-5177/$ esee front matter Ó2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.01.015
Tourism Management 33 (2012) 1458e1467

tourist motivations (e.g., Crompton, 1979; Fields, 2002; Kim et al.,
2009) and food choice (e.g., Mooney & Walbourn, 2001; Pollard,
Kirk, & Cade, 2002; Pollard, Steptoe, & Wardle, 1998), the current
study investigates nominated motivational dimensions connected
with consumption of local food and develops a measurement scale
for tourist motivation to taste local food and beverages.
The development of a valid and reliable framework for assessing
factors considered by consumers when deciding to consume local
food is not only a matter of purely academic interest but also
a possible contribution to tourism marketing practice. This study
serves as a first step towards the development of a measurement
scale that can be used by future researchers and practitioners in
understanding tourist motivations to taste local food and
beverages.
2. Scale development process
Following closely to the rigorous stages of measurement
development used by previous studies (DeVellis, 2003; Hung &
Petrick, 2010; Netemeyer, Bearden, & Sharma, 2003), scales were
constructed to measure tourist motivation to taste local food and
beverages in a tourist destination. Two of the key considerations
when developing a measurement scale are validity and reliability.
Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or
assesses the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to
measure, and reliability refers to the degree to which a test is
consistent and stable in measuring what it is intended to measure
(DeVellis, 2003). In order to ensure reliability and validity, the scale
development procedure for the current study used the following
four steps: 1) domain of construct, 2) item generation, 3) purifying
the measurement, and 4) finalising the measurement. Table 1
presents the general methodological steps involved in the scale
development process.
3. Literature review: domain of construct
The first stage of the scale development involved a compre-
hensive literature review to identifyconstructs and content domain
of tourist motivations to taste local food. An extensive review of the
literature was conducted in the broad contexts of tourism and food
to identify potential constructs and previous attempts to measure
the targeted constructs.
The theoretical approach to motivational factors influencing
local food consumption in a tourist destination can be found in the
suggestions of previous research (Fields, 2002; Kim et al., 2009).
Fields (2002) suggested that food-related motivations in tourism
can be conceptualised as a travel motivator within each of the four
categories of McIntosh et al. (1995): physical motivators; cultural
motivators; interpersonal motivators; and status and prestige
motivators. The subsequent work of Kim et al. (2009) found 9
motivational factors affecting local food consumption through
interviews with 20 individuals: exciting experience; escape from
routine; health concern; learning knowledge; authentic experi-
ence; togetherness; prestige; sensory appeal; and physical envi-
ronment. Although Kim et al. did not classify these motivations into
the four categories suggested by Fields (2002), the current authors
propose that some of them can be grouped under these four
categories and suggest nominated dimensions, identified in the
literature review, a mix between the motivators in the argument of
Fields (2002) and the research of Kim et al. (2009).
Firstly, exciting experience, escape from routine, sensory appeal,
and health concern found in the study of Kim et al. (2009) would be
included in the physical motivator. The physical motivator refers to
refreshment of a person’s body and mind, physical rest, desire for
recreation, participation in leisure activities (McIntosh et al., 1995).
This motivator thus is associated with reducing physical tension
and/or seeking a fresh and exhilarating environment. Fields (2002)
also proposed that the physical motivators may be closely associ-
ated with the opportunity to taste new and exotic foods. In addition,
he considered tasting local food as a physical experience through
people’s sensory perceptions, such as sight, taste and smell. Health
concern about food can be viewed as interest in well being and
health, rather than relaxation (Fields, 2002; Kim et al., 2009).
From this point of view, first, ‘exciting experience’as one of the
physical motivators can be regarded as an experience characterised
by having ‘excitement’as the crucial factor in leisure activities
(Mayo & Jarvis, 1981; Urry, 2002). Lupton (1996) suggested that
eating experiences bring excitement to people’s life, and Mayo and
Jarvis (1981) indicated that unpredictability can be viewed as
a source of arousal, which can attract tourists who need something
exciting. According to Pizam et al. (2004), a motive such as
excitement is the most important predictor in assessing the desire
to engage in risky, impulsive, and adventurous activities offering
individual unique sensations. With regard to food experiences as
excitement, Otis (1984) suggested that trying new foods reflects
a general preference for engaging in exciting kinds of activities.
Namely, a desire or willingness to taste foreign and unfamiliar
foods may come from a need for excitement. Additionally, some
studies have suggested that feelings of excitement or curiosity can
evoke an expectation of such food experiences. For instance, Rust
and Oliver (2000) pointed out that satisfaction with meal experi-
ences is caused by the meal being unexpectedly or surprisingly
pleasant. Sparks, Bowen, and Klag (2003) mentioned that the
opportunity to try new foods is one of the key reasons for eating out
during holidays, and Kim et al. (2009) further indicated that eating
local food, not eaten before, is one of the exciting experiences in
tourist destinations.
Crompton (1979) found that tourists seeking pleasure are
motivated by socio-psychological motives, such as escape from
a perceived mundane environment: “the pleasure vacation context
should be physically and socially different from the environment in
which one normally lives”(Crompton,1979, p.416). Mayo and Jarvis
(1981) recognised ‘escape from routine’as altered or different
conditions of everyday life. They added that transformation of
everyday is a means of overcoming a sense of anxiety and boredom,
which consequently leads to enhanced freedom and satisfaction.
This premise is supported by Iso-Ahola and Weissinger (1990)
asserting that travel is one of the most common means of allevi-
ating or escaping boredom, and they viewed ‘escape from routine’
as the removal and reduction of the perception that experiences
available in the home environment are not sufficient to satisfy the
need for optimal arousal. Fields (2002) approached tasting local
Table 1
Scale development procedure.
Procedure
Domain of construct
Literature review Define constructs
Item generation
Literature review Generate items to represent
the constructs’domain
Expert judgement Assess the preliminary items
Testing initial items Refine and remove unclear items
Purifying the measurement
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) Derive an initial factor structure
Reliability assessment
Finalising the measurement
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) Test the theoretical factor structure
and model specification
Assessing reliability and validity Examine overall fit and parameter fit
Y.G. Kim, A. Eves / Tourism Management 33 (2012) 1458e1467 1459

food as an inversion of everyday reality. The type of inversion or
reversal experience with eating local food is determined by the
attempt to transcend the feeling of routine life. Scarpato (2002)
pointed out that wealthy tourists sometimes travel long distances
to sample the fresh and exotic fruits of poverty, regarded as an
inversion of daily life. With respect to the mode of culinary tourism
experiences, Hjalager (2003) also recognised that some tourists are
interested in tasting local food as ‘gastronomy tourists’, seeking to
escape from their everyday eating habits, such as routine dining,
food shopping, and preparing a dish. Similarly, Kim et al. (2009)
found that some tourists may taste local food as they want to
escape from daily routines or experience something different.
In food research, Pollard et al. (1998) stated that sensory
perceptions can play a crucial physiological and psychological part
in appreciation of food. They further mentioned that sensory
perceptions represent the considerations that people develop
related to their taste in eating and drinking. Taste tends to be a key
consideration for most people in nearly all food and drinking
settings. In tourism, Urry (2002) also indicated that tourism is
marked by ‘sensory experiences’, such as looking, touching and
feeling. Several studies on the tourist experience demonstrated that
tourism has become sensorially more diverse, and a new trend of
tourist experiences as full of multiple sensory experiences is
considered as an important part of travelling pleasure (Dann &
Jacobsen, 2002; Urry, 2002). According to Hall and Mitchell
(2000), food in tourism can be viewed as multi-sensory in ways
that elude language when evoking memory. Boniface (2003)
maintained that tasting, one of the sensorial experiences, is
a primary tourist motivation for travel. Since flavour is regarded as
an essential criterion for food consumption, people are most likely
to consume food which they evaluate as tasty (Pollard et al., 1998).
Therefore, the taste of food in tourism contexts plays not only
a crucial part in adding to the total destination image and experi-
ence but also becomes the ideal symbol of tourism consumption.
According to Cornell (2006),‘health concern’in tourism is
related to increasing well being and health, rather than relaxation
during holidays. Cornell stressed its importance, because some
tourists are now interested in a beneficial outcome for their health
through travel experiences. Travelling for health was previously
simply about exploiting natural phenomena, such as sea water and
mineral springs for their health benefits. Thus, many spas repre-
sented the effective start of local and health tourism, since people
believed that ‘taking the waters’was good for their health
(Swarbrooke & Horner, 2007). Nowadays, these have developed
spas and health resorts. Food has been identified as having
a significant relationship with health through nutrition and food
safety considerations (Glanz, Basil, Maibach, Goldberg, & Snyder,
1998; Mooney & Walbourn, 2001). According to Glanz et al.
(1998), as the income and education level of populations rise,
food is believed by consumers, to not only satisfy simple hunger but
also to provide health benefits. Kim et al. (2009) also found health
concern to be a central motivational factor determining tourist
interest in local food. The authors suggested that tourists consider
tasting local food in the natural environment to be a means of
improving their health either mentally or physically, and local food
made with local ingredients was perceived to be fresher and better
for health.
Secondly, ‘learning knowledge’and ‘authentic experience’found
in the work of Kim et al., can be grouped under the cultural moti-
vator. According to McIntosh et al. (1995), the cultural motivator is
related to the need to not only experience different cultures, such as
lifestyle, music, food, and dance but also to gain knowledge about
other countries in terms of cultural activities. With regard totasting
food in tourism, Fields (2002) indicated that food can be included
amongst cultural motivators because “when experiencing new
local cuisines, we are also experiencing a new culture”(Fields,
2002, p.38).
In general, existing literature has shownthat cultural experience
in the context of tourism includes gaining knowledge (e.g., learning
about history, understanding different countries) and authentic
experience (e.g., new and unique experience of travelling) (e.g.,
Crompton & McKay, 1997; McIntosh et al., 1995). Cultural motiva-
tion, as the desire to experience different cultures, appreciate the
artefacts of previous cultures, and learn history, has been consid-
ered as a key motivator in a diversity of tourism fields including:
motivations for visiting heritage attractions and destinations
(Kerstetter, Confer, & Graefe, 2001); motivations for taking part in
local leisure activities (Funk & Bruun, 2007); and motivations for
attending festivals and events (Crompton & McKay; 1997; Lee &
Lee, 2001). Exploratory behaviour is an expression of curiosity
and/or interest, which is aroused by an environment perceived to
be novel. This curiosity is associated with a need, a thirst or a desire
for knowledge and new cultural experiences (Loewenstein, 1994).
Crompton and McKay (1997) thus mentioned that travel can be
seen as a tool in satisfying a desire to gain knowledge and expand
intellectual enrichment. Synott (1993) pointed out that the culture
of a region can be determined by the experience of rural special-
ities, such as local food or beverages. This idea was supported byAu
and Law (2002), indicating that tourists may wish to try the local
specialities in the different parts of a foreign country. They further
mentioned that “food is a cultural process in that it signifies cultural
meaning to those who consume it”(Au & Law, 2002, p.828). Getz
(2000) noted that the wine experience provides the opportunity
to learn local wine culture, explore table manners for drinking wine
and gain knowledge about wine. Differences in use of ingredients,
method of preparation, cooking, and preserving food between
countries can be considered as authentic or traditional culture
(Fields, 2002; Kim et al., 2009).
Thirdly, togetherness can be associated with the interpersonal
motivator, because this motivator is seen as a desire to meet new
people, spend time with family and friends, visit friends or rela-
tives, and/or get away from routine relationships (McIntosh et al.,
1995). Fields (2002) also discussed how having a meal during
a holiday can be regarded as a means of reproducing social
relations.
Crompton and McKay (1997) pointed out that a tourism
distinction can be established between the desire to spend time
with friends and associates (i.e., known-group socialisation) and
the appeal of meeting new people or observing others (i.e., external
interaction/socialisation) and that both can be applied to ‘togeth-
erness’.Wang (1999) suggested that a key tourism function is to
reinforce unity among family members. Therefore, given the nature
of tourism destinations as places where a large number of people
with a common interest are gathered together, it is not surprising
that socialisation and family togetherness have been shown to be
an important dimension in tourist motivation (Crompton & McKay,
1997; Wang,1999). In food research, commensality, eating together,
can reflect the social relationships of individuals (Mennell, Murcott,
& van Otterloo, 1992; Symons, 1994). Mennell et al. (1992) proposed
that eating together can build personal relationships, even develop
functional relationships between individuals and maintain desired
forms of social integration. Symons (1994) stated that eating with
people generally satisfies a need for interaction with others, where
conviviality establishes and reinforces socialites. Holiday meals
have the potential to build personal relationships and strengthen
social bonds. Warde and Martens (2000) suggested that eating out
on holiday is a valuable social function of food. Respondents in their
research reported that sharing food with others during travel was
more important than the quality of the food. Additionally, partici-
pating in festivals or events based on food and beverages can
Y.G. Kim, A. Eves / Tourism Management 33 (2012) 1458e14671460

provide opportunities to enjoy being together and create a feeling
of unity (Crompton & McKay, 1997). Kim et al. (2009) also suggested
that eating food can enable people on holidays to share their
preferences with other people at the destination, and chances to eat
together make the pleasure of travel greater.
Lastly, prestige belongs to the status and prestige motivator,
since this is related to self-esteem and personal development
(Fields, 2002; McIntosh et al., 1995). McIntosh et al. (1995) included
the status and prestige motivator, associated with self-esteem,
recognition and the desire to attract attention from others. Linked
to this, eating nice food in a nice place can be recognised as a means
to be distinguished from others in terms of social status (Fields,
2002; Kim et al., 2009).
Several studies have indicated that the need for prestige
distinctions may be reinforced by similarities in income, education,
values, and the time available for holidays (Dann, 1977; Urry, 2002).
Thus, Crompton and McKay (1997) suggested that ‘prestige status’
is a desire to have high standing in the eyes of surrounding people.
Botha, Crompton, and Kim (1999) recognised prestige seeking as
increasing individuals’feelings of self-worth, helping them to feel
like a better or different person, or to derive a feeling of accom-
plishment. According to Dann (1977), tourism can be motivated
psychologically by the desire for ego-esteem, the need to be rec-
ognised and to have their ego or confidence boosted. According to
Fodness, 1994, people sometimes use eating certaintypes of food to
differentiate themselves from others, and this behaviour is linked
to prestige status. A need for luxury and nice food and the avail-
ability of good restaurants on holiday is recognised as a value
expressly linked to self-esteem, which impresses people (Fodness,
1994). Similarly, Reynolds (2002) pointed out that eating food in
a nice restaurant and being seen to eat there can be considered as
a way of drawing distinction status, and Pollard et al. (2002)
commented that ordering a vegetarian meal, dining at a trendy
restaurant, or eating exotic cuisine can be interpreted as a symbol of
the individual’s social status.
The initial operational definition of a tourist’motivation to taste
local food used to guide development of the scale was a desire to
experience new and different tastes through travel. This motivation
is conceptualised as a multi-dimensional construct that comprises
several dimensions previously identified in the literature (Table 2),
including exciting experience; escape from routine; sensory
appeal; health concern; learning knowledge; authentic experience;
togetherness; and prestige.
4. Research method
4.1. Item generation
An initial pool of items was constructed relating to aspects of
desire for a new taste and flavour. There were derived from prior
studies (e.g., Botha et al., 1999; Cornell, 2006; Crompton, 1979;
Crompton & McKay, 1997; Fluker & Turner, 2000; Iso-Ahola &
Weissinger, 1990; Kerstetter et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2009; Mayo &
Jarvis, 1981; McIntosh et al., 1995; Swarbrooke & Horner, 2007;
Wang, 1999). From these sources a list of 37 items was generated.
The initial items were refined and edited for content validity by five
academic faculty members, selected on the basis of their research
and consulting. An expert judgement is generally recommended as
ageneral technique of item generation (DeVellis, 2003; Netemeyer
et al., 2003). The use of a sorting procedure by experts in related
academic or practical fields was used to classify the items derived
from existing literature into construct groups based on the theo-
retical construct definition. Accordingly, they were asked to refine
ambiguous items and allocate these items into categories. The
expert judgement resulted in a conceptual change. Experts found it
difficult to distinguish between ‘learning knowledge’and ‘authentic
experience’. It was pointed out that ‘learning knowledge’and
‘authentic experience’could be met simply by ‘cultural experience’.
Given results and experts’comments, 31 modified measurement
items were suggested and classified into seven categories: exciting
experience; escape from routine; sensory appeal; health concern;
cultural experience; togetherness; and prestige (Tables 3 and 4). In
addition, future intention to re-taste andrecommendation to others
were used to test predictive validity in this study.
The 31 iteminstrument was pretestedwith a convenience sample
of 63 participants who had experienced local food at holiday desti-
nations in the last three months. Before pre-testing, local food and
beverages were defined as being produced in the local area and
including locally produced and regionally branded products, such as
cheeses, meat, and pies (Nummedal & Hall, 2006). The major
objective of this test was to identify possible weaknesses, ambigui-
ties, missing questions, and poor reliability (DeVellis, 2003). The
process can support construct validity, as it allows the deletion of
items that maybe conceptually inconsistent(Netemeyer et al., 2003).
An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with a varimax rotation was
undertaken on the data collected to determine the dimensions of
the scales. To assess whether a particular data set is suitable for
Table 2
Definition of constructs.
Construct Definition References
Exciting experience Seeking for an exciting experience, created through the medium
of undertaking activities involving unknown risks or unusual
happening in leisure or travel activities
Mayo and Jarvis (1981)
Escape from routine The reduction of the perception that experiences available in the
home environment are not sufficient to satisfy the need for
optimal arousal
Crompton (1979); Iso-Ahola and Weissinger (1990);
Mayo and Jarvis (1981)
Sensory appeal A need to experience tourism through sensation or feeling by tourists,
perceived though specific sense modes, such as touch, smell, taste,
sight, hearing or the sense of balance
Dann and Jacobsen (2002); Pollard et al. (1998); Urry (2002)
Health concern To increase well being and health, rather than relaxation through
leisure or travel activities
Cornell (2006); Swarbrooke and Horner (2007)
Learning knowledge Gaining knowledge refer to study tours, performing arts,
cultural tours, travel to festivals, visits to historic sites and
monuments, folklore and pilgrimages
Crompton and McKay (1997); Kerstetter et al. (2001);
McIntosh et al. (1995)
Authentic experience The real, unique, and un-manipulated tourism experiences Crompton and McKay (1997); Kerstetter et al. (2001);
McIntosh et al. (1995)
Togetherness A desire and willingness to meet people and have a time
with family from beyond the normal circle of acquaintance
Crompton and McKay (1997); Wang (1999)
Prestige A desire to have high standing in the eyes of surrounding people Crompton and McKay (1997); Botha et al. (1999)
Y.G. Kim, A. Eves / Tourism Management 33 (2012) 1458e1467 1461

factor analysis, inspection of the strength of the relationship among
the items is necessary (Bohmstedt & Borgatta, 1981; Hair, Black,
Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006). The items which had factor
loadings lower than .4 or cross-loaded on more than one factor
were eliminated, and the internal reliability of each factor was then
measured by using Cronbach’s alpha. A Cronbach reliability score,
higher than .7 indicates that the variables exhibited moderate
correlation with their factor groupings and can be regarded as
internally consistent and stable (Hair et al., 2006). As a result, three
items (‘tasting local food is thrilling to me’;‘tasting local food
enables me to meet new people with similar interests’; and ‘it is
important to me that the local food I eat on holiday has a pleasant
texture’) had factor loadings lower than .4 or cross-loaded on more
than one factor and were therefore eliminated (Hair et al., 2006). A
total of 28 items with six constructs remained: excitement; sensory
appeal; health concern; cultural experience; togetherness; and
prestige.
4.2. Purifying the measurement
The list of measurement items resulting from the previous step
was verified with 269 British tourists, who had eaten local food,
recruited in South Korea, and these items were measured using
a likert-type 7-point theoretical range scale, varying from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). This survey was admin-
istered by five well-trained researchers to a convenience sample of
British tourists visiting South Korea between April and May 2009.
EFA with a varimax rotation was used on the data collected to
determine the dimensions of the scales.
The EFA identified five dimensions, explaining 68.37% of overall
variances, labelled: 1) culturalexperience, 2) interpersonal relation, 3)
excitement, 4) sensory appeal, and 5) health concern. Bartlett’stestof
Sphericity (a statistical testfor the presence of correlations amongthe
variables) and the KMO (KaisereMeyereOlkin) measure of sampling
adequacy were measured to assess the factorability of the data. The
KMO value at .81 exceeds the acceptable minimum value which is .6
(Hair et al., 2006). The Barlett’s test of Sphericity was found to be
significant (p<.00). The findings presented Cronbach reliability
scores ranging from .86 to .95. To achieve a more meaningful and
interpretable solution, some items which loaded on more than one
factor were deleted.
During the factor extraction process, 26 out of 28 items were
retained. Factor loadings revealed that ‘experiencing local food
enriches me intellectually’was cross-loaded on different two
factors: cultural experience and excitement. ‘I like to take pictures
of local food to show friends’was eliminated, improving the
Cronbach reliability score from .82 to .95 and from .63 to .88.
5. Results
5.1. Finalising the measurement
Further data collection was carried out to assess reliability and
validity of measurement scales. From this point of view, the data
gathered from the sample of British tourists recruited in Spain and
the U.K (n¼482) were purposely split in two cases to accomplish
two CFAs. This is because the development sample must be suffi-
ciently large to allow comparison between subsamples (DeVellis,
2003; Netemeyer et al., 2003). The first subsample of British tour-
ists recruited in Spain was used to test dimensionality and reli-
ability, estimate items, provide a final version of the new measure,
Table 3
Initial scale items of tourist motivation to taste local food.
Constructs Scale items References
Exciting experience 1. When tasting local food I have an expectation that it is exciting Pizam et al. (2004)
2. Experience of local food in its original place makes me excited
3. Tasting local food is thrilling to me
4. Tasting local food makes me feel exhilarated
Escape from routine 5. Tasting local food on holiday helps me to relax Steptoe, Pollard, and Wardle (1995);
Kim and Jamal (2007)6. Tasting local food on holiday takes me away from the crowds and noise
7. Tasting local food on holiday makes me not worry about routine
Health concern 8. Local food contains a lot of fresh ingredients produced in a local area Steptoe et al. (1995)
9. Tasting local food keeps me healthy
10. Local food is nutritious
Cultural experience 11. Experiencing local food gives me an opportunity to increase my
knowledge about different cultures
Crompton and McKay (1997); Lee and
Lee (2001); Kim et al. (2009); Poria,
Reichel, and Biran (2006)12. Experiencing local food helps me see how other people live
13. Experiencing local food makes me see the things that I don’t normally see
14. Experiencing local food enables me to learn what this local food tastes like
15. Experiencing local food allows me discover something new
16. Tasting local food in an original place is an authentic experience
17. Tasting local food served by local people in its original place offers a
unique opportunity to understand local cultures
18. Tasting local food in its traditional setting is a special experience
19. It is important to me to taste local food in its original regions (countries)
Togetherness 20. Tasting local food enables me to meet new people with similar interests Crompton and McKay (1997); Kim et al. (2009);
Steptoe et al. (1995)21. Tasting local food enables me to have an enjoyable time with friends and/or family
22. Having local food increases friendship or kinship
Prestige 23. I like to talk to everybody about my local food experiences Kim et al. (2009)
24. I like to take pictures of local food to show friends
25. Experiencing local food enriches me intellectually
26. I want to give advice about local food experiences to people who want to travel Kim et al. (2009); Steptoe et al. (1995)
Sensory appeal 27. It is important to me that the local food I eat on holiday smells nice
28. It is important to me that the local food I eat on holiday looks nice
29. It is important to me that the local food I eat on holiday has a pleasant texture
30. It is important to me that the local food I eat on holiday tastes good
31. The taste of local food in its original countries is different to the taste
of same food in own my country
Y.G. Kim, A. Eves / Tourism Management 33 (2012) 1458e14671462

and then the second subsample (sample of British tourists travel-
ling within the U.K.) can be employed to repeat these results.
Data were collected using a convenience sample of British
tourists travelling in Spain (n¼246) and the U.K (n¼236) between
June and July 2009. Before filling out a questionnaire, tourists with
children and those travelling in tour groups were excluded, since
their local food choice could be affected by their children or their
tour itinerary (Kang & Hsu, 2005).
The potential participants were asked whether they had an
interest in filling out a questionnaire concerning motivation related
to local food experiences, and those who agreed to participate in
the survey completed the self-completion questionnaire in the
presence of research assistants. Respondents were approached on
the streets, around shopping malls and restaurants, in tourist
attractions and the airports. The questionnaires were immediately
collected upon their completion. In total, 600 self-administered
questionnaires were distributed and 482 usable questionnaires
were finally obtained (80.3%). A total of 246 responses collected in
Spain and 236 responses collected in the U.K. were compared on
four demographic characteristics (gender, age, education, and
income) to assess the probability of response bias using
c
2
analysis
(Hung & Petrick, 2010). Although there was a significant difference
in age groups (
c
2
¼29.51, P¼.00), no other significant differences
were detected between the sample groups. As such, it can be
assumed that the probability of response bias is minimal. In terms
of ages, the largest age group of respondents obtained from Spain
was between 25 and 34 years, whilst the 35e44 years was the
largest age group among the U.K. sample.
A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine
construct validity (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Fornell & Larcker,
1981). CFA using the maximum likelihood method was calculated
using Amos 7.0 software. CFA was applied as it allows the specifi-
cation and estimation of one or several hypothesised factor struc-
tures, each of which suggests a set of latent variables to account for
the covariance amongst a set of observed variables (Anderson &
Gerbing, 1988). In terms of the ‘model fit test’, the magnitude of
standardised factor loadings on the latent construct should be
greater than .5 in order to achieve a more meaningful and inter-
pretable solution of a measurement (Hung & Petrick, 2010;
Netemeyer et al., 2003). Past literature has suggested that it
should be necessary to confirm other model fit indices rather than
only adopting the
c
2
value measures as a reference to supplement
the model evaluation, because the
c
2
is influenced by the sample
size (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Bohmstedt & Borgatta, 1981; Hair
et al., 2006; Kim & Li, 2009). Hence the following fit indices in the
current study were adopted: goodness-of-fit index (GFI), adjust
goodness-of-fit index (AGFI), normed fit index (NFI), and the
comparative fit index (CFI) should be greater than .9; root mean
square error of approximation (RMSEA) should be less than .1; and
c
2
relative value to degree of freedom (
c
2
/d.f) should not exceed 3.
The finding of two CFAs yielded five dimensions named: 1)
cultural experience, 2) interpersonal relation, 3) excitement, 4)
sensory appeal, and 5) health concern. Two problematic items were
removed resulting in a five factor correlated structure with
acceptable fit in both cases: ‘tasting local food on holiday takes me
away from the crowds and noise’; and ‘it is important to me totaste
local food in its original regions’(Table 5). Standardised loadings of
these items were lower than .5, as recommended by prior studies
(Netemeyer et al., 2003). More specifically, in the result of the first
CFA and reliability tests, mostof the model fit indices demonstrated
a good fit with:
c
2
(d.f) ¼565.52 (279);
c
2
/d.f ¼2.03; p-value ¼.00;
GFI ¼.85; AGFI ¼.81; NFI ¼.93; CFI ¼.96; and RMSEA ¼.06.
Additionally, Fornell and Larcker (1981) proposed that convergent
validity can be demonstrated by showing internal consistency,
referring to the degree of interrelatedness among the observed
items by using unidimensionality and average variance extracted
(AVE). In this study, convergent validity was demonstrated by the
AVE ranging from .78 to .90, exceeding the cut-off value of .5. In the
result of the second CFA and reliability tests, 24 observed indicators
associated with the five factors were identified. The overall fit index
displayed an acceptable level of fit:
c
2
(d.f) ¼509.42 (282);
c
2
/
d.f ¼1.81; p-value ¼.00; GFI ¼.87; AGFI ¼.83; NFI ¼.93; CFI ¼.97;
and RMSEA ¼.06 (Table 6). Additionally, all indicators of the AVE
Table 4
Exploratory factor analysis results for the initial measurement scale.
Dimensions Mean (SD) Factor
loading
Cultural experience (.95
a
):
Experiencing local food enables me to
learn what this local food tastes like
5.99 (1.05) .949
Tasting local food served by local people
in its original place offers a unique
opportunity to understand local cultures
5.89 (1.09) .930
Experiencing local food allows me
discover something new
5.89 (1.05) .888
Experiencing local food makes me see
the things that I don’t normally see
5.57 (1.18) .885
Experiencing local food helps me see
how other people live
6.05 (1.06) .875
Tasting local food in its traditional
setting is a special experience
5.36 (1.25) .864
Experiencing local food gives me an
opportunity to increase my knowledge
about different cultures
5.47 (1.10) .864
Tasting local food in an original place
is an authentic experience
5.74 (1.20) .748
Excitement (.88):
Experience of local food in its original
place makes me excited
5.07 (1.67) .885
Tasting local food on holiday helps
me to relax
5.36 (1.39) .970
Tasting local food makes me feel exhilarated 5.23 (1.56) .822
When tasting local food I have an
expectation that it is exciting
5.86 (1.56) .734
Tasting local food on holiday makes
me not worry about routine
5.28 (1.53) .685
Tasting local food on holiday takes me
away from the crowds and noise
4.52 (1.65) .627
Interpersonal relation (.86):
I like to talk to everybody about my
local food experiences
6.21 (.96) .897
Having local food increases friendship
or kinship
6.12 (.98) .863
I want to give advice about local food
experiences to people who want to travel
5.96 (.97) .806
Tasting local food enables me to have an
enjoyable time with friends and/or family
5.42 (1.18) .771
It is important to me to taste local food
in its original regions
5.61 (1.10) .606
Sensory appeal (.95):
It is important to me that the local food
I eat on holiday smells nice
5.42 (1.48) .940
It is important to me that the local food
I eat on holiday tastes good
5.53 (1.23) .931
It is important to me that the local food
I eat on holiday looks nice
5.55 (1.26) .930
The taste of local food in its original
countries is different to the taste of
same food in own my country
5.29 (1.66) .929
Health concern (.90):
Local food is nutritious 4.52 (1.73) .926
Local food contains a lot of fresh
ingredients produced in a local area
4.63 (1.70) .880
Tasting local food keeps me healthy 4.83 (1.63) .843
KMO: .826, Bartlett test of Sphericity: 22,521.139, Sig.: .00, each item has a 7-point
Likert response set: disagree strongly to agree strongly.
a
Coefficient
a
.
Y.G. Kim, A. Eves / Tourism Management 33 (2012) 1458e1467 1463

with each factor exceeded the recommended value of .5 for
convergent validity.
As shown in Table 5, construct validity was evaluated by exam-
ining the standardised factor loadings within the constructs, the
AVE, and the correlation between constructs (Anderson & Gerbing,
1988). Standardised factor loadings on all latent constructs were
satisfactory, showing satisfactory item convergence on the intended
constructs (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988).
Discriminant validity refers to the extent of dissimilarity
between the intended measure and the measures used to indicate
different constructs (Hair et al., 2006). Mean values for the
constructs were compared to correlations between the constructs,
and the correlation test was used to examine discriminant validity
of the measurement. According to Hung and Petrick (2010),
discriminant validity is problematic when the correlation between
two variables is greater than .85. In this study, all correlations were
lower than .85, therefore, discriminant validity was established.
Criterion-related validity, which assesses external validity of
a measurement scale, was proved by the extent to which the data
exhibit evidence of predictive validity using future criterions (Hair
et al., 2006). Future intention was measured using two items: ‘I
would eat local food again in this destination’: and ‘I would
recommend this food to my friends’. Factor loadings of the variables
ranged from .93 to .96, and the Cronbach alpha coefficient was 92.
The mean factor score for ‘future intention’was derived by aver-
aging the individual item scores under this factor. Moderate and
strong correlation coefficients ranging from .32 to .58 between
motivational factors and future intention showed evidence that this
measurement can correctly predict what it should theoretically be
able to predict among two data sets (Table 7).
6. Discussion
Although the importance of tourists’motivations to taste local
food in a destination has begun to form an academic debate in the
last decade, existing studies investigating motivations to taste local
food are at an early stage and as such, are still establishing their
basic tenets. For instance, Fields (2002) and Kim et al. (2009)
reported tourist motives prompting them to experience local food
on trips and holidays, however, their arguments seemed to be not
only theoretically limited within the context of existing literature,
but also they did not provide any empirical evidence. Thus, this
study empirically developed the theoretical argument (Fields,
Table 5
Confirmatory factor analysis results for final measurement scale.
Dimensions Data set 1 (n¼246) Data set 2 (n¼236)
Std. loadings Critical ratio AVE Std. loadings Critical ratio AVE
Cultural experience: .78 .81
Experiencing local food enables me to learn what this local food tastes like .986 Fixed .994 Fixed
Tasting local food served by local people in its original place offers a
unique opportunity to understand local cultures
.921 33.324 .983 67.320
Experiencing local food allows me discover something new .949 40.145 .960 48.495
Experiencing local food makes me see the things that I don’t normally see .810 20.683 .838 23.058
Experiencing local food helps me see how other people live .698 14.866 .693 14.562
Tasting local food in its traditional setting is a special experience .666 13.361 .695 14.699
Experiencing local food gives me an opportunity to increase
my knowledge about different cultures
.633 12.541 .705 15.047
Tasting local food in an original place is an authentic experience .622 12.191 .608 11.647
Excitement: .71 .73
Experience of local food in its original place makes me excited .986 Fixed .973 Fixed
Tasting local food on holiday helps me to relax .961 40.635 .969 38.954
Tasting local food makes me feel exhilarated .802 19.937 .809 19.596
When tasting local food I have an expectation that it is exciting .657 13.242 .678 13.553
Tasting local food on holiday makes me not worry about routine .615 11.917 .668 13.204
Interpersonal relation: .90 .89
I like to talk to everybody about my local food experiences .905 Fixed .949 Fixed
Having local food increases friendship or kinship .998 32.274 .974 34.437
I want to give advice about local food experiences to people
who want to travel
.980 30.441 .807 18.704
Tasting local food enables me to have an enjoyable time
with friends and/or family
.745 19.016 .862 22.182
Sensory appeal: .90 .92
It is important to me that the local food I eat on holiday smells nice .991 Fixed .977 Fixed
It is important to me that the local food I eat on holiday tastes good .973 47.503 .869 24.369
It is important to me that the local food I eat on holiday looks nice .818 21.333 .978 43.526
The taste of local food in its original countries is different to the
taste of same food in own my country
.825 21.806 .858 23.590
Health concern: .91 .89
Local food is nutritious .992 Fixed .992 Fixed
Local food contains a lot of fresh ingredients produced in a local area .996 99.591 .915 33.023
Tasting local food keeps me healthy .755 17.774 .772 18.238
Table 6
Goodness-of-fit Indexes for the measurement.
Index Cut-off value Data set 1 (n¼246) Data set 2 (n¼236)
Model
c
2
(d.f). N/A 565.52 (279) 509.42 (282)
c
2
/d.f <3.0 2.03 1.81
p-value <.05 .00 .00
GFI >.9 .85 .87
AGFI >.9 .81 .83
NFI >.9 .93 .93
CFI >.9 .96 .97
RMSEA <.05: good fit .06 .06
<.08: mediocre fit
Y.G. Kim, A. Eves / Tourism Management 33 (2012) 1458e1467146 4

2002; Kim et al., 2009), based on empirical surveys and supported
by previous research. In response to this process, the current study
is seen as representing one of the first efforts to propose motiva-
tional factors prompting tourists to experience local food in tourist
destinations. Moreover, this research lays a theoretical foundation
for further work on motivations for food experiences in tourism,
and future empirical research will benefit from the existence of
relevant construct definitions.
Following the accepted scale development procedure (DeVellis,
2003; Netemeyer et al., 2003), the current study developed
a measurement scale for tourist motivation to taste local food and
beverages in a tourist destination. The scale development process
began with a definition of the constructs and identification of items
followed by a series of steps to refine the instruments and prove its
reliability and validity. The final scale comprised cultural experi-
ence, interpersonal relation, excitement, sensory appeal, and health
concern.
The first factor was named ‘cultural experience’, and comprised 8
items. Interestingly, Kim et al. (2009) proposed that ‘cultural expe-
rience’can be divided into ‘learning knowledge’and ‘authentic
experience’, however this study identified that items relating to
‘learning knowledge’and ‘authentic experience’were grouped in
one factor, ‘cultural experience’. This is not considered to be
a problem, and expert judgement also indicated that both constructs
could be grouped in ‘cultural experience’. Existing literature has
indicated that ‘cultural experience’at a tourist destination can
include ‘learning knowledge’such as learning about history and
understanding different countries, and ‘authentic experience’, such
as exploring authentic cultures and experience of unique cultures.
For instance, Hjalager (2003) pointed out that during holidays,
eating a particular dish and drinking a local beverage means sharing
the local food culture. Also, Getz (2000) stated that local food
experience can provide the chance to learn local culture, how to eat
and drink as local people do. To summarise, this finding is consistent
with past research (Crompton & McKay, 1997; Getz, 2000; Hjalager,
2003) in that tasting local food at a tourist destinationcan be seenas
experiencing a different cultural tradition.
‘Sensory appeal’has been considered as a basic determinant of
food choice in that people pay attention to sensory characteristics
in their search for new food experiences (Pollard et al., 1998). The
current study included the importance of sensory appeal in local
food consumption at tourist destinations and demonstrated its
importance. The result is supported by prior research (Boniface,
2003; Dann & Jacobsen, 2002; Kim et al., 2009; Kivela & Crotts,
2006). These studies have suggested that a tourist’s need to expe-
rience diversity should be associated with sensory pleasure
through touch, smell, taste and/or sight experiences.
The ‘interpersonal relation’construct was created by combining
the previously nominatedfactors ‘togetherness’and ‘prestige’.Thatis,
this motivation can widely contain items, meaning socialisation,
family togetherness, and the notion of self-expression to others. Thus
‘interpersonal relation’can be seen as reciprocal, social and emotional
interactions between people. This proposition is supported by past
literature (Fodness, 1994; Hallberg, 2003; Pollard et al., 2002), indi-
cating that ‘interpersonal relation’is a desire to spend time with
family and/or friends as well as a need to meet new people from
beyond the normal circle of acquaintance. Shim, Gehrt, and Siek
(2005) further added that ‘interpersonal relation’can be realised
through travel, and given the nature of tourism as places where many
people with a common interest are gathered together, interpersonal
relation is an outstanding motivator in travel. Past studies have
shown that eating food during holidays can allow tourists to be
differentiated from others and share their preference or taste with
people in destinations, taking into account social and emotional
interactions between people (Fields, 2002; Pollard et al., 2002). To
sum up, the current research concluded that tasting local food is not
only an opportunity to meet and communicate with others but also
plays a role in ego-enhancement or self-satisfaction.
‘Excitement’was set up as a combination of ‘exciting experience’
and ‘escape from routine’. This result showing two motivations in
the same dimension is supported by Mayo and Jarvis (1981), who
suggested that the two concepts (‘exciting’and ‘escape from
routine’)can be widely seen as a similar psychological outcome.
According to Iso-Ahola (1982), tourist motivations are influenced
by both a process of escaping and seeking personal rewards, that is,
tourists do not just have an escape attitude towards taking
a holiday, they also seek new experiences. Also, Mansfeld (1992)
suggested that the travel motivation comes from looking outside
for what individuals cannot find inside. Such needs have been
largely created by society and shaped by routine. Thus, this study
proposed that motives to taste local food, related to exciting
experience and escape from routine can be recognised as being one
motivation, ‘excitement’.
In terms of ‘health concern’, the finding of this study is consis-
tent with past studies (Glanz et al., 1998; Mooney & Walbourn,
2001; Sparks et al., 2003). In the context of food, Glanz et al.
(1998) demonstrated that the most important factor in food
consumption is healthy lifestyle orientation, and Mooney and
Walbourn (2001) revealed that people avoiding certain foods ten-
ded to worry about weight, health and unnatural ingredients.
However, the present study identified that eating local foods can be
motivated through increasing tourists’well being and health.
7. Conclusions and implications
The current study established a reliable and valid, 26 item scale
to measure the factors motivating tourists toconsume local foods in
tourist destinations, based on British tourists.
Table 7
Correlations of final measurement scale.
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
Data set 1 Data set 2 Data set 1 Data set 2 Data set 1 Data set 2 Data set 1 Data set 2 Data set 1 Data set 2 Data set 1 Data set 2
F1 Cultural experience 1 1
F2 Excitement .35 .10 1 1
F3 Interpersonal relation .01 .07 .11 .06 1 1
F4 Sensory appeal .06 .02 .04 .07 .12 .07 1 1
F5 Health Concern .06 .06 .15
*
.14
*
.04 .06 .34
**
.27
**
11
F6 Future intention .58
*
.78
*
.45
*
.39
*
.41 .40 .58
*
.52
**
.42 .32 1 1
No. of items 8 8 6 6 4 4 4 4 3 3 2 2
Mean 5.94 5.94 4.77 4.77 5.77 5.77 5.39 5.39 4.69 4.69 5.82 5.72
Standardised deviations .89 .89 1.43 1.43 1.25 1.25 1.35 1.35 1.59 1.59 1.22 1.26
*p<.05, **p<.01.
Y.G. Kim, A. Eves / Tourism Management 33 (2012) 1458e1467 1465

The study adds to a growing body of literature on tourism and
food, by establishing representative constructs of tourist
consumption of local food at tourist destinations. This study inte-
grated the two bodies of travel motivations and food choice
research, which has also been little studied. That is, the current
study identified nominated motivations, by combining literature on
tourism and food research, and these were theoretically and
empirically supported by both research areas. Therefore, this study
not only suggests key motivations, derived from empirical evidence
but also provides an example to be further examined in future
research in combined research fields.
In terms of the general practical and managerial implications of
the present study, the findings provide useful information for
marketers of tourism and the food industries. Motivations found in
this study have shown why tourists taste local food and beverages
on their travels. Hence, marketers should design marketing
communications in a way which can motivate tourists to try local
food during their holidays, based on the results showing key
motivations. For example, marketers should offer opportunities
related to local food, such as taking traditional cookery classes or
visiting local food museums, because tourists’desire to learn about
a different culture can be realised by experiencing local food. With
regard to sensory appeal, marketers should understand that in
regions where consumption of regional cuisine is part of the tourist
experience, consumption of local food can enrich tourist experi-
ences by reinforcing a sense of unique regional identity and place.
Hence, they should encourage cooks and chefs to develop the
kitchen skills to produce better taste, smells and appearance of
local foods. Also they should make an effort to emphasise the
authenticity of local cuisine by appealing to the sense of the
traditional taste, smells and appearance of food. ‘Interpersonal
relation’includes social interaction with other people. Thus,
marketers should emphasise that attending local food events and
festivals offers a means for tourists to meet local people who have
a similar interest in local foods. In addition, offering fresh locally
grown foods, which have not travelled great distances, may satisfy
the health concern of the tourists.
As expected in all research, several limitations were found and
should be addressed to encourage more effective research in the
future. The primary drawback of this study is its generalisability.
Even though data collection was performed in different destina-
tions, the resultant measurement scale may be limited to the British
population only. Research with samples from other populations,
and replications would enable the conclusions to be validated in
other cultural groups and give evidence of generalisability. Thus,
further testing of the measurement scale developed in this study is
necessary to examine if it is applicable to other regions. Although
this study attempted to cover all aspect of tourists’motivations to
consume local food and beverages by examining the literature and
by conducting a broad range of research, it is recognised that some
aspects of motivations to consume local food and beverages may
have been overlooked. Therefore, in future research, researchers of
tourist local food experiences should reveal new information about
motivations to consume local food at destinations by reviewing
many research areas (e.g., tourism, hospitality, food, marketing,
psychology, sociology, etc). Continued refinement of the measure-
ment scale proposed and supported in this study is certainly
possible with further research. Moreover, such investigations and
modifications could include the addition and/or deletion of items,
or even a modification of the factor structure if so indicated. These
will have to be incorporated intothe scale to ensure avalid measure
of factors affecting consumption of local food on holidays and trips
on a continuing basis. Additionally, it would be interesting to
analyse the effect of different factors, constructs or scales on local
food consumption of tourists in future research.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by 2011 Research Grant from Kang-
won National University.
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