Content uploaded by Andrei C. Miu
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Andrei C. Miu
Content may be subject to copyright.
DOES EVERYBODY LIKE VIVALDI’S FOUR
SEASONS? AFFECTIVE SPACE AND A COMPARISON
OF MUSIC-INDUCED EMOTIONS BETWEEN
MUSICIANS AND NON-MUSICIANS
Felicia Rodica BALTEŞ
*
, Mircea MICLEA & Andrei C. MIU
Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychology,
Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
ABSTRACT
The present study investigated the affective space of the entire twelve movements of
Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, and compared music-induced affect between musicians
and non-musicians. The participants listened to each of the movements of the
concertos, in shuffled order, and rated the emotional arousal and valence of each
movement immediately after listening to it. We controlled for the affective mood
before the experiment, and the familiarity with each movement of the concertos. All
the movements of the concertos were perceived as pleasant, but with varying
degrees of emotional activation. Emotional valence varied between the peaceful
Adagio Molto Autumn and the joyful Allegro Spring 1. The movements with slow
tempos were perceived as the least activating, whereas the most emotionally
activating was the Tempo Impetuoso D’Estate. The comparison between musicians
and non-musicians indicated that the former perceived the Adagio Molto Autumn
as more activating and the Allegro Non Molto Summer as less pleasant than the
latter. We suggest that these differences may be related to the increased focus of
musicians’ aesthetic judgments on the originality and novelty of musical structures.
These results support the view that there are only discrete differences in music-
induced affect between musicians and non-musicians.
KEYWORDS: music, affectt, affective space, musical training, Vivaldi’s Four
Seasons
*
Corresponding author:
E-mail: rodicabaltes@gmail.com
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
Copyright © 2012 ASCR Publishing House. All rights reserved.
ISSN: 1224-8398
Volume XVI, No. 1 (March), 107-119
F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
16 (2012) 107-119
108
INTRODUCTION
Music fascinates us in so many ways. The power of music may lie within its ability
to induce or modulate precious emotional states. Indeed, using various methods
such as written reports, interviews or experience sampling, psychologists have
shown that music can evoke a wide range of strong, self-relevant emotions
(Gabrielsson & Lindström, 1993). Some of these emotions (e.g., wonder or feeling
moved and admiring, transcendence or feeling overwhelmed and inspired) are more
often induced by music compared to words or images (Zentner, Grandjean, &
Scherer, 2008). Music can also be an agent of change or a promoter of the
intensification or release of the existing emotions (Sloboda, 1992). For instance,
music can intensify positive affect, vigilance and focus in the present, or facilitate
emotion regulation functions (DeNora, 1999; Juslin, Liljestrom, Vastfjall, Barradas,
& Silva, 2008; Sloboda, O'Neil, & Ivaldi, 2001).
In line with similar efforts focused on the standardization of emotional
words or pictures, Vieillard et al. (2008) have created the first archive of musical
stimuli with affective norms. Such normatively-rated affective stimuli allow better
experimental control in the selection of emotional stimuli, and facilitate the
comparison of results across different studies conducted in the same or different
laboratory (Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 2005). The archive of Vieillard et al. (2008)
includes short (mean 12.4 s), computer-generated musical stimuli. Such short
stimuli have already been useful in describing the minimal time that is necessary for
the successful classification of music according to emotional content. For instance,
listeners without musical training were able to distinguish between cheerful and sad
music in less than half a second from the beginning of the audition (Peretz, Gagnon,
& Bouchard, 1998). However, the use of short stimuli in the study of music-induced
emotions may be limited by several factors. The processing of emotional valence
may be difficult in the case of short musical stimuli with low dynamics (Bigand,
Vieillard, Madurell, Marozeau, & Dacquet, 2005). In addition, familiarity and the
level of musical training influence the recognition of tunes, and these effects may
be less obvious when short stimuli are used (Dalla Bella, Peretz, & Aronoff, 2003).
Moreover, although studies using short musical stimuli emphasized that the
recognition of basic emotions happens rapidly, several seconds may not be enough
time for the full-blown psychophysiological responses associated with music-
induced emotions to develop. For instance, listening to a musically-complex and
dramatically-coherent excerpt from Tosca induced positive emotion and autonomic
arousal, seen in faster heart rate, but slower respiration rate and reduced skin
conductance in comparison to baseline (Baltes, Avram, Miclea, & Miu, 2011). It
has been argued that the complex arrangement of musical elements that is
characteristic of everyday life music inspires a global affective response
(Altenmuller, Schurmann, Lim, & Parlitz, 2002), and the use of entire musical
pieces has a greater external validity when one investigates the emotional responses
F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
16 (2012) 107-119
109
to music (Baltes et al., 2011; Levitin, 2006; Rickard, 2004). Therefore, the aim of
the present study was to explore the affective space of an entire musical
composition. We chose to use Vivaldi’s Four Seasons because we suspected that
the extensive popularity of this composition may be related to its emotional content.
The Four Seasons has been previously used in cognitive research that investigated
the effects of music on memory or categorization tasks in older adults
(Mammarella, Fairfield, & Cornoldi, 2007; Thompson, Moulin, Hayre, & Jones,
2005). Clearly, in light of the rapidly developing literature on music and cognition,
mapping the affective space of everyday music will become increasingly necessary.
The affective space of select musical stimuli has started to be mapped on
the two dimensions of emotional arousal and valence (Grewe, Nagel, Kopiez, &
Altenmuller, 2007; Vieillard et al., 2008). In Russell’s circumplex model, the
conceptual distance between different emotions and the structure of affective
experience are represented by a circle that has pleasure and displeasure (i.e.,
valence) on the extremes of the left-right axis, and activation and sleepiness (i.e.,
arousal) on the extremes of the upper-lower axis (Russell, 1980). Using the
multidimensional scale method, which allows for emotions to be investigated
without the use of linguistic labels, another study confirmed that emotional
activation and valence are representative dimensions of music-induced emotions
(Bigand et al., 2005). For instance, excerpts from Bach and Mahler were both
perceived as pleasant, but they were distinguished by different degrees of emotional
arousal (Flores-Gutierrez et al., 2007). Therefore, the present study used self-report
measures of music-induced emotional arousal and valence.
Another important aim of this study was to investigate whether there are
differences in music-induced emotions between musicians and non-musicians. The
traditional view is that in comparison to non-musicians, musicians have subtler and
more complex knowledge about the musical tonalities typical to their culture, and
they use it in order to improve their musical perception and memory (Dowling,
1978; Krumhansl & Shepard, 1979). This perspective has been supported by studies
from cognitive neuroscience, which identified various neuroanatomical and
neurophysiological differences between musicians and non-musicians. For instance,
musicians displayed increased grey matter density in Heschl’s gyrus (i.e., primary
auditory cortex) and early auditory N19-P30 evoked potentials; these differences
correlated with the musicality score on the Advance Measures of Music Audiation
test (Hutchinson, Lee, Gaab, & Schlaug, 2003; Schlaug, Jancke, Huang, Staiger, &
Steinmetz, 1995). However, non-musicians are also able to learn the tonal
principles of their cultural musical idiom, and they accurately use this knowledge in
music processing tasks in order to differentiate tonal from atonal melodies, for
instance (Bartlett & Dowling, 1980; Frances, 1988). The emerging view is that all
music listeners, whether musicians or non-musicians, may share a certain form of
musical knowledge, which gives meaning to the music that they listen to (Halpern,
F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
16 (2012) 107-119
110
Bartlett, & Dowling, 1995). However, it is unclear whether music-induced affect is
similar in musicians and non-musicians.
Comparisons between musicians and non-musicians suggested that
aesthetic judgments are also grounded on a common conceptual content that may be
somewhat modified by musical expertise (Ystok et al., 2009). Using a verbal
association task, it was shown that non-musicians generated more adjectives
connected to the mood or emotional balance related to music, whereas musicians
appreciated the inciting features of music, its novelty and originality (Ystok et al.,
2009). The emotional categorization of short musical stimuli was equally reliable in
musicians and non-musicians (Bigand et al., 2005). Using positron emission
tomography, Blood and Zatorre (2001) found that the intensity of music-induced
chills is associated with increased cerebral blood flow in reward areas (e.g., ventral
striatum, midbrain, amygdala, orbitofrontal and ventral medial prefrontal cortex).
This study included only musicians, on the assumption that this population is more
likely to experience strong emotional responses to music, although the authors
acknowledged that music training is not necessary to experience these responses
(Blood & Zatorre, 2001). Clearly, further studies are required in order to clarify
whether musical training impacts music-induced emotions.
The objectives of the present study were: (1) to explore the affective space
of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons; and (2) to compare the emotional arousal and valence of
the Four Seasons between musicians and non-musicians. Although Vivaldi’s
masterpiece is widely known, we expected differences in familiarity between
musicians and non-musicians, and consequently we controlled for this variable in
the comparisons of emotional responses. We hypothesized that the movements of
Vivaldi’s Four Seasons would cover the entire affective space (i.e., positive and
negative valence with varying degrees of emotional arousal), considering the
composer’s intention to suggest the features of different seasons in his music.
Another hypothesis was that, although we controlled for differences in familiarity
with this particular composition, musicians would perceive the Four Seasons as less
emotionally activating and pleasant than non-musicians, due to their knowledge of
baroque music style.
M
ATERIALS AND METHODS
Participants
N = 16 musicians and N = 14 non-musicians with ages from 22 to 40 years (mean
age = 28 years), with good hearing abilities and no neurological disease records,
have taken part in this experiment. The musicians group included instrument
players and choir members from the National Opera House from Cluj-Napoca,
Romania. The musicians benefited of an average of ten years of musical education
and they were actively involved in musical activity at the time of this study. The
non-musicians were recruited from the population of students in psychology from
F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
16 (2012) 107-119
111
Babes-Bolyai University. They did not report any specific musical education, but
they all stated (i.e., inclusion criterion for this study) that they frequently listened to
music and appreciate classical music.
Materials
The musical stimuli comprised the twelve movements of the Four Seasons by
Antonio Vivaldi, performed by the Concerto Amsterdam orchestra conducted by
Jaap Schröder (Hmf Musique D'abord, 2000). The movements, with durations
between 1’30’’ and 5’30’’, were presented randomly (i.e., shuffled playlist) to the
participants using a laptop and Logitech amplifying system set to a comfortable
volume level.
Immediately after the arrival at the laboratory, the participants filled in the
general affect part of Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS-I) (Watson &
Clark, 1994), which measures affective mood in the past few weeks until present.
Emotional responses to music were measured on two 5-point Likert scales for
arousal and valence. A third similar Likert scale measured the familiarity with the
music. The extremes of the scales (e.g., whether 1 on the valence scale denoted
“pleasant” or “unpleasant”) were counterbalanced between the concertos’
†
movements. Each scale was explained to the participants, and they were warned
that the extremes of the scales change from one movement to another, so they
should pay attention to this aspect.
Procedure
After they completed PANAS-I, all the participants were taken to the laboratory
where they listened to the musical stimuli in group. Before the first musical
stimulus was played, the participants were informed that they will listen to
Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, and were asked to attentively listen to the music no matter
how familiar it was. The order in which the parts were presented was the following:
1. Adagio Summer;
2. La Caccia: Allegro Autumn;
3. Tempo Impetuoso D’Estate Summer;
4. Allegro Non Molto Winter;
5. Allegro Winter;
6. Largo e Pianissimo Sempre Spring;
7. Adagio Molto Autumn;
8. Largo Winter;
9. Allegro Spring 1;
10. Allegro Autumn;
†
Although usually presented together nowadays, each of the Four Seasons were written as
individual violin concertos that were part of a larger set of twelve concertos (Vivaldi’s Opus 8)
entitled The Contest between Harmony and Invention.
F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
16 (2012) 107-119
112
11. Allegro Spring 2;
12. Allegro Non Molto Summer.
Immediately after each part, the participants were instructed to use the
scales that had been handed to them at the start of the experiment, in order to
evaluate how activated the music made them feel (i.e., emotional arousal), how
much they liked it (i.e., emotional valence), and how familiar the music was to them
(i.e., degree of familiarity). There was no time limit, and each stage of the
experiment (i.e., music listening followed by questionnaires) continued only when
all the participants had finished completing the scales and unless they asked for a
break.
R
ESULTS
Affective space. Repeated measure ANOVAs indicated that there were significant
differences between the movements of the concertos on emotional arousal (F[11,
18] = 30.65, p < 0.0001, partial η
2
= 0.82), valence (F[11, 18] = 2.69, p < 0.002,
partial η
2
= 0.064), and familiarity (F[11, 18] = 10.57, p < 0.0001, partial η
2
= 0.16).
An inspection of the affective space (Fig. 1) indicates that all the movements were
perceived as pleasant (i.e., emotional valence scores above three), with the Adagio
Molto Autumn having the smallest (score = 3.63) valence score (i.e., least pleasant)
and the Allegro Spring 1 having the highest valence score (score = 4.67). The
emotional arousal of the movements varied from the least activating part, the Largo
e Pianissimo Sempre Spring (score = 1.63), to the most activating one, the Tempo
Impetuoso D’Estate Summer (score = 4.47).
The comparison of affect between musicians and non-musicians. In order to control
for differences in familiarity with the musical stimuli, we first compared the
familiarity scores between musicians and non-musicians. The results of the Student
t-tests indicated that in comparison to non-musicians, musicians were more familiar
with all the parts (t[10] = 13.08, p < 0.0001, Cohen’s d = 1.36). The sole exception
was the Allegro Spring 1, which was equally familiar to both musicians and non-
musicians. Therefore, we included the familiarity scores in the ANCOVA analyses
that compared emotional arousal and valence between musicians and non-
musicians, for all musical stimuli except the Allegro Spring. It is worth mentioning
that there were no differences in previous affective mood between musicians and
non-musicians (i.e., PANAS scores’ mean ± SEM: 27.63 ± 2.81 for musicians, and
29.07 ± 6.59 for non-musicians), and consequently this variable was not included as
a covariate in the following statistical analyses.
Musical education had a significant effect on the emotional arousal scores
of the Adagio Molto Autumn (F[1, 28] = 7.25, p < 0.01, partial η
2
= 0.2), with
musicians having perceived this movement as more activating than non-musicians.
F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
16 (2012) 107-119
113
There were also significant differences between emotional valence scores of the
Allegro Non Molto Summer (F[1, 28] = 5.63, p < 0.02, partial η
2
= 0.13), with
musicians having perceived this movement as less pleasant than non-musicians.
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
VALENCE
AROUSAL
Allegro Spring 1
Largo E Pianissimo Sempre Spring
Alegro Spring 2
Alegro Non M olto Summer
Adagio Summer
Tempo Impetuoso D'estate Summer
Allegro Autumn
Adagio Molto Autumn
La Caccia: Alegro Autumn
Allegro Non Molto Winter
Largo Winter
Allegro W inter
Figure 1.
The affective space of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons.
F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
16 (2012) 107-119
114
DISCUSSION
This study explored the affective space of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, as well as the
potential differences between musicians and non-musicians on the affect induced by
this musical composition. In line with others who argued that the use entire musical
pieces or at least musically and dramatically coherent excerpts has a greater
external validity when one investigates the affective responses to music (Baltes et
al., 2011; Levitin, 2006; Rickard, 2004), the aim of the present study was to map
the affective space of all the twelve parts of the Four Seasons. It has also been
argued that the effects of musical training on music processing is discrete and may
be less obvious when short, artificial stimuli are used (Dalla Bella et al., 2003).
Therefore, using the entire Four Seasons in the present study offered an appropriate
experimental setting for us to observe the effects of musical education on music-
induced emotions.
Vivaldi wanted to suggest the features of different seasons in his four
concertos, which he also appended by explicatory sonnets. Each of the Four
Seasons includes a central largo preceded and followed by two fast movements,
alternating tutti and solo passages – the tuttis express the dominant mood of the
piece (e.g., joyfulness of the first movement of the Spring, frightfulness of the first
movement in the Winter), and the solos describe the pictorial details or allusions
(e.g., songs of birds, a tumble on glare ice) (Pincherle, 1957). In light of the
composer’s intention to express different feelings associated with the Four Seasons,
and considering the differences between the movements of each concerto, which
range in dynamics (i.e., from piano at the softest points to forte at the loudest parts)
and tempo (i.e., from slow to fast), we expected that the concertos would cover the
entire affective space, with movements that represent positive and negative valence
with varying degrees of emotional arousal.
A visual inspection of the affective space presented in Fig. 1 clearly
indicates that the slow movements had the lowest arousal scores. The Largo e
pianissimo sempre from the Spring was the least activating movement from all the
concertos. Therefore, the present results suggest that the differences in tempo were
the major influence on the perceived emotional arousal of the movements in
Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, and extend previous observations on the relationship
between music tempo and emotional arousal (Holbrook, 1990; Husain, Thompson,
& Schellenberg, 2002; Scherer & Zentner, 2001). The valence scores were
exclusively distributed in the right half of the affective space, that is, all the
movements were perceived as pleasant. However, there were significant differences
between the valence scores of various movements, with the Adagio molto from the
Autumn being perceived as the least pleasant, and the first Allegro from the Spring
being the most pleasant. Whereas the former movement suggests the peacefulness
of outdoor sleep that follow the celebration of the harvest, the second suggests the
joyfulness associated with the happiness of birds, the flowing of streams and the
F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
16 (2012) 107-119
115
gentle blow of the zephyr. Therefore, the difference in valence between these
movements seems to distinguish between the peacefulness and joyfulness that the
composer wanted to suggest. The Allegro spring is also the most popular and best
known movement of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, with no differences in familiarity
between musicians and non-musicians in this study. Not surprisingly, excerpts from
this movement have also been used in previous psychophysiological research as
happy music. For instance, using several second excerpts from this movement,
(Krumhansl, 1997) found that it induced emotions of happiness, amusement and
contentment that were associated with faster breathing rate and decreased
respiration depth. The pleasant and activating affect associated with this movement
from Vivaldi’s Four Seasons may have contributed to its popularity among
listeners.
The literature on the effects of musical training on music processing
indicates that the differences between musicians and non-musicians may be more
subtle than originally expected. Persons without formal musical education, but
sufficiently exposed to their cultural musical idiom are “experienced listeners” who
are able to use the same grammatical musical structuring principles as the expert
musicians, although “in a more limited way” (Lerdhal & Jackendoff, 1983). For
instance, non-musicians effectively use the tonal principles of the Western music in
order to differentiate tonal from atonal melodies (Bartlett & Dowling, 1980;
Frances, 1988). Does this extend to music-induced affect and what would in this
case limit of similarities between experienced listeners and formally-trained
musicians mean?
By comparing between groups of musicians and non-musicians, the present
study found only two significant differences related to the emotional arousal
triggered by the Adagio molto autumn and the emotional valence induced by the
Allegro non-molto summer. We believe that these movements may not be
incidentally associated with affective differences between musicians and non-
musicians. Musicians’ aesthetic judgments may be focused on the novelty and
originality of music (Ystok et al., 2009) – with them being more familiar with the
features of the baroque musical style, the Adagio movement from the Autumn may
have stood out as more original and thus more inciting. Intriguingly, probably
Vivaldi also found this movement particularly original since he returned to it, by
simply transposing it and making it the middle movement (Il Sonno) of Opus 10,
no. 2 (Pincherle, 1957). Perhaps for the same reasons of novelty and originality, the
musicians in the present study found the Allegro Non-Molto Summer as less
pleasant than non-musicians. Quoting from Picherle’s (1957, p. 192) musical
analysis, this movement “fall[s] back into a more conventional realm with restless
figuration intended to depict […] the summer thunderstorm”. In summary, we
found discrete differences in affect between musicians and non-musicians, and we
suggest that these differences are related to the formal training in musical grammar
that gives musicians an advantage in appreciating the originality of a musical piece,
F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
16 (2012) 107-119
116
and detecting fine changes in musical structure (e.g., dynamics, intensity,
instrumentation, tonal norms).
The main limit of this study is related to the rather small sample size.
Although this sample is appropriate by traditional statistical standards for
comparing between the affect of musicians and non-musicians, it may be too small
to support the present arousal and valence scores as affective norms. Although
admittedly exploratory, these scores represent the first attempt of mapping the
affective space of an entire musical composition. We also speculate that the present
observations of positive affective valence reported for all the movements in
Vivaldi’s Four Seasons may at least partially explain the high popularity of these
concertos. People may look for exposure to such music as a form of self-
administered psychotherapy (Sloboda, 1985), considering that a common reason
that people invoke for listening to music is related to its positive effects on emotion
regulation and vigilance (DeNora, 1999; Juslin et al., 2008; Sloboda et al., 2001).
The present study may also have implications for clinical research. Such activating
and pleasant music has been shown to reduce burn-out symptoms and alleviate the
quality of life in burnout patients (Brandes et al., 2009), as well as enhance recovery
of verbal memory and focused attention, and prevent negative mood in early post-
stroke stage (Sarkamo et al., 2008). The present results inform the potential use of
Vivaldi’s Four Seasons in these interventions.
Another limit of this study may be related to the possibility that we
underestimated the differences between musicians and non-musicians by using
simple linguistic measures of arousal and valence, based on Russell’s circumplex
model of affect. Multidimensional measures of music-induced emotions such as the
Geneva Emotional Music Scales (Zentner et al., 2008) are increasingly used, and
we have used it ourselves in other studies (Baltes et al., 2011; Miu & Baltes, 2012).
However, we chose here the simpler measure of affect because it was easy to apply,
reliable, and allowed the direct comparison of different emotions based on the
representative dimensions of emotional arousal and valence (Bigand et al., 2005;
Flores-Gutierrez et al., 2007; Scherer, 2004). Nonetheless, musicians may be
trained to identify and express a greater variety of emotions associated with music,
and consequently the use of global measures of affect may underestimate
differences in music-induced affect between musicians and non-musicians.
In conclusion, the present study found that all the movements of Vivaldi’s
Four Seasons are perceived as pleasant, with slower movements inducing less
emotional arousal than faster movements. In addition, we found discrete differences
in the affect that this music induced in musicians and non-musicians, and suggest
that these differences are related to the increased focus of musicians on original
features of certain movements in relation to the others. This study encourages
efforts to map the affective space of entire musical compositions, which would be
useful in behavioral interventions aimed at supporting emotion regulation in
everyday life, and enhancing cognitive recovery in clinical populations.
F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
16 (2012) 107-119
117
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Diana Lungu for help with questionnaire scoring.
R
EFERENCES
Altenmuller, E., Schurmann, K., Lim, V. K., & Parlitz, D. (2002). Hits to the left, flops to
the right: different emotions during listening to music are reflected in cortical
lateralisation patterns. Neuropsychologia, 40, 2242-2256.
Baltes, F. R., Avram, J., Miclea, M., & Miu, A. C. (2011). Emotions induced by operatic
music: psychophysiological effects of music, plot, and acting: a scientist's tribute to
Maria Callas. Brain and Cognition, 76, 146-157.
Bartlett, J. C., & Dowling, W. J. (1980). The recognition of transposed melodies: A key
distance effect in developmental perspective. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Human Perception and Performance, 6, 501-515.
Bigand, E., Vieillard, S., Madurell, F., Marozeau, J., & Dacquet, A. (2005).
Multidimensional scaling of emotional responses to music; the effect of musical
expertise and of duration of the excerpts. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 1113-1139.
Blood, A. J., & Zatorre, R. J. (2001). Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with
activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98, 11818-11823.
Brandes, V., Terris, D. D., Fischer, C., Schuessler, M. N., Ottowitz, G., Titscher, G., et al.
(2009). Music programs designed to remedy burnout symptoms show significant
effects after five weeks. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1169, 422-
425.
Dalla Bella, S., Peretz, I., & Aronoff, N. (2003). Time course of melody recognition: a
gating paradigm study. Perception and Psychophysics, 65, 1019-1028.
DeNora, T. (1999). Music as a technology of the self. Poetics, 27, 31-36.
Dowling, W. (1978). Scale and contour: Two components of a theory of memory for
melodies. Psychological Review, 85, 341-354.
Flores-Gutierrez, E. O., Diaz, J. L., Barrios, F. A., Humara, R. F., Guevara, M. A., Rio-
Portilla, Y., et al. (2007). Metabolic and electric brain patterns during pleasant and
unpleasant emotions induced by music masterpieces. International Journal of
Psychology, 65, 69-84.
Frances, R. (1988). The perception of music (W. J. Dowling, Trans.). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Gabrielsson, A. S., & Lindström, E. (1993). On strong experiences of music.
Musikpsychologie, 10, 118-139.
Grewe, O., Nagel, F., Kopiez, R., & Altenmuller, E. (2007). Listening to music as a
recreative process: physiological, psychological, and psychoacoustical correlates of
chills and strong emotions. Music Perception, 24, 297-314.
Halpern, A. R., Bartlett, J. C., & Dowling, W. J. (1995). Aging and experience in the
recognition of musical transpositions. Psychology and Aging, 10, 325-342.
Holbrook, M. B. (1990). Effects of Tempo and Situational Arousal on the Listener's
Perceptual and Affective Responses to Music. Psychology of Music, 18, 150-162
F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
16 (2012) 107-119
118
Husain, G., Thompson, W. F., & Schellenberg, E. G. (2002). Effects of Musical Tempo and
Mode on Arousal, Mood, and Spatial Abilities. Music Perception, 20, 151–171.
Hutchinson, S., Lee, L. H., Gaab, N., & Schlaug, G. (2003). Cerebellar volume of musicians.
Cerebral Cortex, 13, 943-949.
Juslin, P. N., Liljestrom, S., Vastfjall, D., Barradas, G., & Silva, A. (2008). An experience
sampling study of emotional reactions to music: listener, music, and situation.
Emotion, 8, 668-683.
Krumhansl, C. L. (1997). An exploratory study of musical emotions and psychophysiology.
Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51, 336-352.
Krumhansl, C. L., & Shepard, R. N. (1979). Quantification of the hierarchy of tonal
functions within a diatonic context. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human
Perception and Performance, 5, 579-594.
Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2005). International affective picture system
(IAPS): Digitised photographs, instruction manual and affective ratings. (No. A-6
Technical Report). Gainesville: University of Florida.
Lerdhal, F., & Jackendoff, R. (1983). A generative theory of tonal music. Cambridge: MIT
Press.
Levitin, D. J. (2006). This Is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession. New
York: Dutton/Penguin.
Mammarella, N., Fairfield, B., & Cornoldi, C. (2007). Does music enhance cognitive
performance in healthy older adults? The Vivaldi effect. Aging Clinical and
Experimental Research, 19(5), 394-399.
Miu, A. C., & Baltes, F. R. (2012). Empathy manipulation impacts music-induced emotions:
a psychophysiological study on opera. PLoS One, 7, e30618.
Peretz, I., Gagnon, L., & Bouchard, B. (1998). Music and emotion: perceptual determinants,
immediacy and isolation after brain damage. Cognition, 68, 111-141.
Pincherle, M. (1957). Vivaldi, genius of the baroque. New York: W. W. Norton.
Rickard, N. S. (2004). Intense emotional responses to music: a test of the physiological
arousal hypothesis. Psychology of Music, 32, 371-388.
Russell, J., A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 39, 1161-1178.
Sarkamo, T., Tervaniemi, M., Laitinen, S., Forsblom, A., Soinila, S., Mikkonen, M., et al.
(2008). Music listening enhances cognitive recovery and mood after middle
cerebral artery stroke. Brain, 131, 866-876.
Scherer, K. R. (2004). Which emotions can be induced by music? What are the underllying
mechanisms? And how can we measure them? Journal of New Music Research, 33,
239-251.
Scherer, K. R., & Zentner, M. (2001). Emotional effects of music: Production rules. In P. N.
Juslin & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Music and emotion: theory and research (pp. 361-
392). New York: Oxford University Press.
Schlaug, G., Jancke, L., Huang, Y., Staiger, J. F., & Steinmetz, H. (1995). Increased corpus
callosum size in musicians. Neuropsychologia, 33, 1047-1055.
Sloboda, J. A. (1985). The musical mind: The cognitive psychology of music. London:
Oxford University Press.
F. R. Balteş, M. Miclea, A. C. Miu
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal
16 (2012) 107-119
119
Sloboda, J. A. (1992). Empirical studies of emotional responses to music. In M. R. Jones
(Ed.), Cognitive bases of musical comunication (pp. 33-46). Washington: American
Psychological Association.
Sloboda, J. A., O'Neil, S. A., & Ivaldi, A. (2001). Functions of emotions in everyday life: An
exploratory study using the experience sampling method. Musicae Scientiae, 5, 9-
32.
Thompson, R. G., Moulin, C. J., Hayre, S., & Jones, R. W. (2005). Music enhances category
fluency in healthy older adults and Alzheimer's disease patients. Experimental
Aging Research, 31, 91-99.
Vieillard, S., Peretz, I., Gosselin, N., Khalfa, S., Gagnon, L., & Bouchard, B. (2008). Happy,
sad, scary and peaceful musical excerpts for research on emotions. Cognition and
Emotion, 22, 720-752.
Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1994). The PANAS-X. Manual for the Positive and Negative
Affect Schedule - Expanded Form. Iowa: The University of Iowa.
Ystok, E., Bratttico, E., Jacobsen, T., Krohn, K., Muller, M., & Tervaniemi, M. (2009).
Aesthetic responses to music: A questionnaire study. Musicae Scientiae, 13, 183-
206.
Zentner, M., Grandjean, D., & Scherer, K. R. (2008). Emotions evoked by the sound of
music: characterization, classification, and measurement. Emotion, 8, 494-521.
