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CHAPTER
93
Aromatic Herbs in Food. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822716-9.00003-2
Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
3
Mediterranean aromatic herbs and
their culinary use
Anastasia Stefanaki∗, Tinde van Andel
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
∗Corresponding author.
3.1 Introduction
Mediterranean culinary herbs, such as parsley, coriander, thyme, mint, oregano, rosemary,
and sage, are worldwide used in haute cuisine and daily home cooking. If one tries to find
where their uniqueness lie, inevitably one has to think of the following facts about the Medi-
terranean:
First, Mediterranean aromatic herbs originate from a very rich pool of plant diversity. The
Mediterranean landscape is very diverse, including high mountain ranges, forests, woodland
and scrubland, wetlands, a coast of ca. 46,000 km and thousands of islands and islets. The
Mediterranean is recognized at a global scale as one of the 25 richest areas in terms of biodi-
versity (Myers et al., 2000). Forming only 1.6% of the earth’s surface, the Mediterranean hosts
about 10% of all known plants, that is, more than 30,000 species, half of which grow nowhere
else in the world (Medail and Quezel, 1997). The Mediterranean is also worldwide one of the
most important centers of origin and diversity, not only for aromatic herbs but also cultivated
plants, such as crop cereals, fruits, and vegetables (Heywood, 1999).
Defining which is the Mediterranean region is not easy, and several approaches have been
proposed. In strict geographical terms, the Mediterranean is formed by the countries border-
ing the Mediterranean Sea. Nevertheless, many of these countries do not have a Mediter-
ranean climate throughout their territories. At the same time, the typical Mediterranean cli-
mate conditions are also found in neighboring countries, which nonetheless are not washed
by Mediterranean waters. Biological approaches have tried to define the Mediterranean
region based on the native geographical range of the olive tree or other typical Mediterra-
nean scrubland elements, such as the holm oak, laurel, strawberry tree, or lentisk (Blondel
et al., 2010). In a combined bioclimatic approach followed herein, the Mediterranean covers
an area of 2,300,000 km2 at the crossroads of three continents, Europe, Asia, and Africa. It in-
cludes 24 countries, namely, Portugal, Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Malta, Slovenia, Croatia,
94 3. Mediterranean aromatic herbs and their culinary use
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel,
Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco (Blondel et al., 2010). Within
these countries, many areas are particularly rich in terms of plant diversity and endemism,
especially high mountains, islands, and coastal areas, for example, the S. Iberian peninsula,
the Atlas Mountains, the NW African coast, the Balearic islands, Corse, Sardinia and Sicily,
Crete, C. and S. Greece, S. Anatolia, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel (Blondel et al., 2010;
Medail and Quezel, 1997). Many of these areas are also rich in wild aromatic herb species.
Second, Mediterranean climatic conditions enhance the aroma and flavor of aromatic
herbs. The Mediterranean climate is characterized by mild, wet winters, and warm to hot,
dry summers, with three-fourths of the annual precipitation concentrated between late au-
tumn and spring. Summer in many regions in the south is arid, characterized by a lack of
rain, long droughts, and high temperatures (Lionello et al., 2006; Trigo et al., 2006). Under hot
and dry conditions, aromatic plants produce larger quantities of essential oils, the chemical
substances that are responsible for the plants’ characteristic aroma and flavor. Essential oils
are secondary metabolites found in uni- or multicellular glands located on the epidermis
of leaves and flowers or in special glandular hairs (Grassmann and Elstner, 2003; Sánchez-
Mata and Morales, 2016). On hot days, traces of the essential oils are released, spreading
their pleasant aroma to the air. It is these combined scents of thyme, savory, lavender, sage,
oregano, and other typical aromatic shrubs of the Mediterranean scrubland that give the char-
acteristic aroma of the Mediterranean summer landscape.
Essential oils are complex mixtures of hundreds of volatile compounds, most frequently
monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. In thyme species, for example, about 360 volatile constitu-
ents have been identified (Stahl-Biskup, 2002). Although one to few compounds account for
the majority of a plant’s essential oil, it is the unique combination of all these components that
is responsible for the plant’s characteristic scent. Interestingly, essential oil production in aro-
matic herbs is characterized by a remarkable infraspecific, geographical, and seasonal varia-
tion. This means that plants of the same species that grow in different regions do not produce
the same amount nor the same quality of essential oils. Even the same plant does not contain
the same amount and quality of essential oils in all plant parts (leaves, flowers), throughout
the year or in all developmental changes. There is plenty of scientific evidence of essential oil
variation in Mediterranean aromatic herbs (see, e.g., Arraiza et al., 2009, 2012; Baydar et al.,
2007; Cook et al., 2007; Karousou et al., 2005; Kokkini et al., 1989; Kokkini et al., 1994; Kokkini
et al., 2003; Ozkan et al. 2010; Potter, 1996; Vokou et al., 1993). Aromatic herb species growing
wild in the Mediterranean region have been found to contain essential oils in particularly
high amounts and considerably rich in important bioactive compounds. For example, in the
Greek islands, wild oregano plants have been found to contain essential oils of up to 7%
(Origanum onites) (Stefanaki et al., 2016) and 10% (Origanum vulgare susp. hirtum) (Economou
et al., 2011) in dried leaves and inflorescences. Their essential oils consist by up to more than
90% of carvacrol (Kokkini et al., 1994; Stefanaki et al., 2016), a phenol responsible for the
typical “oregano” scent and also for oregano’s high antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. In
Crete, essential oils of wild-growing mint plants (Mentha x villoso-nervata) have been found
to contain up to 80% carvone, the essential oil compound responsible for the typical “spear-
mint” scent (Kokkini et al., 1995).
Essential oils contained in Mediterranean herbs not only give a pleasant aroma and taste
when added to food, but they also enhance the medicinal properties of food and promote
3.1 Introduction 95
its preservation, thanks to the essential oils’ biological and pharmacological properties (an-
tioxidant, antimicrobial, cytotoxic, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and other). The
biological and pharmacological activities of essential oils are complemented by those of a va-
riety of other bioactive compounds present in Mediterranean aromatic plants, such as poly-
phenols, flavonoids, and alkaloids (Christaki et al., 2012; Lim, 2012; Munné-Bosch et al., 2000;
Munné-Bosch et al., 2001; Skoula et al., 2004; Skoula et al., 2005). The production of some
of these compounds (e.g., of antioxidant diterpenes found in the chloroplasts of Rosmarinus
officinalis and Salvia officinalis) is also reported to be related to the Mediterranean summer
drought (Munné-Bosch et al., 2000; Munné-Bosch et al., 2001).
Third, Mediterranean aromatic herbs are an essential component of the Mediterranean
diet, which is considered as one of the healthiest in the world. Interestingly, the definition
of the Mediterranean region as the natural range of the olive tree, already proposed in an-
tiquity by Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79), coincides with the main characteristic of the Medi-
terranean diet, which is the “excessive use of olive oil.” Besides the generous use of olive
oil as the main lipid source, the traditional Mediterranean diet is also characterized by a
high intake of fibers, legumes, fruit, and vegetables; moderate use of poultry, dairy, and fish;
and less frequent use of red meat. The use of herbs and herbal teas and the consumption of
plants collected from the wild are also an integral part of the traditional Mediterranean diet
(Hoffman and Gerber, 2013). The majority of wild-collected plant species are used at a local
level, reflecting the diverse culinary cultures across Mediterranean countries (Hadjichambis
et al., 2008). Olive oil, the basic element of the Mediterranean diet, is often enriched with
herbs such as rosemary, thyme, or oregano, a habit that dates millennia back in Mediterra-
nean history. The health benefits of the traditional Mediterranean diet, especially in Greece
(mainly Crete) and southern Italy, were first noticed in the mid-20th century (Keys et al., 1986)
and attracted strong scientific attention ever since. Although culinary habits are not consis-
tent among Mediterranean countries and have changed significantly over the past decades
(Bach-Faig et al., 2011; Hoffman and Gerber, 2013), food culture, enriched with the flavors
and aromas of the Mediterranean plant diversity, remains strong across the Mediterranean
region. The Mediterranean diet is recognized today as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of
Humanity (UNESCO, 2010).
Fourth, Mediterranean (aromatic) plant richness and local food culture have blended
through thousands of years of Mediterranean human habilitation. More than in any other
place of the world, the human factor has been determinant in shaping the Mediterranean land-
scape. Human influence has been continuous over the past 8000 years since hunter-gatherers
gave their place to farmer communities, and extensive deforestation resulted in the dry Medi-
terranean landscape we know today (Blondel et al., 2010; Lionello et al., 2006; Sánchez-Mata
and Morales, 2016). The Mediterranean has been the birthplace of many civilizations, Egyp-
tian, Greek, Roman, and, ultimately, the European. The plant richness and food culture of the
Mediterranean have evolved together in a mixture of people, culture, and food exchange be-
tween Mediterranean countries and beyond (Bach-Faig et al., 2011). From antiquity until the
Renaissance, aromatic herbs were transferred from the East to the West Mediterranean, from
there to the north of Europe, and eventually across the world, flavoring the local cuisines and
boosting the international herb trade. For example, Greek sage (Salvia fruticosa) is an E. Medi-
terranean species that was transferred to Spain as early as 400 BC during the ancient Greek
and Phoenician colonization of the Iberian Peninsula. It was probably from Spain that this
96 3. Mediterranean aromatic herbs and their culinary use
species was imported to Belgium and England in the 16th century (Rivera et al., 1994). Today,
Greek sage is one of the most important commercially sage species, accounting for 50%–95%
of the imported sage herb to the United States (Karamanos, 2000; Tucker et al., 1980). Another
example is chives (Allium schoenoprasum), the cultivation of which is believed to have origi-
nated in Italy, transferred during the 16th century to Germany and consequently throughout
Europe and beyond (Poulsen, 1990). Coriander and thyme were introduced in N. Europe
during Roman times and the Middle Ages, respectively (Diederichsen, 1996; Stahl-Biskup
and Venskutonis, 2012). Today both herbs are worldwide cultivated; the demand for thyme
essential oil reaches annually only in N. America 18–24 tons (Lawrence and Tucker, 2002),
while coriander has a global production of about 550,000 ha (Diederichsen, 1996).
3.2 Ancient culinary uses of aromatic herbs in the Mediterranean region
Human communities have consumed aromatic herbs since early in Mediterranean his-
tory, albeit the culinary importance of aromatic herbs in ancient times is controversial (see
Andrews, 1956; Andrews, 1958; Andrews, 1961; Bober, 2001; Dalby, 1996; Grant, 1997). It is
certainly difficult to have a complete picture of culinary uses of herbs in antiquity. Plants were
the first medicines of humans, and distinguishing whether herbal consumption was destined
for culinary or medicinal purposes cannot always be certain. Moreover, ancient texts focused
primarily on the documentation of the healing virtues of plants and the prescription of herbal
remedies, rather than the plants’ use in daily cooking. Even when culinary uses are reported,
it is not possible to know whether herbs were added to food to enhance its medicinal func-
tion, improve its flavor, prolong its preservation, or for more than one of these reasons.
Evidence of aromatic herb usage in the Mediterranean dates as early as ca. 3150 BC in
ancient Egypt, where wines preserved in jars discovered in several archaeological sites were
found to have been flavored with herbs, most likely rosemary (McGovern et al., 2009). An-
cient Egyptian written texts report the use of coriander (2500 BC, 1500 BC), thyme, and fen-
nel (1500 BC) (Diederichsen, 1996; Tapsell et al., 2006). Dried mint leaves have been found in
pyramids dating from 1000 BC (Tapsell et al., 2006). Dill was already used as a condiment in
ancient Egypt (Jana and Shekhawat, 2010).
Several herbs still used today in Mediterranean cooking already had a culinary use in clas-
sical Greece, for example, fennel, dill, basil, coriander, and oregano (Dalby, 1996). Oregano,
thyme, mint, and rosemary were added to wine and olive oil, as revealed by DNA analy-
sis of jars found in ancient Greek shipwrecks from 500 to 300 BC (Hansson and Foley, 2008;
Foley et al., 2012). Dill was eaten in classical times to aid digestion (Renfrew and Sander-
son, 2012), and marjoram was added to old salted fish to lighten its taste (Kaufman, 2006).
Thyme was used as a flavoring of salt and beverage additive (Andrews, 1958). Different
fish dishes are reported from Hellenistic times to be flavored with oregano (Dalby, 1996),
the most popular herb in flavoring fish, also in modern Greece. Sage must have been used
at least as early as 1450 BC, as it is illustrated in the “Blue Bird” fresco of the Minoan pal-
ace in Knossos, Crete (Tucker, 2004). Although primarily used in antiquity for its medicinal
properties, sage also formed part of the Greek (and later Roman) diet; Hippocrates men-
tions the nutritional properties of the seeds, while Galen describes it being eaten fried with
honey. Aristophanes mentions sage as a condiment, and Dioscorides describes it being
3.2 Ancient culinary uses of aromatic herbs in the Mediterranean region 97
used to flavor wine (Andrews, 1956). Agapius mentions rosemary in the roasting of lamb,
another cooking suggestion that resembles modern recipes (Dalby, 1996). Pennyroyal is de-
scribed by Homer as an ingredient of the ancient Greek drink kykeon (Dalby, 1996). Lovage
was also a frequent culinary herb in ancient Greek and later Roman cooking (Bober, 2001;
Dalby, 1996).
Sage, fennel, chervil, pennyroyal, lovage, mint, and catnip were among the most favored
culinary herbs in ancient Roman cookery (Bober, 2001). Parsley was first used in food by the
Romans (Renfrew and Sanderson, 2012), and rosemary, which was not widely used in ancient
Greece, was a popular food flavoring in Roman times (Dalby, 1996). Peppermint, a hybrid
mint used and cultivated since at least Roman times, was added for flavor to sauces and wines
(Renfrew and Sanderson, 2012). Thyme was frequently used in sauces and cooked food, es-
pecially meat but also fish, and less often as a seasoning (Andrews, 1958). It was also used to
flavor cheese and liquor (Al-Yahyai and Lupton, 2016). Apicius is a rich source of information
on ancient Roman cooking. In different recipes for cooking meat dishes, he mentions the use
of lovage, oregano, dill, and coriander (Bober, 2001; Kaufman, 2006). In a recipe for aromatic
salts, he lists parsley, thyme, oregano, and dill. In a recipe of a barley and legumes infusion he
mentions the use of coriander, dill, fennel, oregano, and lovage (Kaufman, 2006). Hypotrimma
was a sauce cooked or served with fresh herbs already in ancient Greece and later in Byz-
antine times; a recipe by Apicius mentions rosemary and dried mint among the ingredients
(Dalby, 1996). Oxygarum was a fish sauce, also possibly of Greek roots, the recipe of Apicius
mentioning parsley and lovage among its ingredients (Kaufman, 2006). Bober (2001) cites a
recipe for oenogarum from AD 240, a method for seasoning (and preserving) fish with salt and
several dried cultivated and wild herbs. Many of the latter are still popular today in Mediter-
ranean cooking, namely, dill, coriander, fennel, parsley, mint, pennyroyal, and oregano. In
contrast, the use of others like betony, agrimony, and lovage mostly survives in herbal medi-
cine. Athenaeus reports thyme, savory, and fresh or dry coriander as flavorings of meat or
fish (Grant, 2015). He also mentions fennel, dill, marjoram, sage, and oregano as condiments
(Bober, 2001).
Inferring which are the plant species that ancient authors referred to is particularly compli-
cated. The concept of botanical species was unknown in antiquity, and plant names were often
commonly applied to species that share the same genus or use (Andrews, 1956). It was also not
infrequent that one plant would change or degenerate into another botanically unrelated plant
(Grant, 1997). The earliest physical evidence we have available today of the botanical species
used in antiquity comes from the Italian Renaissance. Sixteenth-century naturalists searched
in the wild the plant species described by ancient authors. They collected plants and com-
piled the first known book herbaria (i.e., collections of dried plants bound in books), some of
which survive to this day. These collections contain plant specimens that primarily originated
from the Mediterranean countryside, frequently Italy, and also S. France, Crete, N. Africa, and
the Levantine coast. Among them numerous aromatic herbs are found, for example, Greek
oregano (Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum), Turkish oregano (Origanum onites) Cretan dittany
(Origanum dictamnus) (Fig. 3.1), Syrian oregano (Origanum syriacum), Mediterranean thyme
(Thymbra capitata, Thymbra spicata), marjoram (Origanum majorana), rosemary (Salvia rosmari-
nus), Greek sage (Salvia fruticosa), and Cretan savory (Satureja thymbra) (Caruel, 1858; Camus
and Penzig, 1885; Chiovenda, 1927; Ghorbani et al., 2018; Penzig, 1905; Soldano, 2000–2004;
Soldano, 2005; Stefanaki et al., 2018b; Stefanaki et al., 2019; Stefanaki et al., unpublished data).
98 3. Mediterranean aromatic herbs and their culinary use
3.3 Aromatic herb species and their culinary uses in Mediterranean countries
3.3.1 Basil
Species: Ocimum basilicum
Plant family: Lamiaceae
Geographical distribution: The several cultivars used in the Mediterranean region as ba-
sil belong to Ocimum basilicum (also known as sweet basil) (Fig. 3.2), which is one of the 64
species of the genus Ocimum (Paton et al., 1999). The most emblematic herb of the Italian
cuisine, basil is actually an exotic species, native to tropical and subtropical Asia (Govaerts
et al., 2020a). Basil was introduced early in the Mediterranean; it is reported to be grown in
ancient Greek gardens of 5th century BC (Dalby, 1996). Despite its widespread cultivation in
Mediterranean countries (only in Italy ca. 80 ha are annually grown; Garibaldi et al., 2004),
it only occurs as a cultivated plant in the region, and only occasionally garden escapes are
found in the wild (GBIF Secretariat, 2019; Govaerts et al., 2020a).
Morphology: Basil is an annual herb. The leaves vary among cultivars, from flat, small, and lin-
ear to convex large and round. The color of leaves can also vary considerably, from yellow-green
FIGURE 3.1 The use of aromatic herbs in the Mediterranean region has been continuous since antiquity. Here,
specimens from Italian 16th-century book herbaria of (A) Origanum vulgare, named as “Origani Plinii” (oregano of
Pliny) and Origanum onites, named as “Origano anytis”, the latter name referring to Dioscorides. Both species are
today basic ingredients of Mediterranean cooking and dominant in the global oregano trade; (B) Origanum dictamnus,
named as “Veris dictamnus” (true dictamnus), a name originating from classical Greek authors. This endemic species
of Crete is used today as herbal tea and flavoring of the Italian drink Martini. Source: En Tibi herbarium, ca. 1558 (A);
Rauwolf herbarium, vol. 3, 1563 (B). Held at Naturalis Biodiversity Center.
3.3 Aromatic herb species and their culinary uses in Mediterranean countries 99
FIGURE 3.2 Specimen of basil (Ocimum basilicum) collected in S. France between 1560 and 1562. This SE
Asian species was introduced to the Mediterranean region in antiquity and is today a symbol of Mediterranean cui-
sine. Source: Rauwolf herbarium, vol. 2, held at Naturalis Biodiversity Center.
100 3. Mediterranean aromatic herbs and their culinary use
to grey-green, red, or almost black (Labra et al., 2004). Flowers are white or pink with pro-
truding style and stamens, born in sessile cymes of a thyrsoid inflorescence.
Essential oils: Basil plants typically have an aniseed-like aroma and sweet taste, which
are owing to the presence of methyl chavicol (estragol) in the plants’ essential oils. Besides
methyl chavicol, other essential oil compounds that may dominate the essential oils of basil
are linalool, eugenol, methyl-eugenol, or geraniol, each one accounting for a different basil
chemotype. This considerable essential oil variation has led to numerous cultivars that differ
in scent and have either been selected from the wild or created by cross-breading (Grayer
et al., 1996).
Culinary uses: Basil gives a fresh taste to cooked dishes, tomato sauces, and salads. It is
popular in Italy and neighboring Adriatic countries, where it is added in a wide variety of
dishes, pasta, pizza, vegetable, meat dishes, and salads (Braimbridge, 2007; Janssen-Mira-
glia, 2010; Milhench, 2007; Pavicic and Pirker-Mosher, 2007). It is also the main ingredient of
the Italian pesto sauce. Purple basil is an anise-scented cultivar with large pointed leaves. It
is widely used in Turkish cooking, added fresh or dried to flavor bulgur, meat dishes, and
soups and as a garnish alongside main dishes. Sometimes, also the flowers are used, like in
rice dishes (pilafs) (Eckhardt, 2017). In France, basil is used for the making of sorbet (Millo
and Todorovska, 2014).
3.3.2 Chervil
Species: Anthriscus cerefolium
Family: Apiaceae
Geographical distribution: Chervil is a Eurasiatic species. In the Mediterranean region, it
is native in Greece, the Balkans, Cyprus, and Turkey. It is cultivated in other Mediterranean
countries and locally naturalized (Hand, 2011; Tutin, 1968).
Morphology: Chervil is a wiry annual herb with parsley-like leaves but more slender. Um-
bels are lax and have white flowers with emarginate petals.
Essential oils: The essential oils of chervil are dominated by methyl chavicol and 1-al-
lyl-2,4-dimethoxybenzene (Baser et al., 1998).
Culinary uses: Chervil, also called French parsley, is a popular culinary herb in France,
where it is added fresh, for example, in vegetable, legume, and fish dishes (Luiten, 2019). It
is also an ingredient of the French herb mix fines herbes. Chervil is occasionally also used in
Spain (Ortega and Ortega, 2010).
3.3.3 Chive
Species: Allium schoenoprasum
Family: Amaryllidaceae
Geographical distribution: Chive is a cold hardy species widespread throughout the tem-
perate N. Hemisphere. In the Mediterranean, it is native in European countries but absent
from the countries of N. Africa and the Levantine coast (Govaerts et al., 2020b).
Morphology: Chives have slender clustered bulbs and cylindrical hollow leaves. Umbels
are dense, subglobose to ovoid and have numerous pale purple flowers born on pedicels that
vary in length.
3.3 Aromatic herb species and their culinary uses in Mediterranean countries 101
Essential oils: Sweet onion-scented organosulfur compounds make up the essential oils
of chives, dominant compounds being methyl propyl trisulfide and bis-(2-sulfhydryethyl)-
disulfide (Díaz et al., 2011; Miltojevic´ et al., 2018).
Culinary uses: Unlike other culinary species of the genus Allium, such as onion, garlic or
leek, the bulbs of chives are not eaten. The leaves are used as a condiment, most frequently
for garnish or in salads. They are popular in France, where a soup of chives is made based
on chicken or vegetable bouillon (Wright, 2001). In Slovenia, želševka is a variation of the
traditional rolled cake potica with chives filling. In Spain, chives are used to garnish fish and
seafood dishes (Ortega and Ortega, 2010).
3.3.4 Coriander
Species: Coriandrum sativum
Family: Apiaceae
Geographical distribution: Coriander is an indigenous species of N. Africa and W. Asia
(Tutin, 1968). In the Mediterranean, it is native in Algeria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and locally
in the Balkans. It is cultivated elsewhere in the region where it occasionally escapes in the
wild (Hand, 2011).
Morphology: Coriander is a glabrous annual herb with irregularly toothed to lobed
leaves. The umbels are rather lax, and flowers are white with a large deeply two-lobed
outer petal.
Essential oils: The aroma of coriander leaves is rather fetid. Dominant compounds of the
essential oils are aldehydes and alcohols (Matasyoh et al., 2009; Potter, 1996).
Culinary uses: Coriander is very popular in Levantine and N. African countries. The leaves
(also known as cilantro) are used to flavor a variety of dishes, primarily meat and also fish
and seafood, vegetable, legumes, chicken, and salads (Hage, 2012; Mallos, 2007). They are
also a basic ingredient of the chermoula sauce prepared in N. African countries to marinate
fish and seafood.
3.3.5 Dill
Species: Anethum graveolens
Plant family: Apiaceae
Geographical distribution: The native geographical distribution of dill includes S. Europe
and C. and S. Asia (Jana and Shekhawat, 2010; Renfrew and Sanderson, 2012; Tutin, 1968). In
the Mediterranean, dill is native in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Portugal, Spain, Croatia, Tur-
key, and Cyprus (Hand, 2011).
Morphology: Dill is a glaucous annual species, with characteristic feathery leaves of long
filiform lobes. Umbels have unequal rays, and flowers with yellow petals incurved at the
apex.
Essential oils: Dominant essential oils compounds of dill are dill ether, α-phellandrene,
and limonene (IFIS, 2009; Jana and Shekhawat, 2010; Ravindran, 2017).
Culinary uses: Dill is very popular in Greece and Turkey, where it is used in a wide vari-
ety of vegetable dishes, legumes, meat and fish dishes, soups, salads, and pies (Basan, 2006;
Eckhardt, 2017; Psilakis and Psilakis, 1997).
102 3. Mediterranean aromatic herbs and their culinary use
3.3.6 Fennel
Species: Foeniculum vulgare
Plant family: Apiaceae
Geographical distribution: The native range of fennel is the Mediterranean region, where
it grows wild in all circa-Mediterranean countries. It is widely cultivated for its aromatic foli-
age, stock, and seeds (Dimopoulos et al., 2013; Hand, 2011; Tutin, 1968).
Morphology: Fennel is a biennial or perennial herb with greenish-yellow feathery leaves
and incurved yellow flowers that resemble dill. A cultivar with large tuberous stock is culti-
vated in Italy and other Mediterranean countries.
Essential oils: The aroma of fennel is anise-like, owing to the high amounts of anethole in
its essential oils (Miguel et al., 2010).
Culinary uses: Fennel leaves are traditionally wild collected in parts of the Mediterranean.
Fennel is popular in Crete for flavoring meat, snails, vegetables, legume, and fish dishes (Psi-
lakis and Psilakis, 1997). It is also used in Sicily and other parts of Italy, where finely chopped
fresh fennel leaves are added in pasta or sprinkled over salads, fish, and seafood dishes
(Braimbridge, 2007; Janssen-Miraglia, 2010). The traditional Italian tullore is prepared with
cooked fennel leaves and chestnuts. In Cyprus, fennel leaves are used raw in salads, legumes,
vegetables, and in traditional pies (Hadjichambis et al., 2008). In Turkey, wild fennel is used
in lamb dishes (Akin, 2015).
3.3.7 Laurel
Species: Laurus nobilis
Plant family: Lauraceae
Geographical distribution: Laurel or bay laurel is a Mediterranean species, native in most
circa-Mediterranean countries (von Raab-Straube, 2018).
Morphology: Laurel is a large evergreen shrub or tree with leathery lanceolate-elliptic
leaves of glossy dark green color. The flowers are inconspicuous.
Essential oils: The essential oils of laurel leaves are dominated by 1,8-cineole (Derwich
et al., 2009).
Culinary uses: Fresh or dry laurel leaves are used in cooking, and they are usually referred
to as bay leaves. Laurel is traditionally used to flavor meat and vegetable stews in many Med-
iterranean countries, for example, in Greece and Cyprus (stiphado), Croatia (pašticada), France
(coq au vin), Spain, and Syria (Abboud, 2018; Alarcón et al., 2015; Hadjichambis et al., 2008;
Loomis, 2017; Luiten, 2019; Ortega and Ortega, 2010; Pavicic and Pirker-Mosher, 2007). In
Crete, it is used in traditional stews of rabbit, hare, and wild goat (Psilakis and Psilakis, 1997).
Although a typical flavoring of stews, laurel is also used in Mediterranean countries to fla-
vor a variety of other dishes. For example, it is a popular culinary herb in Spain, where it is
added in sausages, snails, fish, and seafood (Alarcón et al., 2015; Ortega and Ortega, 2010;
Roden, 2012). In Lebanon, it is also added to soups, fish, and seafood dishes (Hage, 2012).
In Italy, fresh or dried laurel leaves are added in meat dishes, pasta, and fish and also in
soups, or boiled with chestnuts in the traditional dish ballocioli (Braimbridge, 2007; Hadji-
chambis et al., 2008; Janssen-Miraglia, 2010). In Turkey, laurel leaves are used in grilled fish
and fish stews (Akin, 2015). Laurel is also used as a flavoring of the French goat cheese chèvre
3.3 Aromatic herb species and their culinary uses in Mediterranean countries 103
(Millo and Todorovska, 2014) and to flavor dried fig-based traditional pastries, for example,
in Croatia (smokvenjak) and the Greek islands (pastelaria).
3.3.8 Lavender
Species: Lavandula angustifolia; Lavandula stoechas
Plant family: Lamiaceae
Geographical distribution: The genus Lavandula includes 51 species and hybrids distrib-
uted from Macaronesia through the Mediterranean basin to India (Govaerts et al., 2020a).
Thirty species and hybrids grow wild in the Mediterranean, more than half of which (22) are
locally endemic to parts of the W. Mediterranean, a center of diversity for the genus (Gov-
aerts et al., 2020a; Upson and Jury, 1997). It is mostly Lavandula angustifolia, known under the
commercial name English lavender or true lavender, that is used for culinary purposes in the
Mediterranean (and beyond). Despite the plant’s vernacular name, the natural geographical
range of this species is confined to NE. Spain, France, and Italy. Lavandula stoechas, known
as Spanish lavender or French lavender, is a more widely distributed species, native in most
circa-Mediterranean countries (Govaerts et al., 2020a).
Morphology: L. angustifolia is a much branched perennial shrub with greenish-grey leaves
and spike-like inflorescences with lilac flowers. L. stoechas has characteristic dense cylindrical
inflorescences with minute dark-colored flowers and showy purple or violet sterile bracts on
the top.
Essential oils: L. angustifolia is known to have the finest essential oil among lavender spe-
cies, owing to the high amounts of linalool and linalyl acetate and low amounts of camphor
in its essential oils. L. stoechas has a rather pungent odor and taste, its essential oils being
dominated by 1,8-cineole, fenchone, and camphor (Lim, 2012).
Culinary uses: L. angustifolia, extensively cultivated in Provence for France’s world-famous
perfume industry, also finds its way to the local cuisine, adding aroma and flavor to a vari-
ety of dishes, from meat and sauces to ice cream, sorbets, and custards (Millo and Todoro-
vska, 2014). It is also used as a herbal tea or added as a flavoring to green or black tea. Wild-
collected L. stoechas is the main flavoring of the popular Algerian dish couscous à lavande or
taâm hâlhal (Benabdelkader et al., 2011).
3.3.9 Mint
Species: Mentha aquatica; Mentha arvensis; Mentha cervina; Mentha x gentilis; Mentha longifo-
lia; Mentha x piperita; Mentha pulegium; Mentha spicata; Mentha x villosa-nervata; Mentha requie-
nii; Mentha suaveolens
Plant family: Lamiaceae
Species of other Lamiaceae genera such as Acinos (e.g., Acinos suaveolens, A. alpinus), Cal-
amintha (e.g., Calamintha nepeta, C. origanifolia), and Ziziphora (e.g., Ziziphora capitata) have
mint-like essential oils and are locally wild collected and sometimes also locally traded as
culinary mints.
Geographical distribution: Mentha is a complex genus of cosmopolitan distribution, count-
ing 38 species and hybrids, 21 of which are native in the Mediterranean (Govaerts et al., 2020a).
Some culinary mint species are widely distributed, their native range reaching beyond the
104 3. Mediterranean aromatic herbs and their culinary use
Mediterranean to other parts of Europe, Asia, and/or Africa (e.g., Mentha longifolia, M. spi-
cata, M. x piperita, or M. pulegium). Other species have a rather narrow native distribution,
examples being M. cervina, a W. Mediterranean endemic, or M. requienii, which is endemic to
Italy, Sardinia, and Corse (Govaerts et al., 2020a). Mints used in Mediterranean cooking are
either cultivated in gardens or at a larger scale for trade. Sometimes they are harvested from
the wild for personal consumption or local trade.
Morphology: Mentha plants are perennial herbs with inflorescences of few to many lilac,
pink or white flowers, which form either dense, more or less distant clusters along the stem
or are congested into terminal spike-like thyrses.
Essential oils: Mint plants have remarkably high essential oil variation (both within and
among species), which accounts for different chemotypes and “mint types” that do not cor-
respond to specific botanical species (Karousou et al., 2007; Kokkini, 1991). Plants with car-
vone- and/or dihydrocarvone-dominated essential oils (spearmint scent) have a sweet smell,
while those with menthone-, isomenthone-, and/or isomers of menthol-dominated essential
oils (peppermint scent) or pulegone-dominated essential oils (pennyroyal scent) have more
pungent smells (Karousou et al., 2007).
Culinary uses: Fresh or dry mint is very popular in the E. Mediterranean, spearmint be-
ing the most widely cultivated and used type (Abboud, 2018; Basan, 2006; Baser et al., 1999;
Eckhardt, 2017; Edris et al., 2003; Hage, 2012). Locally cultivated spearmint (M. spicata, M.
longifolia, M. x villosa-nervata) is popular in Greece and Crete, where it is used fresh or dried to
flavor meat, vegetable, rice dishes, and pies (Kokkini, 1983; Kokkini et al., 1995; Psilakis and
Psilakis, 1997). Spearmint is also very popular in Turkey, where freshly chopped leaves are
added to salads and yogurt-based dishes, sometimes also as a garnish alongside dishes. Dried
mint is also used as a flavoring of meat and rice dishes and sometimes in soups (Akin, 2015;
Eckhardt, 2017). In Cyprus, dry M. spicata leaves are used in the preparation of the traditional
cheese halloumi (Papademas and Robinson, 1998). In Egypt, M. spicata is the locally preferred
mint for culinary purposes and as tea flavoring (Edris et al., 2003). In Levantine countries,
mint is frequently used in salads (e.g., tabbouleh and fattoush), meat, vegetable, and legume
dishes (Abboud, 2018; Hage, 2012). Fresh or dried mint is also a basic ingredient in many
versions of kibbeh, a traditional bulgur-based dish of Lebanon (Hage, 2012). In Italy, mint is
added fresh and finely chopped in cooked dishes and fillings for pasta, meat, and poultry and
also in salads, fish, and seafood (Braimbridge, 2007; Janssen-Miraglia, 2010). In Portugal, M.
spicata is used to flavor chicken soup and rice (Mata et al., 2007). M. cervina (erva-peixeira in
Portuguese, meaning fish herb) is a local Iberian culinary mint used in Portugal to aromatize
river fish-based dishes (Politi et al., 2008). The traditional piso from Alentejo, S. Portugal, is
a paste made of pennyroyal-scented mints (either M. pulegium or M. cervina) crushed with
garlic and salt and preserved in olive oil (Barros et al., 2016). M. pulegium is also added in a
river-fish stew and in a traditional bread-soup in Alentejo (Mata et al., 2007). In the Basque
country, M. longifolia leaves are used to flavor rice pudding (Alarcón et al., 2015).
In Italy Calamintha nepeta (known as mentuccia, nipitella, or nepitella) is rather popular and
used in soup, mushrooms, chicken, pasta, risotto, and seafood (Hadjichambis et al., 2008; Ra-
vindran, 2017). In Portugal it is traditionally used as a flavoring of olives (Martins et al., 2011).
C. origanifolia is used in Lebanon to flavor local dishes (Formisano et al., 2014).
Spearmint-, peppermint- and pennyroyal-scented mint species are used for the preparation
of herbal teas. For example, M. spicata, M. pulegium, or Acinos suaveolens are locally used in
3.3 Aromatic herb species and their culinary uses in Mediterranean countries 105
Greece, and M. aquatica, M. arvensis, M. x gentilis, M. x piperita, M. pulegium, M. spicata, and
Calamintha nepeta in Spain (Alarcón et al., 2015). Mint tea is a popular herbal tea in N. African
and Levantine countries. Moroccan mint tea, made of spearmint (M. spicata) and green tea, is
a symbol of Morocco and worldwide sold as a commercialized product.
Pulegone-scented mints are used in the preparation of liquors in W. Mediterranean coun-
tries. For example, the Portuguese licor de poejo is flavored with M. pulegium (poejo in Por-
tuguese) (Mata et al., 2007). M. pulegium is also reported as a flavoring of blackthorn liquor
made in the Basque country (Alarcón et al., 2015). The French sweet liquor crème de menthe is
flavored with Corsican mint (M. requienii).
3.3.10 Mountain tea
Species: Sideritis akmanii; Sideritis arguta; Sideritis argyrea; Sideritis bilgeriana; Sideritis bre-
vibracteata; Sideritis caesarea; Sideritis cilicica; Sideritis condensata; Sideritis congesta; Sideritis
clandestina; Sideritis dichotoma; Sideritis euboea; Sideritis erythrantha; Sideritis galatica; Sideritis
germanicopolitana; Sideritis italica; Sideritis leptoclada; Sideritis libanotica; Sideritis lycia; Sideritis
ozturkii; Sideritis perfoliata; Sideritis phlomoides; Sideritis pisidica; Sideritis raeseri; Sideritis rubri-
flora; Sideritis scardica; Sideritis sipylea; Sideritis syriaca; Sideritis tmolea; Sideritis trojana; Sideritis
vulcanica; Sideritis vuralii
Plant family: Lamiaceae
Geographical distribution: Sideritis is a large genus of over 160 species that reaches
as far as Macaronesia to the west and China to the east, but mostly has a Mediterranean
distribution (González-Burgos et al., 2011; Govaerts et al., 2020a). Except for the W. Medi-
terranean S. hyssopifolia, Sideritis species used as mountain tea have an E. Mediterranean
distribution with many local endemics, especially in Turkey and Greece. In Greece and
the Balkans, the most popular mountain tea species are S. raeseri and S. scardica (Fig. 3.3),
both endemic to the Balkan Peninsula. In Greece, several other species, wild harvested
and consumed at a local scale, are steno-endemics, confined to narrow mountain areas or
(single) islands, examples being S. cladestina in the Peloponnese and S. euboea (Fig. 3.3) in
Evia Island. A few of many examples of mountain tea species used in Turkey are S. stricta,
S. cilicica, S. condensata, and S. bilgeriana, all local Turkish endemics (Aneva et al., 2019;
Govaerts et al., 2020a).
Morphology: Mountain tea species are more or less hairy, some species covered with dense
white indumentum (e.g., S. syriaca, S. euboea). They have long inflorescences with compact
or distant clusters of minute yellow flowers and pointy, sometimes showy bracts (e.g., S.
scardica).
Essential oils: The essential oils of mountain tea species consist of numerous dominant
compounds, mostly monoterpenes, and sesquiterpenes, each compound usually comprising
less than half of the total essential oil (Formisano et al., 2010; Kirimer et al., 2004; Özcan
et al., 2001).
Culinary uses: Mountain tea is a popular traditional herbal tea mostly in Greece, the Bal-
kans, and Turkey. It is prepared from the dried flowers and leaves of several Sideritis species.
Mountain tea is typically served with honey, sometimes also with cinnamon, and has a pleas-
ant aroma and taste. In Greece, mountain tea (tsai tou vounou in Greek) is very popular and
collected either from the wild or locally sold in local herbal markets. It is used, besides the
106 3. Mediterranean aromatic herbs and their culinary use
traditional herbal tea, to flavor savory dishes and sweets. In Turkey wild harvested or com-
mercially exploited Sideritis species are also used as herbal tea and food flavoring, under sev-
eral local names, mainly dağçayı (mountain tea), yaylaçayı (plateau tea), or adaçayı (island
tea). Mountain tea is the preferred herbal tea served in Turkish rural coffee houses (Çarıkıçı
et al., 2007).
The drinking of mountain tea is mostly an E. Mediterranean tradition. Nevertheless, S.
hyssopifolia, a local W. Mediterranean species, is locally in Spain a very popular herbal tea,
known as té amarillo (yellow tea), té de monte (mountain tea), or té borriquero (González-Burgos
et al., 2011). In Sicily, the Italian endemic S. italica (known as stregonia) is also locally con-
sumed as herbal tea (Formisano et al., 2010).
3.3.11 Oregano
Species: Origanum acutidens; Origanum amanum; Origanum compactum; Origanum dayi;
Origanum dictamnus; Origanum ehrenbergii; Origanum elongatum; Origanum floribundum; Origa-
num isthmicum; Origanum majorana; Origanum x majoricum; Origanum microphyllum; Origanum
minutiflorum; Origanum onites; Origanum scabrum; Origanum syriacum; Origanum vulgare
Species of other Lamiaceae genera are also used as culinary oregano herbs in Mediterra-
nean countries, namely, Thymbra capitata (synonym: Coridothymus capitatus; known as Spanish
oregano); Thymbra spicata; Satureja thymbra
Plant family: Lamiaceae
FIGURE 3.3 Open markets are integral part of the local herb trade in many Mediterranean countries. Here,
Greek oregano (Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum) (A) and mountain tea (Sideritis raeseri, S. scardica, S. euboea) (B) sold
in Kapani (C), a market originating from the 15th century in Thessaloniki, Greece.
3.3 Aromatic herb species and their culinary uses in Mediterranean countries 107
Geographical distribution: The genus Origanum includes 43 species, all confined to the
Mediterranean region but O. vulgare, the native geographical range of which extends from
Macaronesia throughout Europe eastward to China (Govaerts et al., 2020a). Commercially
important oregano herbs are O. vulgare subsp. hirtum (known as Greek oregano; Fig. 3.3),
which is native to Greece, the Balkans, Turkey and Cyprus, and O. onites (known as Turkish
oregano), native to Turkey, Greece, and Sicily (in the latter probably a remnant of ancient in-
troduction; Minissale and Sciandrello, 2017). Both are wild-collected and also cultivated and
traded at a global scale (Kintzios, 2002). O. syriacum (known as Syrian oregano), is an E. Medi-
terranean species used in Levantine countries, where it is also cultivated and traded. Several
Origanum species locally used as culinary oregano herbs are narrow endemics either in the
E. Mediterranean, for example, O. minutiflorum, which is endemic to S. Turkey and O. ehren-
bergii to Lebanon, or in the W. Mediterranean, for example, O. compactum to NW. Morocco
and adjacent SW. Spain, O. elongatum to Morocco and O. floribundum to N. Algeria (Govaerts
et al., 2020a). O. dictamus, known as Cretan dittany, and O. microphyllum are endemic to Crete.
O. majorana, known as marjoram or sweet marjoram, is another narrowly distributed species,
confined to Cyprus and adjacent S. Turkey. It is cultivated throughout the Mediterranean,
where it locally escapes in the wild (Govaerts et al., 2020a; Ietswaart, 1980).
Morphology: Origanum species are perennial herbs or small shrubs. The leaves are rath-
er small, oval to roundish, with sometimes toothed margins and obtuse to acuminate tops.
White, pink, or purple flowers are clustered in spikes, forming paniculate inflorescences in
all species but O. onites, in which inflorescences are false corymbs. O. majorana has whitish- to
greyish-hairy roundish leaves, and white flowers arranged in more or less subglobose spikes.
Some species have brightly colored imbricated bracts that envelope the spikes, for example,
O. dictamnus and O. scabrum. The calyx shape is a largely variable character, important for the
delimitation of Origanum species. For example, O. vulgare has tubular calyces with five equal
teeth, and O. onites has one-lipped calyces, obovate to oval in shape.
Essential oils: Carvacrol is the main essential oil compound in oregano herbs, responsible
for the characteristic “oregano” scent. Other volatile compounds that dominate the essential
oils of oregano species are thymol, p-cymene, γ-terpinene, and in O. onites also borneol. Origa-
num onites has essential oils composed up to 93% of carvacrol (Stefanaki et al., 2016). In O.
vulgare, the amounts of carvacrol may vary significantly (traces to over 90%) among plants
growing in different regions, seasonally and among the different subspecies (Economou
et al., 2011; Kokkini et al., 1994; Kokkini et al., 1997; Kokkini et al., 2004; Vokou et al., 1993).
O. vulgare subsp. hirtum has the highest amounts of carvacrol and total essential oil among
O. vulgare subspecies (Kokkini et al., 1994). Marjoram has a sweeter scent, its essential oils
being dominated by cis-, trans-sabinene hydrate, terpinen-4-ol and α-terpineol (Arnold
et al., 1993; Baser et al., 1993; Karousou et al., 2012). Nevertheless, marjoram plants growing
wild in Turkey are reported to have high amounts of carvacrol in their essential oils (Baser
et al., 1993). Other dominant compounds reported from cultivated marjoram plants are lin-
alool, thymol, p-cymene, and γ-terpinene (Charai et al., 1996; Giordani et al., 2008; Novak
et al., 2008; Sellami et al., 2009).
Culinary uses: Oregano is known as the flavoring of pizza, but it is also used in Italy to
flavor fish, pasta, and vegetable dishes (Braimbridge, 2007; Janssen-Miraglia, 2010). It is very
popular in the south of the country, where it is used fresh or (more commonly) dried in to-
mato sauces, vegetables dishes and for the roasting of meat (Braimbridge, 2007). Oregano is
108 3. Mediterranean aromatic herbs and their culinary use
very popular also in Greece and Turkey, used mostly dried and ground to flavor meat, salads,
fish and seafood, and a variety of vegetables and rice dishes and sauces. In Crete, it is also used
to flavor traditional barley rusks (paximadi) (Psilakis and Psilakis, 1997). In both countries, it
is mainly O. vulgare subsp. hirtum and O. onites that are used. In Morocco, oregano (mainly
O. compactum and also O. elongatum) is used as a condiment and for the preservation of lo-
cal food products such as melted butter and olives (Bakhy et al., 2014; Bouhdid et al., 2008;
Bouyahya et al., 2017). In Lebanon, Origanum species are used to flavor (and preserve) the tra-
ditional fresh cheese shanklish (Khoury et al., 2016). O. syriacum, a popular oregano herb in the
countries of the Levantine coast, is a basic ingredient of the popular za’atar spice mix (Daouk
et al., 1995; Mayer-Chissick and Lev, 2014; Shiyab et al., 2012). This species is also used in the
preparation of manakeesh (Khoury et al., 2016), a popular Levantine savory pastry, also known
as “Libanese pizza.” Bedouins in Israel use dry ground leaves of O. syriacum and the local des-
ert species O. dayi and O. isthmicum as a dry dip on bread (Bailey and Danin, 1981). In Portugal,
O. vulgare is used in the preparation of tomato salad, boiled snails, and in olive preservation
(Bento et al., 2006). Several Origanum species are used as herbal teas, for example, O. vulgare (sub-
sp. hirtum, subsp. vulgare, subsp. glandulosum), O. onites, O. minutiflorum, and O. rotundifolium
(Baser, 2002; Elmastas et al., 2018; Hanlidou et al., 2004; Orhan et al., 2010). O. dictamnus (dittany)
is a popular herbal tea in Crete and also used to flavor wild goat (Psilakis and Psilakis, 1997).
O. majorana is used in Cyprus as herbal tea (Karousou et al., 2012) and also as culinary oregano.
3.3.12 Parsley
Species: Petroselinum crispum
Plant family: Apiaceae
Geographical distribution: Parsley is a Mediterranean species native in Algeria, Tunisia, Mo-
rocco, Jordan, and possibly in parts of the Balkans. It is widely cultivated all over the Mediterra-
nean, and in many countries, it escapes in the wild as a casual or naturalized alien (Hand, 2011).
Morphology: Parsley is a glabrous biennial herb that is grown as an annual in cultivation
for its edible leaves. Leaves are triangular in outline, consisting of three-lobed cuneate lobes.
Umbels are lax, and flowers have yellow, inflexed at the apex, petals. Among the cultivars of
parsley, flat-leaf parsley (also known as Italian parsley) is the one used for culinary purposes
in Mediterranean countries.
Essential oils: Dominant essential oil components of flat-leaf parsley are β-phellandrene,
p-mentha-1,3,8-triene, α-,p-dimethylstyrene, β-myrcene, myristicin, and apiole (Díaz-Maroto
et al., 2002; Petropoulos et al., 2004).
Culinary uses: Parsley is the most widely used culinary herb across the Mediterranean,
very popular in many countries, for example, Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Lebanon, Tunisia,
and Syria. Parsley is added mostly fresh and finely chopped in a wide variety of meat, fish,
seafood, legume and vegetable dishes, salads, and soups. Finely chopped fresh parsley is also
very often sprinkled over dishes for garnish. Parsley is a basic ingredient of traditional reci-
pes across the Mediterranean, examples being Greek green beans and okra in tomato sauce,
several versions of traditional Lebanese kibbeh dishes, štrukli or štruklji, a Croatian and Slove-
nian, respectively, dough-based traditional dish, and salsa verde, a green sauce prepared in
Spain and Italy to accompany meat or fish. In the Lebanese-originated tabbouleh salad, parsley
is added in such large quantities that it can be compared to a vegetable. Parsley is also a basic
ingredient of the N. African chermoula sauce used to flavor fish and seafood.
3.3 Aromatic herb species and their culinary uses in Mediterranean countries 109
3.3.13 Rosemary
Species: Salvia rosmarinus (synonym: Rosmarinus officinalis)
Plant family: Lamiaceae
Geographical distribution: Rosemary is an endemic species of the Mediterranean region,
native in all circa-Mediterranean countries except those of the Levantine coast (Govaerts
et al., 2020a).
Morphology: Rosemary is a shrub with linear to lanceolate revolute leaves and racemose
axillary inflorescences. The flowers are violet to white and have characteristic protruding
style and stamens.
Essential oils: Dominant components in the essential oils of rosemary are α-pinene and
1,8-cineole. Camphor, α-terpineol, borneol, and/or camphene may also be present in large
amounts (Celiktas et al., 2007; Papageorgiou et al., 2008; Pitarokili et al., 2008; Viuda-Martos
et al., 2007).
Culinary uses: Rosemary is in many Mediterranean countries a popular flavoring of meat.
It is also frequently used in vegetable and fish dishes (Bellahsen and Rouche, 2006; Braim-
bridge, 2007; Hage, 2012; Janssen-Miraglia, 2010; Loomis, 2017; Luiten, 2019; Milhench, 2007;
Pavicic and Pirker-Mosher, 2007; Psilakis and Psilakis, 1997). In Crete, rosemary leaves are
added in the traditional savoro sauce, made of vinegar, flour, olive oil, and garlic, which is
used to flavor (and preserve) fish and meat dishes, such as fried red mullet and rabbit (Psila-
kis & Psilakis, 1997). In Cyprus, the same preparation is applied in fried fish. In Croatia, rose-
mary is used to flavor marinated rabbit (Pavicic and Pirker-Mosher, 2007). In Italy, rosemary
is a popular herb, frequently added in pasta (Braimbridge, 2007; Janssen-Miraglia, 2010). It
is also used as a salad dressing in Lebanon (Khoury et al., 2016), as a flavoring of blackthorn
liquor in the Basque country (Alarcón et al., 2015) and the French goat cheese chèvre (Millo
and Todorovska, 2014).
3.3.14 Sage
Species: Salvia fruticosa; Salvia officinalis; Salvia pomifera
Some commercial sage names actually refer to either Salvia officinalis or Salvia fruticosa. For
example, Salvia lavandulifolia, known as Spanish sage, is a subspecies of S. officinalis (subsp. la-
vandulifolia). Salvia libanotica, known as E. Mediterranean sage or Libanese sage, is a synonym
of S. fruticosa.
Plant family: Lamiaceae
Geographical distribution: Salvia is a large cosmopolitan genus of over 900 species, al-
though few species are used as culinary sage. The most well-known is S. officinalis, known
as Dalmatian or common sage, which is native to the Mediterranean (NW. Greece and the
W. Balkans, Italy, France, Spain) extending to Switzerland and SW. Germany. S. fruticosa,
known under the commercial name Greek sage, is native to the E. Mediterranean, reaching
S. Italy to the west (Govaerts et al., 2020a). S. pomifera, known as Cretan sage, is confined to
Greece and W. Turkey (Govaerts et al., 2020a) and exploited mostly at a local scale (Karousou
et al., 1998).
Morphology: Sage plants are herbs woody at the base or small shrubs with rugose, more
or less lanceolate leaves, and spike-like inflorescences of pink, purple, or whitish flowers. S.
officinalis and S. fruticosa, the two dominant herbs in the global sage trade, are rather similar
110 3. Mediterranean aromatic herbs and their culinary use
morphologically, their distinction being based on the three-lobed leaves present in S. fruticosa
versus entire leaves in S. officinalis. Nevertheless, leaves of S. fruticosa vary considerably along
geographical and climatic gradients, from flat and unlobed to three lobed and canaliculate-
undulate (Karousou et al., 2000). S. pomifera can be distinguished morphologically from the
other two species by its showy membranous reticulate calyces.
Essential oils: The essential oils of sage species are dominated by 1,8-cineole, α- and β-
thujone, and camphor. Plants of S. fruticosa tend to have higher amounts of 1,8-cineole, S.
pomifera has high total thujone content, and S. officinalis higher camphor content (Baser et al.,
1993; Karousou et al., 1998, 2000; Tucker et al., 1980).
Culinary uses: Fresh or dry sage leaves are mostly used as a flavoring of meat and also in
legume and vegetable dishes (Basan, 2006; Braimbridge, 2007; Psilakis and Psilakis, 1997).
Sage is popular in Italy where it is added in meat, fish, and poultry dishes. The leaves are
also baked in butter and served as a pasta sauce (Braimbridge, 2007). In Lebanon S. fruticosa
is used as a salad dressing (Khoury et al., 2016). Besides their use in cooking, sage species
are popular herbal teas in the Mediterranean, for example S. fruticosa in Greece, Crete, and
Turkey (Baser, 2000; Psilakis and Psilakis, 1997) and S. officinalis subsp. lavandulifolia in Spain
(Alarcón et al., 2015).
3.3.15 Tarragon
Species: Artemisia dracunculus
Plant family: Asteraceae
Geographical distribution: Known as tarragon or estragon, Artemisia dracunculus is a spe-
cies native to E. Europe, Asia, and N. America. It is cultivated in several Mediterranean coun-
tries and naturalized in France (Eisenman and Struwe, 2011; Greuter, 2006).
Morphology: Tarragon is a woody perennial subshrub with characteristic cleft leaves. The
inflorescences are paniculate, bearing numerous recurved globose heads of yellowish flowers.
Essential oils: Major essential oil components of tarragon are estragol, elemicin, methyleu-
genol, and terpinolene (Eisenman and Struwe, 2011; Werker et al., 1994).
Culinary uses: Tarragon is popular in France and occasionally used in other Mediterra-
nean countries. In French cuisine tarragon is a flavoring of meat, fish, and vegetable dishes.
It is also a basic ingredient of the herb mix fines herbes and the béarnaise sauce (Loomis, 2017;
Luiten, 2019). In E. Turkey tarragon is often used to garnish soups (Akin, 2015). In Spain tar-
ragon is added in cold fish tapas (Ortega and Ortega, 2010). In Slovenia, tarragon is used for
the preparation of savory potica, a traditional rolled cake (Milhench, 2007).
3.3.16 Thyme
Species: Thymus algeriensis; Thymus broussonetti; Thymus x citriodorus; Thymus herba-barona;
Thymus hyemalis; Thymus longicaulis; Thymus maroccanus; Thymus mastichina; Thymus pulegi-
oides; Thymus saturejoides; Thymus serpyllum; Thymus sibthorpii; Thymus syriacus; Thymus vul-
garis; Thymus zygis; Thymbra capitata; Thymbra spicata
Plant family: Lamiaceae
Geographical distribution: There are over 200 species accepted in Thymus, a genus of Eur-
asiatic distribution that has its center of diversity in the Mediterranean region, especially the
3.3 Aromatic herb species and their culinary uses in Mediterranean countries 111
Iberian Peninsula and N. Africa (Stahl-Biskup and Venskutonis, 2012). The most commercially
important culinary thyme species is Thymus vulgaris, known as common thyme or garden thyme.
Thymus vulgaris has a W. Mediterranean distribution, and is native to Spain, France, and Italy.
Other commercially important species include Thymus zygis (known as Spanish thyme), which is
native to Portugal, Spain, Algeria, and Morocco, Thymus pulegioides and Thymus serpyllum, the two
latter species of Eurasiatic distribution (Govaerts et al., 2020a). Thyme species that are commonly
wild collected for culinary purposes are Thymbra capitata, a species of circa-Mediterranean dis-
tribution widely used throughout the Mediterranean, and the E. Mediterranean Thymbra spicata.
Morphology: Thyme species have considerable morphological variation. For example,
Thymus vulgaris, Thymus zygis, Thymus sibthorpii, and Thymbra capitata are woody subshrubs.
Thymus serpyllum and Thymus longicaulis are more slender herbs woody only at the base, the
first species with procumbent stems, the latter creeping, rooting at the nodes. The leaves of
thyme herbs are small, oblong-lanceolate, orbicular or linear, and in some species revolute.
Purple to white flowers are arranged either in compact terminal heads or in axillary whorls
of more or less elongate inflorescences.
Essential oils: Thymol is the main essential oil compound in Thymus vulgaris and other culi-
nary thyme species. Other dominant volatile compounds in the essential oils of thyme plants are
carvacrol, p-cymene, and γ-terpinene. Although thymol dominates the essential oils of traded
Thymus vulgaris, wild plants of this species in France and Spain have been found to belong to
seven different chemotypes, characterized by the dominance of carvacrol, linalool, geraniol, and
other compounds (Stahl-Biskup and Venskutonis, 2012). Thymus serpyllum and Thymus zygis
have typically thymol-rich essential oils. Thymbra spicata and often also Thymbra capitata have es-
sential oils dominated by carvacrol, and Thymus mastichina (known as Spanish marjoram or mas-
tic thyme) has essential oils dominated by 1,8-cineole and linalool (Lawrence and Tucker, 2002).
Thyme and oregano are closely related herbs regarding their essential oil composition and,
subsequently, their culinary use. The name thyme can be actually applied to any aromatic
herb whose essential oils are dominated by thymol, the essential oil compound that is respon-
sible for the “thyme” scent. On the other hand, oregano may be defined as an aromatic herb
whose essential oils are dominated by carvacrol, which is thymol’s isomer and responsible
for the “oregano” scent. In the Mediterranean region, several species in the genera Origanum,
Thymus, Thymbra, and Satureja (the latter is also known as savory) can have essential oils rich
in either carvacrol or thymol and are named, used and traded as either thyme or oregano.
Also, within each species of these genera, the essential oil content of carvacrol and thymol
may differ depending on seasonal and environmental conditions. For example, Greek orega-
no (Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum), known for its high-quality carvacrol-rich essential oils,
may contain thymol-dominated essential oils by up to more than 90% (Vokou et al., 1993).
Thymbra capitata and Satureja thymbra (the first species known as thyme or Spanish oregano,
the latter as Cretan savory) may have either carvacrol- or thymol-rich essential oils even in
neighboring wild populations (Karousou et al., 2005). Another example is the E. Mediter-
ranean Thymbra spicata, which is known as black thyme or Mediterranean thyme. Still, its
carvacrol-rich essential oils may as well place it in culinary terms under oregano (Stefanaki
et al., 2018a). It is therefore not surprising that the vernacular names “kekik” and “za’atar”
are used in Turkey and Arabic countries, respectively, to collectively refer to oregano, thyme,
and savory plants, that is, species of the genera Thymus, Thymbra, Origanum, and Satureja that
have thymol- or carvacrol-rich essential oils.
112 3. Mediterranean aromatic herbs and their culinary use
Culinary uses: Thyme is a popular food flavoring in W. Mediterranean countries. In
Italy, wild or cultivated thyme is used in fillings, roasted meat, and stews. It is also a fla-
voring of pizza, pasta, and vegetable dishes (Braimbridge, 2007; Janssen-Miraglia, 2010).
In S. Italy, Thymus longicaulis is used as a condiment of traditional dishes of mushrooms
and roasted vegetables (Campolo et al., 2016). In Spain, thyme is used to flavor meat, fish,
seafood, and poultry dishes (Ortega and Ortega, 2010; Roden, 2012). In the Basque country,
Thymus vulgaris is reported as a flavoring of blackthorn liquor (Alarcón et al., 2015). Fresh
thyme is popular in French cooking, used mostly in meat, chicken, vegetable dishes, and
pies (Loomis, 2017; Luiten, 2019). It is also an ingredient of pissaladière, a savory pastry
made in S. France with anchovies and caramelized onions. Thyme is also used as a flavor-
ing of the French goat cheese chèvre (Millo and Todorovska, 2014). The Corsican Thymus
herba-barona (caraway thyme) is used to flavor meat dishes (Ravindran, 2017). In Portugal,
several Thymus species are used as culinary thyme (Figueiredo et al., 2008), and Thymbra
capitata is reported as a flavoring of traditional rabbit dishes (Rodrigues et al., 2006). In Al-
geria, Libya, and Tunisia, the fresh and dried leaves of Thymus algeriensis and Thymbra capi-
tata are widely used as culinary thyme (Bounatirou et al., 2006; Giweli et al., 2013; Hazzit
et al., 2009; Zouari et al., 2012). In Tunisia, Thymbra capitata is used for flavoring soups,
stews, meat, and fish dishes, and in cheese, sauces, and dressings (Akrout et al., 2010). In
Morocco, fresh or dried leaves and inflorescences of Thymus maroccanus are popular as a
condiment and herbal tea (Jamali et al., 2013). In Lebanon, Thymus species are used as a
flavoring of shanklish (traditional cheese), and Thymbra capitata is added in salads (Khoury
et al., 2016). Thymbra spicata is used in the preparation of manakeesh, the “Libanese pizza”
(Khoury et al., 2016). In Crete, thyme (Thymbra capitata) is used to flavor meat and vegetable
dishes (Psilakis and Psilakis, 1997).
3.3.17 Herb mixes
Many well-known Mediterranean dishes are connected to the characteristic flavor of a
specific culinary herb; Italian pizza to oregano, pasta to basil, and focaccia to rosemary, Arabic
falafel to coriander, Greek spinach pie to dill, and French béarnaise sauce to tarragon. But in
many dishes, more than one herbs are combined to provide a mixed flavor, with numerous
combinations of herbs applied in different dishes. Some well-known examples of herb mixes
are bouquet garni and fines herbes that originate from the French cuisine. Typically a bouquet
garni consists of fresh laurel leaves, parsley, and thyme sprigs tied together in a bundle. Other
herbs that can be added in bouquet garni are savory, rosemary, sage, or spices such as pep-
percorns and cloves (Millo and Todorovska, 2014). Besides France, bouquet garni is used also
in neighboring Spain. In Catalonia such a herb bundle with savory, thyme, and wild oregano
tied in laurel leaves is called a farcellet (Roden, 2012). Fines herbes is a combination of finely
chopped parsley, chives, tarragon, and chervil. In Levantine countries, za’atar (besides being
the Arabic name of oregano, thyme, or savory) is a popular spice mix, the basic ingredients of
which are thyme, oregano, sumac, and sesame seeds. The content of za’atar varies per country,
and some combinations may also include marjoram (Abboud, 2018). Za’atar is used to flavor
a variety of dishes in Turkey and Arabic countries and is frequently eaten as a dip on bread.
Fresh or dried mixes of several Mediterranean herbs are sometimes sold in the interna-
tional market under different commercial names (Fig. 3.4). Herbs that may be included in
3.4 Exploitation of wild aromatic plant resources 113
these products are basil, oregano, thyme, sage, laurel, mint, parsley, and rosemary. Another
commercialized herb mix is herbes de Provence, a combination of dried ground herbs that are
traditionally used in Provencal cooking, such as thyme, marjoram, rosemary, basil, sage, and
lavender (Luiten, 2019). Fines herbes are also used in commercialized food products.
3.4 Exploitation of wild aromatic plant resources
Collecting edible plants in the wild is a traditional custom of Mediterranean culture. Nev-
ertheless, a rising trend experienced over the past decades in commercial demand for natural
products has led to an increase in the harvesting of aromatic herbs in the wild. Many aromatic
Lamiaceae species, such as oregano, thyme, mountain tea, sage, marjoram, and mint, are har-
vested from wild populations both for own consumption and for commercial exploitation. Sev-
eral species are reported to be locally threatened across the Mediterranean. Concerns for over-
exploitation of wild oregano species are reported from several Mediterranean countries (see
e.g. Aboukhalid et al., 2017; Bakha et al., 2018; El Beyrouthy et al., 2013). In Spain, Origanum com-
pactum is classified as “vulnerable” (Moreno, 2008) and in Albania O. vulgare as “endangered”
(Anonymous, 2013). More commercially important aromatic herbs are red-listed in Albania,
FIGURE 3.4 Mediterranean aromatic herbs play an important role in the global herb trade. Here, packaged
sprigs of fresh thyme, rosemary, sage, and laurel, named as “Italian mix” (A), and dried herb mixes, named as
“Mediterranean herbs,” “Italian herbs,” and “Provencal herbs” (B) sold in the Netherlands.
114 3. Mediterranean aromatic herbs and their culinary use
namely, mountain tea (Sideritis raeseri) is designated as “endangered” and sage (both Sal-
via officinalis and S. fruticosa) as “vulnerable” (Anonymous, 2013). In Greece, local endemic
mountain tea species (Sideritis euboea, S. sipylea) are classified as “endangered” (Kokkini and
Karousou, 2009; Stefanaki and Kokkini, 2009). Another example is Hart’s pennyroyal (Mentha
cervina), the excessive wild harvesting of which in Portugal has led the species to be desig-
nated as “near threatened” (Rodrigues et al., 2013).
3.5 Conclusions
Rich biodiversity and millennia-long cultural tradition have influenced Mediterranean
cooking in which native aromatic herbs are basic ingredients. The most widely used herbs
in the region’s local cuisines are parsley, mint, laurel, oregano, thyme, rosemary, coriander,
dill, basil, tarragon, chives, sage, marjoram, fennel, and chervil, the majority of which belong
to the Lamiaceae and Apiaceae families. Mint, sage, pennyroyal, mountain tea, and several
oregano and thyme species are popular herbal teas. Mint, basil, lavender, rosemary, and lau-
rel are sometimes used in sweet-flavored dishes. Most Mediterranean dishes are flavored
with at least one culinary herb, frequently with a mix of fresh or dried herbs, and very fre-
quently dishes are served with a sprinkling of fresh herbs, usually finely chopped parsley.
Aromatic herbs are used both fresh and dried throughout the Mediterranean, although fresh
herbs are preferred in the West and dried in the East. Fresh herbs are usually supplied in
bundles and are finely chopped before added to food; the dried ones are preserved in almost
ground form. Except for basil and tarragon, culinary herbs used in Mediterranean cookery
are native Mediterranean species, many being narrowly distributed or local endemics. Herbs
may be wild harvested for personal consumption or trade, grown in home gardens or large-
scale cultivated for trade. Controlling wild harvesting and systematizing cultivation will help
prevent overexploitation of local plant resources. Besides their local culinary importance,
Mediterranean aromatic herbs are part of the international herb trade. Several to numerous
botanical species, with considerable essential oil variation (and consequently different aroma,
taste, and biological activity), underlie the vernacular names oregano (at least 20 species and
hybrids), thyme (at least 17 species and hybrids), mountain tea (at least 32 species), mint (at
least 11 species and hybrids), and sage (3 species). Herbal products traded under these names
need to be botanically identified, and characterized concerning their main essential oil com-
ponents, so that quality standards are kept.
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