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An Implementation of Smart Contracts by Integrating BIM and Blockchain

October 2019

October 2019

DOI:10.1007/978-3-030-32523-7_36

In book: Proceedings of the Future Technologies Conference (FTC) 2019, Volume 2 (pp.519-527)

Authors:

Alireza Shojaei

Virginia Tech (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University)

Ian Flood

University of Florida

Hashem Izadi Moud

Florida Gulf Coast University

Mohsen Hatami

University of Florida

Show all 5 authorsHide

This paper presents an implementation of smart contracts by integrating BIM and blockchain. After briefly reviewing the literature regarding blockchain technology, smart contracts, and integration of the BIM and blockchain, a blockchain network using Hyperledger fabric is proposed and tested to govern a sample construction project. The proposed framework does not utilize the cryptocurrency aspect of the blockchain as the payment form. Instead, it discusses the integration of the current banking system and the use of fiat currencies in transactions. The results show that blockchain is a viable system for governing construction project contracts by automating the consequences of each transaction and maintaining a tamper proof record of project progress, which would be valuable in any kind of dispute resolution. The blockchain network developed in this study implements the smart contract as its network operation logic. As a result, the notion of having to translate all the traditional contract clauses to the computer program is shown to be unnecessary and to some extent not suitable for construction, due to the complexity, fluidity, and high uncertainties involved in each project.

Network structure.

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BIM structure and the corresponding blockchain of the column A-121

…

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An Implementation of Smart Contracts

by Integrating BIM and Blockchain

Alireza Shojaei

1(&)

, Ian Flood

, Hashem Izadi Moud

Mohsen Hatami

, and Xun Zhang

Building Construction Science, College of Architecture, Art and Design,

Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA

shojaei@caad.msstate.edu

M. E. Rinker, Sr. School of Construction Management, University of Florida,

P.O. Box 115703, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA

{ﬂood,izadimoud,mohsen.hatami,xzz0032}@uﬂ.edu

Abstract. This paper presents an implementation of smart contracts by inte-

grating BIM and blockchain. After brieﬂy reviewing the literature regarding

blockchain technology, smart contracts, and integration of the BIM and

blockchain, a blockchain network using Hyperledger fabric is proposed and

tested to govern a sample construction project. The proposed framework does

not utilize the cryptocurrency aspect of the blockchain as the payment form.

Instead, it discusses the integration of the current banking system and the use of

ﬁat currencies in transactions. The results show that blockchain is a viable

system for governing construction project contracts by automating the conse-

quences of each transaction and maintaining a tamper proof record of project

progress, which would be valuable in any kind of dispute resolution. The

blockchain network developed in this study implements the smart contract as its

network operation logic. As a result, the notion of having to translate all the

traditional contract clauses to the computer program is shown to be unnecessary

and to some extent not suitable for construction, due to the complexity, ﬂuidity,

and high uncertainties involved in each project.

Keywords: Building Information Modeling Blockchain Smart contract 

BIM Cyber-physical space

1 Introduction

The construction industry is ﬁlled with legal disputes. Disputes can result from a wide

range of issues such as ambiguity in the terms of the contract, late payments, late or

underperforming delivery of work, to name but a few. One of the proposed solutions to

improve the current working environment is smart contracts. A smart contract can be

deﬁned as a computer program with if/then structure which administers the contract

clauses. Once a party executes its tasks, it asks for inspection, and upon veriﬁcation, a

payment would automatically be issued. The advantage of such a system is its clarity

and enforceability which may result in smoother contract execution and a signiﬁcant

reduction in disputes. Building Information Modeling (BIM) due to its data-intensive

©Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

K. Arai et al. (Eds.): FTC 2019, AISC 1070, pp. 519–527, 2020.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32523-7_36

nature and the level of details presented in an appropriate model is an excellent way to

tie different sections of the work to a smart contract. However, a secure and proper link

between the BIM model, the physical work, and the smart contract is needed to make

such a system viable. Blockchain has been successfully implemented in supply chain

management in different industries to connect stakeholders and facilitate storage and

sharing of information. This study aims to test the feasibility of blockchain technology

as the link between the BIM model and the physical world with the implementation of

smart contracts as the business logic of the blockchain network.

The rest of this paper is organized as follows. First, an overview of the blockchain

technology, smart contracts, and the current state of knowledge regarding the inte-

gration of BIM and blockchain is presented. Then, a blockchain network for connecting

the BIM model to the physical world based on the Hyperledger Fabric platform is

discussed with a presentation of a sample implementation of smart contracts that

integrates BIM and blockchain. At last, the paper concludes with discussing the results,

research limitations, and future direction for research.

2 Blockchain Technology

Enforcement of trust throughout the construction industry is always challenging. One

way to ensure trust among all parties is by using blockchain technology in construction

contracts. Blockchain is a database technology that provides smart and coded schemes

to verify and store transactions throughout chains of communications. Blockchain is a

Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT), which is simply a database of transactions.

Blockchain transactions are stored on different nodes of the network, which makes it a

fully decentralized system. Transactions are regularly synchronized, keeping the sys-

tem up to date at all times. A blockchain network is secure as it uses cryptography to

store and transfer all the transactions throughout its decentralized network and the data

is tamper proof due to the consensus system and chain-like data sequence [1,2]. In

order for a transaction to be executed, all the nodes in the network need to process that

transaction. The fact that DLTs are not owned by speciﬁc parties, are fully decen-

tralized and coded, makes them a suitable platform for contracts. Trust in contracts is

instilled in people, organizations, and authorities who are prone to error, corruption,

and misuse. However, trust in DLTs are based on coded transactions that are not owned

by anyone and executed through a chain of distributed nodes [1,2]. Blockchain

technology is widely used in cryptocurrencies, most notably bitcoin. While the ﬁrst

version of blockchain started with cryptocurrencies, blockchain technology has pro-

foundly evolved throughout the years. Blockchain 1.0 was the basis of the Bitcoin,

blockchain 2.0 introduced the idea of smart contracts through blockchain with Ether-

eum (a blockchain-based distributed computing platform). Blockchain 3.0 goes beyond

smart contracts and tries to apply blockchain to areas such as healthcare, culture, and

government.

Enforcement of trust, distribution of power among different parties (nodes) and its

cryptographic nature have made blockchain technology a promising platform for smart

contracts within the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) domain. Also,

the full digitalization of transactions provides a door to the future of transactions which

520 A. Shojaei et al.

the AEC industry needs to move towards it [1,3,4]. The characteristics of blockchain

along with its evolution through introducing different versions that can easily

accommodate different needs helped spread the application of blockchain across

multiple disciplines. Currently, blockchain is being used for record keeping, supply

chain transparency, smart grid distribution, money tracking, voting, and insurance

industries [5]. While numerous advantages have been mentioned for blockchain

technology, there are some downsides that might slow down its adoption in the AEC

industry. For example, depending on the consensus algorithm in use, conﬁrming a

transaction might take a long time. Also, applying blockchain technology in the AEC

industry, which is fairly technology-resistant, might inhibit the adoption of this new

approach.

3 Smart Contracts

Smart contracts are computer protocols that verify, simplify, and enforce the perfor-

mance or negotiation of a contract or eliminate the unforeseen clauses in the contract

[6]. Smart contracts comprise several transactions taking place between veriﬁed parties;

they usually vary widely in scale and complexity and are executed by computer codes

[1]. According to Sklaroff [7], a transition from human-language contracts to

technology-based system contracts creates new disorganizations. These issues arise

from the following features of smart contracts: (1) automation, which requires all

agreements be formed by fully-deﬁned terms; (2) decentralization, which requires the

veriﬁcation of job performance by third parties; and (3) anonymity, which reduces the

dependency of the contract on the commercial context it is being used. As a result, a

semi-automated system is the likely outcome in the short and medium term [8]. In order

to encode the parameters of a contract by a programmer, smart contracts commonly

omit the necessity of administrative staff and expenses. By automating the execution of

the contract, it can be interpreted that smart contracts are legal self-help agreements

outside the obligation of the law. Subsequently, computer codes are used to write them,

which are not legal languages of contract law.

The ultimate mission of smart contracts is to replace traditional contracts with a

new method of technological contract. Through this process, smart contracts enable

companies to operate with signiﬁcantly fewer disputes and need for law enforcement or

court intervention. They can even negotiate with other parties autonomously (or other

parties’smart contracts) [7]. The AEC industry needs to adapt to the digital age

effectively in order to improve its productivity. One of the most beneﬁcial aspects of

using smart contracts is that understanding the contract and its implications would be

much easier than reading the common contractual language. Furthermore, it is not

necessary to know how the smart contract works in order to use and trust it. The users

of smart contracts are not supposed to know the coding structure and complicated

algorithms needed for it to work. An excellent example of this advancement in daily

life is a car which can be used without knowing the details of how its internal parts

work [9].

According to Lynch [10], the construction industry has several issues regarding its

reputation, such as a lack of trust, being unfair to subcontractors, and a slow rate of

An Implementation of Smart Contracts by Integrating BIM 521

change in comparison with other industries. Due to the lack of ﬂexibility in smart

contracts, a signiﬁcant challenge will remain in the technology’s scalability [7]. Also,

because of the nature of construction projects regarding existing numerous uncer-

tainties in each project, smart contracts in their current state are not perceived as

suitable for complex contracts [11]. Smart contracts for construction purposes have

been considered concerning various components including the automation of contract,

the execution, programming, payment, and certiﬁcation [12,13]. According to Fox

[12], by using smart contracts, the scope, type, and size of a contracts’dispute will be

signiﬁcantly reduced. By using smart contracts, the dependency on intermediaries such

as lawyers and cost estimators would be decreased, which will result in both time and

cost savings.

4 BIM and Blockchain

As a digital model that integrates many sources, Building Information Modeling

(BIM) provides an exchange platform of information that allows different disciplines to

collaborate and solve design and construction issues. To protect the digital intellectual

properties of different stakeholders, legal information management is critical in case of

disputes and litigation among the numerous and ﬁne-grained contributors involved in

the collaboration process [14]. It is widely accepted that the legal uncertainties and

model ownership management are the main barriers to BIM adoption [15]. The

implementation of BIM needs more trust among different stakeholders in the design

and construction industry [16].

According to Barnett [17], the main areas of research on the use of blockchain in

construction include: designing a common data environment, automated dispute res-

olution, and automated regulation and compliance. The strength of blockchain is to

solve the issues of trust, which has the potential to bridge the barriers in BIM adoption

[2]. Ramage [18] points out that the centralized ledger of standard forms of a contract

results in an expensive and time-consuming process. Mason [9] proposes to build

intelligent contracts between different participants and to develop a trust-based model

to enhance the legal reliability of BIM. The author believes that as a distributed ledger

technology, blockchain can be used as the basic infrastructure that helps smart contracts

be executed without the common payment systems such as banks [9].

Previous studies cite several pieces of evidence in both academia and industry that

support blockchain integration with BIM [3,19]. Mathews [16] believes that since

blockchain is an efﬁcient way to solve the problem of trust, its combination with BIM

allows innovation to evolve and challenge the boundaries, and hierarchies of the

industry. Turk and Klinc [2] point out that blockchain has the potential to address some

of the issues that discourage the design and construction industry from using BIM,

including conﬁdentiality, provenance tracking, disintermediation, non-repudiation,

multiparty aggregation, traceable inter-organizational recordkeeping, change tracing,

data ownership, etc. Blockchain integration with BIM and other rapidly advancing

technologies will push the industry towards leaner procurement systems with improved

collaboration. As a result, there will be more control and transparency regarding the

cost and duration of the projects by eliminating intermediate parties, which also reduces

522 A. Shojaei et al.

the overall cost of projects. Mathews et al. [20] hold the view that BIM and now

blockchain offer real solutions in pushing forward the oncoming digital transformation.

The authors also express that the implementation of blockchain will impact the building

and construction industries just as it did the ﬁnance, insurance, health, and education

sectors [20].

5 Smart Contract Implementation Model

Public blockchain networks that require every node to execute every transaction and

maintain the ledger while controlling the consensus have their own limitations. For

instance, they cannot scale properly, and they cannot support private and conﬁdential

transactions and contracts. Due to the nature of projects in construction and the

importance of transaction conﬁdentiality, it is more reasonable to look for private rather

than public permission based blockchain solution in the AEC industry. In this study, a

private, permission based blockchain, using Hyperledger fabric [21] is deployed, which

is modular, scalable, and secure. In contrast to the common blockchain networks such

as Bitcoin, where the network members are secret, and transactions are public, in the

framework proposed and tested in this research the network members are known, but

the transactions are secret (unless you have permission to view it). In other words, the

network is private, and the membership is controlled. As a result, the business partners

know who they are dealing with, but the detail of each transaction is known only to the

parties involved in that transaction.

The literature reviewed in the smart contract section shows that the perception of

smart contracts is a hard coded computer program that executes the contract clauses. In

the implementation used in this study, the smart contract is basically the logic gov-

erning the network that is encoded within itself; it also relies on peers for veriﬁcation.

In other words, the method used here is to some extent can be considered as a semi-

automated contract where the execution and veriﬁcation of obligations are done by

peers inside the network, but the blockchain network controls the consequence of their

actions upon veriﬁcation. The advantage of such a system is that in addition to being

ﬂexible and versatile enough to scale to any construction project, it has consequence-

based autonomy and tamper proof record keeping which are a signiﬁcant improvement

to the current state of practice in the AEC industry. It is also worth mentioning that in

adopting smart contract and blockchain in industrial applications, there is no need to

use the cryptocurrency aspect of the blockchain, and monetary compensations can be

executed through traditional channels such as electronic deposits. Figure 1shows the

network structure proposed and tested in this study where seven participant types are

deﬁned, namely, client, architect/engineer, General Contractor (GC), regulators,

inspectors, suppliers, and sub-contractors. More than one peer is assigned the role of

sub-contractor, regulator, supplier, and inspector. The types of transaction requests and

endorsement ability (veriﬁcation of other transactions) that each peer has is different

based on their role in the network. For instance, the GC can request a transaction for the

work executed, but only the inspectors can endorse and approve that transaction.

Figure 2shows the sample BIM model used in this study and highlights a column

on the third ﬂoor of the building under consideration. By assigning a unique ID to each

An Implementation of Smart Contracts by Integrating BIM 523

element as their identiﬁers, the BIM model is tied to the physical world by the

blockchain. The highlighted column is IDed as A-121. The linked list of blocks are also

presented in Fig. 2, where each block describes a transaction that is already endorsed

by the appropriate parties and now is part of the blockchain. The workﬂow process

starts with the client requesting the notice to proceed transaction for the project and

upon endorsement by the GC, and appropriate regulatory peers, the ﬁrst block is

Fig. 1. Network structure.

Fig. 2. BIM structure and the corresponding blockchain of the column A-121

524 A. Shojaei et al.

created. The blockchain continues to grow as the project progresses. To better

understand the process, the blocks related to the column A-121 will be discussed in

more detail. The process starts with the Subcontractor/GC requesting a transaction for

purchasing the column. Upon endorsement by the supplier, that block is created. The

next transaction would be requested by the supplier when the column is shipped and

endorsed by its peers. Then, upon delivery of the material to the job site, the supplier

requests another transaction that relates to the delivery of the column and request for

the payment. Upon the endorsement of this transaction by the GC, the fund would be

transferred to the supplier, and also the appropriate funds would be transferred from the

client to the GC for the material on site. The GC requests the last transaction in this

case upon the erection of the column, which then needs to be endorsed by the inspector.

The use of smart contracts in the construction industry and especially implementing

it by blockchain is a novel approach. In a recent study, Lou et al. [22] discussed

automating construction payments through a smart contract based blockchain frame-

work. While both this study and Lou et al. [22] uses permission-based blockchain to

facilitate smart contract enforcement and automate the payment process, this study

departs in integrating BIM model into the contract and create a cyber-physical space for

administrating the project through the blockchain network.

6 Conclusion

The smart contract implementation model discussed in this paper is generic and ver-

satile in a manner that can be applied to any construction project with minimal

adjustments, such as updating the payment amounts. The framework can be easily

matched to the structure of any project by adjusting the parties involved, type of

transactions and endorsements, and the value of each transaction. However, the

structure of the blockchain network designed in this research reﬂects a design-bid-build

delivery system at the construction stage. Further research is needed to adopt block-

chain technology to other procurement methods and also possibly to extend its

application to the design and operation stages of the building lifecycle. Also, the smart

contract implementation and consensus system used in this study are by no means

optimal, and it is only adopted as a starting point to show the feasibility of the

approach. Further work is needed to identify the optimal network structure and con-

ﬁguration that matches the characteristics of the AEC industry. This paper proposed a

conceptual framework with a limited empirical test to test its viability. More extensive

empirical tests and reﬁnement is needed to polish the framework and make it opera-

tional. The structure of the network in this study is designed from the perspective that

the project is an organization and all the parties involved play their part as a node in

that organization. The Hyperledger fabric allows multiple organizations to operate in a

network or multiple networks to interact with each other. As a result, one direction for

future research would be modeling the construction process where each party is deﬁned

as an organization with its own network and the project workﬂow is modeled through

the interaction between the different blockchain networks. Overall, it is shown how

blockchain can be used in a semi-automated to implement smart contracts in a con-

struction process. In a way, it can be used to link the physical and digital world (BIM

An Implementation of Smart Contracts by Integrating BIM 525

Model) to maintain and control the cyber-physical space. Also, more automation can be

achieved by integrating IoT, RFID, and other sensory technologies where departure,

arrival, and inspection of the material, and workmanship can be streamlined.

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Many factors affect the progress and life cycle of a real-estate project. Therefore, evaluating such factors has become an indispensable and fundamental component of every firm operating in the real-estate industry. This paper aims at identifying and evaluating the control variables associated for the development of blockchain model applicable to construction projects. When a cutting-edge technology like blockchain is applied to this kind of job, it has the potential to become far more efficient. As a result, the purpose of this research is to develop a preliminary process framework that can direct users who are interested in utilising blockchain technology as a tool, as well as to identify the factors that influence the use of blockchain technology as a smart contract, supply chain management, and financing instrument tool by presenting them in the form of key performance indicators (KPIs). Eight major project factors like technology, organisation, finance, environment, BIM, data management and security, input–output, and project-process related have been identified. Subsequently significant KPIs have been identified under each category. Multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) tool analytic network process (ANP) is used to establish the weights of the criterion based on the replies from three-stage questionnaire surveys performed among industry professionals working for prominent construction businesses in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. This study will reduce the possibility of time and cost overrun and enhance the probability of successful completion of a project within stipulated time and cost frame.

A Framework and Methods for BIM Contract Management and Monitoring

Conference Paper

Feb 2024

Building Information Modeling (BIM) is a process that involves the creation and exchange of digital representations of physical and functional characteristics of buildings and infrastructure. BIM can facilitate the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of buildings and infrastructure projects. However, BIM also poses new challenges and implications for the contractual relationships and obligations among the project parties. Therefore, there is a need for a framework and methods for BIM contract management and monitoring, which can address the issues and implications of BIM use and exchange, and ensure the successful implementation and adoption of BIM contracts. This article proposes a framework and methods for BIM contract management and monitoring, which consist of four phases: BIM contract planning, BIM contract execution, BIM contract control, and BIM contract closure. The article also describes and demonstrates the roles and functions of the methods for BIM contract management and monitoring, which include BIM Execution Plan (BEP), BIM Addendum, BIM Protocol, BIM Manager, BIM Team, BIM Dashboard, BIM Audit, and BIM Dispute Resolution. The article concludes with a discussion of the benefits and challenges of the proposed framework and methods, and the implications and recommendations for future research and practice. https://civilica.com/doc/1933763/

Potentials of Blockchain Technology for Construction Management

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2017

Blockchain technology enables distributed, encrypted and secure logging of digital transactions. It is the underlying technology of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies. Blockchain is expected to revolutionize computing in several areas, particularly where centralization was unnatural and privacy was important. In the paper, we present research on where and how this technology could be useful in the construction industry. The work is based on the study of literature on open issues that exist in construction process management. These are than matched to the capabilities of blockchain. We are motivated by the fact that construction projects involve a dynamic grouping of several companies. We study the degree to which the relationships among them are hierarchical or peer-to-peer and note that particularly in information intensive phases, centralization of information management was necessary because of technology. When using un-constraining technology, communication patterns among participants show a peer-to-peer nature of the relationships. In such environment, blockchain can provide a trustworthy infrastructure for information management during all building life-cycle stages. Even if building information modelling (BIM) is used, which assumes a centralized building information model, there is a role for blockchain to manage information on who did what and when and thus provide a basis for any legal arguments that might occur. On the construction site blockchain can improve the reliability and trustworthiness of construction logbooks, works performed and material quantities recorded. In the facility maintenance phase, blockchain's main potential is the secure storage of sensor data which are sensitive to privacy. We conclude that blockchain provides solutions to many current problems in construction information management. However, it is more likely that it will be built into generic IT infrastructure on top of which construction applications are built, rather than used directly by authors of construction related software. It has a potential to make construction processes less centralized which opens needs for research in that direction.

Construction Payment Automation through Smart Contract-based Blockchain Framework

Conference Paper

Full-text available

May 2019

A construction contract facilitates payments through the supply chain by integrating people, activities, and events throughout the project period through obligations, permissions, and prohibitions in its terms and conditions. The management of payments is a manual process and is more difficult in the case of construction projects as different stakeholders at different levels of the project organizational structure are bound by different contracts. Moreover, payments are strongly affected by the lack of clarity in the definitions of the obligations, responsibilities, and liabilities of various stakeholders in construction contracts. This intensifies disputes and causes delays in construction payments leading to additional expenditure, cash flow problems, and lack of trust. Therefore, to address these problems, we propose a methodology to automate construction payments by formalizing them into smart contracts and executing on a decentralized blockchain based framework. We formalize the payment logic that binds the prohibitions and liabilities associated with financial commitments, such as interim payments on completion of tasks in a construction project, and convert it into a computer-executable code. A framework based on blockchain is used to host this smart contract and to automate actions such as the triggering of payments after achieving consensus among the relevant project stakeholders. This framework also address the conditions required for the security of information in construction projects, such as confidentiality and information integrity in a multi-party environment. The proposed framework is demonstrated through a case-based scenario.

Exploring Applications of Blockchain Technology in The Construction Industry

Conference Paper

Full-text available

May 2019

Alireza Shojaei

Blockchain provides a secure decentralized information management system that can solve many common problems facing the construction industry. The loose structure of the construction industry, the way that public and private projects are tendered, and the supply chain system it uses for material and service delivery provide unique challenges and problems. New information technology management systems such as BIM and RFID are used to address some of these issues, though not completely. Blockchain technology can be used to further improve the information management systems in construction, provide more automation and mitigate many possible legal conflicts by default. Implementation of blockchain technology in the construction industry can also result in the use of smart contracts with fewer administrative struggles, improve the flow of the project, material, and service delivery, and increase the security and currentness of BIM or project documents. This study aims to explore the applications of blockchain technology in improving the construction industry's information management systems. It is concluded that not only the blockchain technology has potential in addressing some of the common problems in the construction industry but also it is adaptable to the construction industry structure and the way it is practiced. Thus, blockchain technology is a viable option for adaptation in the construction industry.

Smart Contracts in Construction Industry

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Dec 2018

In construction industry, business failures are generally resulted in payments withheld or refused to be paid. By taking advantage of Blockchain technology, Cryptocurrencies and smart contracts in this industry such problems could be mitigated. Within the proposed framework, funding of each item of the contract is blocked unless the contractual conditions agreed upon are fully satisfied. Set of instructions and conditions could be coded in smart contracts such that payment will be made automatically only when the stipulated conditions are reached. This concept guarantees establishing a trustful chain of payments between the parties. Proposed concept also minimizes the time-cost overruns due to dispute reduction and maximize the trust between contract parties in construction industry. Although the construction industry is recalled as being slow at adapting to new technologies, the prospect of having a protection against late payments might be a driving force for acquiring the smart contracts. The proposed framework is and pros as well as cons of this framework is discussed in this study.

Blockchain in the built environment: analysing current applications and developing an emergent framework

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Jul 2018

Distributed ledger technology (DLT), commonly referred to as ‘blockchain’ and originally invented to create a peerto-peer digital currency, is rapidly attracting interest in other sectors. The aim in this paper is (1) to investigate the applications of DLT within the built environment, and the challenges and opportunities facing its adoption; and (2) develop a multi-dimensional emergent framework for DLT adoption within the construction sector. Key areas of DLT applications were found in: smart energy; smart cities and the sharing economy; smart government; smart homes; intelligent transport; Building Information Modelling (BIM) and construction management; and business models and organisational structures. The results showed a significant concentration of DLT research on the operation phase of assets. This is expected given the significant resources and lifespan associated with the operation phase of assets and their social, environmental and economic impact. However, more attention is required to address the current gap at the design and construction phases to ensure that these phases are not treated in isolation from the operational phase. An emergent framework combining the political, social and technical dimensions was developed. The framework was overlaid with an extensive set of challenges and opportunities. The structured and inter-connected dimensions provided by the framework can be used by field researchers as a point of departure to investigate a range of research questions from political, social or technical perspectives.

The outlook of blockchain technology for construction engineering management

Article