Plant-derived functional components: prevent from various disorders by regulating the endocrine glands

Abstract

The current review is informed about the effectiveness of plant-derived functional components that aids in the regulation and health of endocrine glands. The endocrine glands include the thyroid, adrenal, hypothalamus, pituitary and pineal, ovaries and testes that play vital functions in our body such as growth and development, metabolism, mood and reproduction controlled by hormones. The abnormalities in the functions of endocrine glands are formed various disorders, some major disorders are diabetes, goiter, kidney problem, brain-related diseases and PCOS. Different parts of plant-based foods (fruits, vegetables, cereals, beans, legumes, herbs and spices) are composed of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and phenolic compounds that help support different body functions. It is concluded that plant-based foods are a rich source of functional components that play a valuable role in regulating the function of the endocrine glands.

Full text

Plant-derived functional components: prevent from various
disorders by regulating the endocrine glands
Waseem Khalid
a
, Zahra Maqbool
a
, Muhammad Sajid Arshad
a
, Safura Kousar
a
, Ramish Akram
b
,
Azhari Siddeeg
c
, Anwar Ali
d
, Hong Qin
e
, Afa Aziz
a
, Ayesha Saeed
f
, Muhammad Abdul Rahim
a
,
Muhammad Zubair Khalid
a
, and Hina Ali
g
a
Department of Food Science, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan;
b
Department of Rehabilitation
Sciences, The University of Faisalabad, Pakistan;
c
Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Faculty of
Engineering and Technology, University of Gezira, Wad Medani, Sudan;
d
Department of Epidemiology and Health
Statistics, Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, China;
e
Department of Nutrition Science and Food
Hygiene, Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, China;
f
Department of Biochemistry, Government
College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan;
g
Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
ABSTRACT
The current review is informed about the eectiveness of plant-derived
functional components that aids in the regulation and health of endocrine
glands. The endocrine glands include the thyroid, adrenal, hypothalamus,
pituitary and pineal, ovaries and testes that play vital functions in our body
such as growth and development, metabolism, mood and reproduction
controlled by hormones. The abnormalities in the functions of endocrine
glands are formed various disorders, some major disorders are diabetes,
goiter, kidney problem, brain-related diseases and PCOS. Dierent parts of
plant-based foods (fruits, vegetables, cereals, beans, legumes, herbs and
spices) are composed of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and phenolic com-
pounds that help support dierent body functions. It is concluded that plant-
based foods are a rich source of functional components that play a valuable
role in regulating the function of the endocrine glands.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 9 November 2021
Revised 19 April 2022
Accepted 22 April 2022
KEYWORDS
Plant foods; glands; vitamins;
minerals and antioxidants
Introduction
The plant-based food pattern mainly targets plant foods that consist of fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds,
whole grains, legumes, beans, herbs, and spices. Fruit and vegetables are an essential part of a healthy
diet.
[1]
It helps to grow and support various body functions for better physical, mental and social well-
being at all ages. It has been recognized as an excellent source of vegetable protein, vegetable fat
(omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid), minerals, vitamins, micronutrients, dietary fiber, antioxidants
and polyphenol.
[2–6]
It is also sources of phytochemicals that act as antioxidants, phytoestrogens, and
anti-inflammatory agents through other protective mechanisms against many disorders.
[7]
It contain
a diverse group of foods that differ significantly in energy and nutrient content. Plant-based foods like
lentil beans, avocados, sweet potatoes, cereals and grains that provide vitamins B6 and B5 help to
regulate the pineal gland by producing and distributing the melatonin hormone, which controls
essential circadian rhythms. Furthermore, it also contain indigestible compounds, such as cellulose,
resistant starch, pectin and hemicellulose, made the plant-based fiber fraction.
[8]
Fruits and vegetables
act as low-fat foods with unique nutrients and phytochemical profiles, particularly rich in vitamin C,
vitamin B6, potassium, manganese and dietary fibers.
[9–11]
It reduce the risk of non-communicable
diseases and prevent malnutrition of all forms like undernutrition, micronutrient deficiency,
CONTACT Muhammad Sajid Arshad sajid_ft@yahoo.com Department of Food Science Government College
University, Faisalabad, Pakistan; Azhari Siddeeg azhari_siddeeg@uofg.edu.sd; sajid_ft@yahoo.com Department of
Food Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, University of Gezira, Wad Medani, Sudan
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES
2022, VOL. 25, NO. 1, 976–995
https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2022.2070643
© 2022 Waseem Khalid, Zahra Maqbool, Muhammad Sajid Arshad, Safura Kousar, Ramish Akram, Azhari Siddeeg, Anwar Ali, Hong Qin, Afifa Aziz, Ayesha
Saeed, Muhammad Abdul Rahim, Muhammad Zubair Khalid and Hina Ali. Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

overweight and obesity. As part of a well-balanced, regular diet and active lifestyle, plant-based diet
consumption can aid in the reduction of obesity, cholesterol and blood pressure and the maintenance
of a healthy weight.
[12]
These biologically active substances can help protect you from some diseases
and lower the risk of diabetes type 2, stroke, obesity, cancer and cardiovascular disease. It is regarded
as cruciferous vegetables that may lower the risk of particular kinds of cancer.
[13]
As a part of
a balanced plant-rich diet, legumes have many components to maintain digestive health and prevent
chronic diseases.
[1415–18]
Characterization of plant-based foods and their functional composition
Plant based-foods are a natural gift and packed with many functional materials. The fruits, vegetables,
cereals, beans, grains, herbs and species are plant-based foods that have different ingredients in
different parts, as shown in Table 1.
Types of fruits and its nutritional and functional components
A fleshy or dried ripe ovary of a flowering plant that is the fruit surrounded by seeds. Fruits are
structures associated with the fleshy seeds of plants that are usually sweet or sour and can be eaten raw.
The classification of fruits is based on tissue types, texture, shape and other morphological character-
istics. There are two main type of fruits, including fleshy fruits and dry fruits.
[37]
The fleshy fruit
contains a lot of water in the pericarp and fully ripe it becomes a fleshy mesocarp Consequently, fleshy
fruits are more juicy than dried fruits.
[38]
Fleshy fruits are avocados, apples, peaches, plums, peppers,
cucumbers and tomatoes. On the other hand, dry fruits have three layers in their pericarp: endocarp,
mesocarp, and exocarp but they are thinner and do not have as much water like fleshy fruits.
[39,40]
Dry
fruits are cashew, apricot, dates, hazelnut, walnut, almond, pistachio, resins, etc. Moreover, fleshy
fruits are divided into three categories: simple, multiple and aggregate. A simple fruit, such as a peach
and a tomato, grows from a single ovary. Multiple ovaries in a single flower combine to create an
aggregate fruit, for example, blackberries, strawberries and pineapples. Aggregate fruit are good source
of vitamins, carotenoids, volatiles, sugars, amino acids, organic acids, minerals, fibers, polyphenols,
Table 1. Common plant-based foods parts and their derived components
Plant-based
food Name of some common plant foods
Parts of plant
foods Plant-derived functional components References
Vegetables Kale, spinach, radishes, potato, beets,
cauliflower, broccoli, cucumber, garlic
and onion
Sprout, leaf,
stem, flower
and root
Antioxidants, polyphenols, vitamins,
minerals and polyunsaturated fatty
acids
[19–21]
Fruits Grape fruits, oranges,
apples, pears, mangoes, bananas,
tomatoes
avocados, peaches, apricots,
strawberries, kiwifruit, melons,
honeydew melons, watermelons,
almond and cashew
Pulp, peel and
seed
Antioxidants, fibers, vitamins, minerals
and polyphenols
[22–24]
Cereals Wheat, rice, oat, rye, barley, sorghum and
maize
Bran,
endosperm
and germ
Antioxidants, fibers, vitamins, minerals,
fatty acids and polyphenols
[25–27]
Grains/
legumes
and
beans
Dry beans, snap beans, shell beans, green
peas, broad beans, green beans,
chickpeas and lentils
Grain Antioxidants, polyphenols, vitamins,
minerals, polyunsaturated fatty acids
and amino acids
[28–31]
Spices Clove, ginger, saffron and cumin Leaf, seed and
stem
Zinc, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus,
phenolic compounds and
antioxidants
[27–30]
Herbs Mint, Aloe vera, parsley, dill, basil, rosemary
and coriander
Leaf, stem and
root
phenolic compounds and antioxidants
[5,32–36]
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 977

flavonoids, anthocyanins, triterpenes, and other nutrients.
[11]
It has many health benefits such
aspreventing inflammatory bowel diseases, constipation and diverticular disease, reduce the risk of
cardiovascular disease and severity of asthma, enhancing psychological well-being and contributing
higher bone mineral density in and adults and children, lowering the risk of depression and improving
the odds of successful aging.
[40]
Types of vegetables and its nutritional and functional components
The fresh edible portion of certain edible plants is usually referred to as vegetables. The parts of
the vegetable plants such as leaves, fruit, stems, roots, tubers, seeds and flowers are mostly
commonly consumed for multiple purposes. Vegetables are more often cooked and eaten than
low-sugar fruits. Vegetables are classified into various groups;eet, carrot, radish, sweet potato and
turnip are root vegetables while asparagus and kohlrabi are stem vegetables. Underground stems
and edible tubers are potatoes. Cabbage, lettuce, celery, brussels sprouts, rhubarb, and spinach
are leaf and leafstalk vegetables. The bulb vegetables areonion, leeks and garlic.
[41]
Cauliflower,
broccoli and artichokes are included in flower vegetables. Some fruits like cucumber, eggplant,
okra, sweet corn, squash, peppers and tomatoes are considered vegetables by virtue of their use.
Seed vegetables are legumes and peas.
Vegetables are rich sources of carbohydrates, protein, vitamins and minerals. Carbohydrates
represent more than 90% of the dry matter of fruit and are the main component of
vegetables.
[42]
Carbohydrates are found in the form of sugars, starch and dietary fiber. Starch
mainly exists in root vegetables such as potatoes and sweet potatoes. Several minerals like K,
Ca, Mg, P and Fe and traces of oligo-elements are also found present in vegetables. Vegetables
have been extensively involved with improving gastrointestinal health, good vision, reduced
risk of heart disease, stroke, chronic diseases, diabetes, and some forms of cancer.
[43]
Cruciferous vegetables such as brussels sprouts, broccoli and cauliflower are very effective
for thyroid health. Some phytochemicals from vegetables act as potent antioxidants and reduce
the risk of chronic disease by modifying metabolic activation, detoxifying carcinogens, protect-
ing against free radical damage, or possibly interfering with mechanisms that alter the path of
tumor cells.
[44]
All vegetables can protect humans from chronic diseases.
[45]
Types of nuts, seeds and beans, and its nutritional and functional components
Nuts are fruits composed of edible seeds having an inedible hard shell. Generally, a variety of dried
seeds are called nuts. Nuts are nutrients and energy-rich food sources. Nuts are a good source of
protein and bioactive substances and are high in fiber and rich in a variety of vitamins and minerals.
[46]
Generally, nuts are a good source of protein, fiber and fat. Consumption of nuts are highly beneficial
and reduces the risk of cancer and cardiovascular diseases.
[47]
Nuts are high in protein and fats and low
in carbohydrates and glycemic index. The pituitary gland primarily runs on vitamins D and E. Foods
with high protein like nuts should be incorporated into the diet.
[48]
Moreover, nuts also increase
intellectual functions.
[49]
Seed is an embryonic plant confined in a protective outer covering. Seeds result from the
ripened ovule after fertilization by pollen and some growth within the mother plant. The
embryo flourishes from the zygote and the seed coat from the envelope of the ovule. There are
different types of seeds like sunflower, pumpkin, sesame, poppy and flaxseed.
[50]
Protein,
minerals, vitamins and fiber are all found in seeds. Seeds may also coat bread and provide
texture and taste to other meals. Seeds make a nutritious snack and that can be added to
salads, casseroles, breakfast cereals and smoothies. They are a source of human protein and
calories.
[51]
Seeds are incredibly nutritious due to their nutritional content of fiber, protein,
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. Seeds are used to make a nutritious snack. salads,
978 W. KHALID ET AL.

casseroles, breakfast cereals and smoothies. Seeds are effective additive to our daily life. It’s
used in a healthy diet, seeds can help lower blood pressure, blood sugar and cholesterol
levels.
[49]
Beans are the seeds of many species of flowering plants that are used as vegetables. Beans are used in
many traditional dishes all out the world. Beans are usually found in the form of dried and green
beans. Dry beans are a source of protein, complex carbohydrates, fiber,vitamins and minerals.
[52]
Dry
beans have been used to reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as coronary heart disease, diabetes
mellitus, obesity and cancer
[53]
A considerable amount of soluble fiber is also present in beans that
help to reduce blood cholesterol. Green beans have been used to reduce the risk of various chronic
illnesses, including cardiovascular diseases, high blood pressure, arthritis, diabetes, Alzheimer’s dis-
ease, and cancer Biological components of beans have been used to boost fertility for female
reproduction. .
[54]
Types of cereals (grains), legumes and pulses, and their nutritional and functional components
Cereals are seeds or grains of grasses that belong to the Gramineae family and are produced
for the maximum yield of their seed, which contains of bran, endosperm and germ, and is also
known as the caryopsis. Influential cereals are wheat, sorghum, maize, oat, rice, rye, millet and
barley.
[55]
Other important crops in this familyare bamboo and sugar cane. Cereals are
cultivated in enormous amounts and are used as a staple food in a maximum of the developing
countries because it provide more energy. Cereals are considered staple crops and are culti-
vated in greater quantities worldwide.
[56]
Chia, quinoa and buckwheat are indicated as pseu-
docereals. Whole grains have health-improving properties (dietary fiber, inulin, beta-glucan,
resistant starch, carotenoids, phenolics, tocotrienols, and tocopherols) and also play an impor-
tant role in preventing diseases such as hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus, different forms
of cancer, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular diseases, and obesity.
[57]
Plant from the Fabaceae family are comprised of stem, leaves and pods. Legumes are
nutritious diets and composedof vitamins, protein, complex carbohydrates and fiber.
[58]
Consumption of legumes helps to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancers, and
also helps to manage body weight.
[59]
The pulse is a form of legume which produces a grain
seed in a pod where the dried seed is harvested.
[60]
Pulses are the edible seeds of plants in the
legume family. Pulses grow in pods and come in various shapes, sizes and colors. The pulses
are dry beans, broad dry beans, dry peas, chickpeas, pigeon peas, lentils, bambara beans,
lupines and vetches.
[61]
A lentil is a definite pulse with a lens-shaped seed. Pulses are healthy
and nutritiousbecause it contains protein, folate, soluble, insoluble fiber, phosphorus, mono-
unsaturated, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and iron.
[62]
Pulse consumption also influences serum
lipid profiles and other cardiovascular disease risk factors, including inflammation, platelet
activity and blood pressure. Pulses are rich in fiber and have a low glycemic index that making
peoples healthy by maintaining insulin levels in the blood.
[63]
Types of herbs and its nutritional and functional components
The herbaceous plant without any woody stem are present on ground and is valued for its flavor,
scent and medicinal properties.
[64]
The plants can easily uproot from soil; few consist ofbranched
or some have without branchless. According to the plant’s lifespan, herbaceous plants are
classified as annual, perennial or biennial.
[65]
Few examples of herbs are parsley, mint, dill,
basil, sage and rosemary. Regarding nutritional benefits, herbs contain minerals, vitamins,
flavonoids, anthocyanins and phenolic compounds for a balanced diet.
[66]
Herbs enhance diges-
tion and immunity to provide relief from pain and anxiety.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 979

Types of spices and its nutritional and functional components
Oil-bearing seeds of herbaceous plants and tiny aromatic fruits rich in essential oils are referred to as spices.
It may be aromatic seeds, bark, bud, berries and flowers.
[67]
Few examples of spices are clove, ginger,
peppercorns, saffron and cumin. Spices from seeds are the primary source of carbohydrates, protein and
fat. It is a good source of micro and macronutrients. Many spices are a rich sources of zinc, magnesium,
calcium, phosphorus, phenolic compounds and antioxidants. Spices help in the natural production of
insulin, reduce blood cholesterol, keep the immune system healthy, and have antimicrobial and antioxidant
properties.
[68]
Overview of glands and its location, functions and disorders
Endocrine glands
Endocrine glands make and release hormones in the bloodstream. Several vital functions in our body
like growth and development, metabolism, mood and reproduction are controlled by hormones.
Endocrine glands including thyroid gland, adrenal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland and pineal
gland. Some organs that contain endocrine tissues and act as glands include the pancreas, kidneys,
ovaries and testes.
[69]
The endocrine framework is an assortment of organs that produce chemicals,
digestion, development and improvement of tissue work, sexual capacity, propagation, rest, and
temperament. Chemicals are the synthetic couriers of the human body. They convey data starting
with one gathering of cells then onto the next. These chemicals are delivered by organs and shipped to
different body tissues through the blood roller
[70]
Figure 1 shows the location of different endocrine
glands in the human body.
Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is located below the larynx in front of our neck. It has a shape similar to a butterfly
and measures approximately two inches. It secretes hormones that virtually affect almost every tissue
in our body. Thyroid hormones regulate heart, digestive function and other metabolism. It plays
a significant role in brain, nerve development and muscle control. The pituitary (a small gland at the
base of the brain) controls thyroid function.
[71]
Common thyroid disorders are hypothyroidism and
Figure 1. The location of different endocrine glands in the male and female body.
980 W. KHALID ET AL.

hyperthyroidism. When underactive thyroid does not produce enough hormones, it results in
hypothyroidism and when the thyroid produces too much hormone, hyperthyroidism happens.
[72]
Both these conditions result in an enlarged thyroid gland (goiter). Hypothyroidism results in unin-
tentional weight gain, fatigue and slow heart rate. Hyperthyroidism signare like weight loss, nervous-
ness and rapid heart rate. The thyroid gland secretes calcitonin (thyroxine and triiodothyronine)
hormones into the bloodstream that control the cells and organs’ conversion of nutrients into energy
and the amount of oxygen that cells use. The thyroid gland works with the pituitary gland to regulate
the hormones released.
[73]
Adrenal gland
The adrenal gland is located at the top of each kidney and produces distinct hormones like
cortisol, aldosterone, adrenaline and a small number of sex hormones called androgens.
Hormones produced by adrenal gland have many important functions.
[74]
It assist to control
blood sugar, digest of fat and protein, regulate blood pressure, and react to stressors. Adrenal
gland disorders is the result of too much or too low of certain hormones, like cortisol.
[75]
High
cortisol production due to adrenal disorder results in Cushing syndrome that causes weight
gain, high blood pressure and a fatty hump between the shoulders. It is usually caused by
extended use of corticosteroids.
[76]
When the body produces too little cortisol and sometimes
aldosterone, adrenal insufficiency can cause weight loss, decreased appetite and muscle weak-
ness. Tumors or mass present on the adrenal gland resulting in adrenal incidentaloma which
causes more production of hormones. The excess of these hormones could motivate heart
attack due to high blood pressure.
[75]
Hypothalamus
The function of the hypothalamus is to act as a communication center for pituitary glands
sending signals and messages to the pituitary to generate and release hormones that trigger the
production and discharge of other hormones. Hypothalamus influences several body functions
such as temperature regulation, memory, sleep and wakefulness, food intake, thirst and
emotional behavior.
[77]
To maintain homeostasis, the hypothalamus plays a role in creating
or controlling many hormones in the body. Homeostasis is maintained by integrating sensory
inputs, affecting responses through behavioral, endocrine, autonomic outputs throughout
various time scales and throughout an individual’s lifetime.
[78]
The hypothalamus collaborates
with the pituitary gland to produce and transmit hormones throughout the body. The endo-
crine system is the name given to the whole system which comprises the gonads, thyroid, and
adrenal cortex. Hormones produced by the hypothalamus are prolactin-controlling hormones,
antidiuretic hormone, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, corticotropin-releasing hormone,
thyrotropin-releasing hormone and oxytocin.
[79]
The antidiuretic hormone increases the
absorption of water in the blood by the kidney. The purpose of corticotropin hormone is to
regulate immune response and metabolism. Oxytocin hormone induces several processes such
as moderating body temperature and regulating sleep cycles and a mother’s breast milk flow.
The thyroid is activated by thyrotropin hormones that control developmental growth, meta-
bolism and energy levels.
[80]
Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain. It is a pea-sized gland just behind the
bridge of our nose. It is organized by the hypothalamus which is located above on it. It
regulates many hormones in glands including the thyroid, adrenal glands, testes and ovaries; it
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 981

is also known as the master gland. Endocrine cells of the pituitary gland are arranged into
structural and functional networks that is responsible for the coordinated response of endo-
crine cells to stimuli. These cellular networks are formed during embryonic development and
are maintained in adulthood, granting the plasticity of the gland.
[81]
The anterior pituitary
produces seven hormones and the posterior pituitary secretes two hormones. The adrenal
gland secretes cortisol that plays a role in controlling blood pressure, the body’s metabolism
and blood sugar.
[82]
Ovaries are stimulated by follicle-stimulating hormone to causes an
increase in the hormone estrogen and produce ovum for fertilization. Growth hormone
controls the amount of fat and muscles in the body. Luteinizing hormone triggers the release
of ovum fertilization and in testes, it stimulates testosterone production. Melanocyte-
stimulating hormone may control brain activity. Prolactin triggers the breasts to produce
milk. Thyroid-stimulating hormone encourages the production of hormones, thyroxine and
triiodothyronine. These hormones control functions such as metabolism, temperature and
heart rate.
[83]
Pineal gland
The pineal gland is placed in the center of our brain. It produces and regulates specific
hormones including melatonin that helps to regulate sleep patterns and also termed circadian
rhythms. The functions pineal gland and the functions of melatonin overlap each other that
having extremely general effects on précised functions like sleep and immunity.
[84]
This gland
plays a role in regulating female hormones that affect the menstrual cycle and fertility. Melatonin
secretes concerning the light exposed to a person. It controls the natural sleep cycle and has
a role in circadian rhythm. In ovaries, melatonin level affects frequency, duration and onset of
the menstrual cycle. It acts as an anti-aging substance and regulates raw bone deposition. Pineal
gland tumors account for one percent of total brain tumors and cause severe complications.
Sometimes, pineal tumors block the route of cerebrospinal fluid, which causes the patinaed
syndrome, visual changes, headache, nausea and seizures.
[47]
Plant-derived foods components aid in regulating the endocrine glands that reduce the
risk of dierent disorders
Plant derived functional components including phenolic compounds, antioxidants, vitamins,
minerals, omega-3 fatty acids and fiber are present in fruits, vegetables, cereals, nuts, spices
and herbs. These components are played valuable role in different body functions and helpful
in various disorders such as cancer, cardiovascular, infectious, diabetes, and others endocrine
disorders.
[85,86]
Different nutrients derived from plants plays an important role of great
magnitude in the prevention of endocrine diseases. A review was conducted to highlighting
the important nutritional risk factors that have impacts on various endocrine disorders. The
finding show that the role of endocrine disrupter chemicals that are consistently being ingested
in routine diet is being evaluated.
[87]
The different endocrine and metabolic abnormalities
found in patients with chronic kidney disorder include deficiencies in estrogen, testosterone,
triiodothyronine, calcitriol and erythropoietin. In addition, accumulation of hormones (adipo-
nectin, leptin, triglycerides and prolactin) also is seen. After that this can lead to the devel-
opment of a wide range of clinical consequences including but not limited to anemia,
hyperparathyroidism, insulin resistance, anorexia-cachexia, infertility, bone disorders and car-
diovascular diseases.
[88]
Various disorders occur due to abnormalities of different endocrine
glands shown in Flow diagram 1. Plant-derived components aid in the endocrine gland’s
health and regulation are represented in Table 2
982 W. KHALID ET AL.

Flow diagram 1. Various types of disorders occur due to abnormalities of different endocrine glands
Plant-derived foods components regulate the pancreas that linked with diabetes
Diabetes is a perplexing, quickly developing, persistent, nontransferable endocrine issue of worldwide
concern related to the serious danger of creating digestion-related difficulties in patients. Diabetes is
caused by the failure of pancreatic β-cells to discharge satisfactory insulin degrees. People with type 2
diabetes make insulin, but their β-cells don’t use it as well as they should.
[107]
Pancreatic beta-cell
brokenness is vital to the turn of events and deteriorating type 2 diabetes. Diminishes in both β-cell
capacity and number can add to insulin inadequacy in type 2 diabetes. The β-cells have advanced
significant metabolic components to avoid excessive insulin discharge and hypoglycemia.
[108]
Etiopathology of type 2 diabetes is irritation of the pancreas. Supporting this hypothesis, a raised
number of macrophages have been recognized in islets of type 2 diabetes patients related to expanded
degrees of cytokines and chemokines CD8+ cells and macrophages have likewise been observed to be
raised in the exocrine compartment in type 2 just as type 1 diabetes recommending an immediate job
of aggravation in type 2 diabetes islet brokenness. By and large, these perceptions propose that
irritation of the pancreas assumes a certain pathogenic part in type 2 diabetes.
[109]
Table 2. Plant-derived components aid in endocrine glands health and regulation
Exocrine
Gland Plant-derived components Functional Mechanism Authors
Pineal gland PUFA, antioxidants and polyphenols Some plant-derived ingredients including fatty contents,
antioxidants and polyphenols regulate the functions of the
pineal gland
[89,90]
Pituitary
gland
Fiber, PUFA and polyphenols Plant foods are composed of fiber, PUFA and polyphenols that aid
in the regulation of the pituitary gland
[91,92]
Hypothalamus Omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants,
vitamin C, vitamins B1 and B12
Omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, vitamin C, vitamins B1 and B12
are helpful in the normal performance of the hypothalamus
[93,94]
Adrenal gland Chlorophyll, vitamin C, iron and
magnesium
Chlorophyll, vitamin C, iron and magnesium are derived from
different plant sources that improve the performance of the
adrenal gland
[95–97]
Thyroid gland Vitamin A, D, E, B2, B3, B12, iodine,
iron, selenium and zinc
Some vitamins and minerals regulate the function of the thyroid
gland
[98–100]
Ovaries Vitamins (C, D, B1, B2, B3, B6 and
B12), calcium, zinc, iron and
selenium
Both water and fat-soluble vitamins and specific minerals are an
aid in regulating the function of ovaries that are prevented
from various diseases
[101–103]
Testes Vitamins (C, E and D), zinc and
D-Aspartic acid
D-Aspartic acid, specific vitamins and minerals are useful for the
proper growth of testes
[104–106]
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 983

Plant-based foods can work on the metabolic status of patients, being utilized as adjuvants of
exemplary antidiabetic treatment. The motivation behind our review to assess the effect of a unique
plant-based antidiabetic detailing (PBAF). Diet and way of life, especially plant-based eating
regimens, are powerful devices for type 2 diabetes counteraction and the executives. Plant-based
eating regimens are eating designs that derscore vegetables, entire grains, vegetables, organic
products, nuts and seeds.
[110]
Plant-based food and supplement parts of plant-based are played
important role in diminishing the danger of type 2 diabetes by weight control plans. Regardless,
evidence suggests that the type and source of carbs, lipids, and protein (plant versus animal) have
a key role in the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes.
[111]
Various potential components
underlie the advantages of a plant-based eating routine in enhancing insulin opposition including
the expansions in fiber and phytonutrients, food-microbiome communications, diminishes in
soaked fat, progressed glycation products, nitrosamines and heme iron.
[112]
Explicit soil products,
including root vegetables, green verdant vegetables, blueberries, grapes, and apples, have been
connected to bringing down diabetes rates. Vegetables are played vital role to improve insulin
opposition and ensure against metabolic disorder, and more noteworthy nuts utilization make
lower diabetes hazards. All type of grain fiber seems to be particularly defensive against type 2
diabetes. Meta-examinations showed that sugars from entire grains and cereal strands decrease the
danger of diabetes, while low-fiber carbs can expand the danger of diabetes.
[113]
Another study
suggests that plumbagin may be used as a novel therapeutic agent against human pancreatic
cancer. Plumbagin is basically a quinoid constituent extracted from the roots Plumbago zeylanica
L plant. Results showed that plumbagin treatment can prevent phosphorylation and DNA-binding
activity of NF-κB in both cultured PC cells (PANC1 and ASPC1) and in PANC1 cells xenograft
tumors.
[114]
The previous review shows the most relevant effects of various plant-derived natural com-
pounds on the functionality of pancreatic beta cells. Drugs prepared from natural sources are
more valuable than synthetic drugs because of their diversity and minimal side effects. It also
suggests that natural compounds directly enhance insulin secretion, prevent pancreatic beta cell
apoptosis, and modulate pancreatic beta cell differentiation and proliferation.
[115]
Phytochemicals
are essential in diabetes mellitus, particularly in agricultural nations with pitiful assets.
Phytochemicals derived from plants that considered chance to new kinds of therapeutics for
diabetes mellitus. Generally pervasive among phytochemical bunches are the alkaloids, glycosides,
polysaccharides, and phenolics (flavonoids, terpenoids, and steroids). Despite impressive advance-
ments in improving engineered drugs, the revelation of phytomedicine as an elective treatment is
advancing.
[116]
Plant-based antidiabetic definition (PBAF) are Vaccinium myrtillus, Ribes nigrum, Rosa canina
and Capsicum annuumthat reduced oxidative weight found in diabetes mellitus. Vaccinium myr-
tillus berries are known as a “utilitarian food” or “superfood” because of their vast substance of
bioactive mixtures as rich in polyphenols, flavonoids, nutrients, α-linolenic corrosive, chlorogenic
corrosive and pentacyclic triterpenic acids (oleanolic and ursolic acids). Because it contained
valuable phytochemical components that prevent cancer prevention agent and calming impacts
were accounted for and a positive impact regarding the advancement of T2DM cardiovascular
inconveniences.
[117]
Ribes nigrum berries display a significant cancer prevention agent movement
generally because of undeniable degrees of polyphenols (anthocyanins) and ascorbic corrosive,
associating with responsive oxygen and nitrogen species, diminishing lipid and protein peroxida-
tion. Additionally, it acts as antibacterial, antiviral and antiproliferative and antidiabetics.
[118]
Rosa
canina natural products are rich in ascorbic corrosive, polyunsaturated unsaturated fats, phenolic
acids, proanthocyanins, flavonoids, carotenoids and tannins, intensifies yielding subterranean insect
provocative and cell reinforcement impacts. In that capacity,it can be utilized as anmedicinal
purpose in treating endocrine diseases like diabeties.
[119]
Capsicum annuum powdercontained
phytochemicals including capsaicin, phenols, carotenoids, tocopherols and ascorbic corrosive that
has a positive effect on diabetic patients.
[120]
984 W. KHALID ET AL.

Plant-derived foods components regulate thyroid, hypothyroid that linked with goiter
The thyroid organ is the biggest in the body that emitting thyroxine and triiodothyronine and can
direct energy digestion. Notably, thyroid chemical status is identified with body weight and energy
use.
[121]
Hyperthyroidism, an excessive amount of thyroid chemical, advances a hypermetabolic state,
which is described by expanded resting energy consumption, weight reduction, diminished cholesterol
levels, expanded lipolysis, and gluconeogenesis.
[122]
On the other hand, hypothyroidism (diminished
thyroid chemical levels) is related to hypometabolism which is portrayed by diminished resting energy
use, weight acquires, expanded cholesterol levels, diminished lipolysis, and diminished
gluconeogenesis.
[123]
The thyroid organ is fundamental for the guideline of digestion, improvement,
and development. It acts through triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).
[124]
The thyroid and its
chemicals play a diverse job in organ advancement and the homeostasis control of fundamental
physiological instruments (for example, body development and energy consumption in all
vertebrates).
[125]
The expression “goiter” alludes to the abnormal growth of the thyroid organ. In people, lacking
thyroglobulin Tg is a significant reason for inborn hypothyroidism. Realize that the presence of
a goiter doesn’t imply that the thyroid organ is failing. Goiter might happen in organs that produce
a lot of chemical (hyperthyroidism), too couple of chemicals (hypothyroidism), or the right measure of
chemicals (typical thyroid capacity). Goiter shows the presence of a sickness that causes unusual
development of the thyroid organ. Basic (nonpoisonous) goiter is amazingly normal worldwide and is
thought to influence more than 200 million individuals.
[126]
Iodine is a significant micronutrient that is especially significant for human wellbeing. Adequate
dietary iodine is fundamental for the creation of thyroid chemicals. Deficient dietary iodine
admission is related to numerous useful and formative irregularities called iodine lack issues
(IDD), the most widely recognized is goiter.
[127]
Iodine nourishment is a vital determinant of
thyroid sickness hazard; notwithstanding, different factors like maturing, smoking status, liquor
utilization, conditions, hereditary helplessness, sex, race, the presence of other immune system
infections, endocrine disruptors, and the rise of new treatments, also influences transmission of
thyroid illness.
[128]
Because of the broad utilization of salt for iodization, extreme iodine lack is uncommon. Buteven in
many nations, gentle to direct insufficiency is boundless. Dietary iodine is available in different items
including food, drinks, water and salt.The enhancements is significant for understanding iodine
admission examples and arranging intercessions.
[129]
Notwithstanding, many mixtures can forestall
the blend of these thyroid chemicals. These mixtures incorporate fluoride, nitrate, bromide, chloride,
phosphate, and cyanide. These mixtures ordinarily come from food and water. Cassava, cabbage and
pearl millet are a couple of normal food sources wealthy in thyroid chemicals. In spite of the fact that
there are a ton of reports about the substance of thyroid chemical in food. In spite of the fact that
vegetables are wealthy in supplements, if their goiter content is higher than as far as possible, their
utilization might be limited and imperil wellbeing. Nonetheless, the aftereffects of this review show
that the goiter-causing substances in vegetables are protected. Accordingly, eating these vegetables is
helpful for wellbeing.
[130]
Some plant can helpful in treatment of thyroid and prevent the danger of goiter or brokenness (like
hypothyroidism). Plant parts (like cyanogens, glycosides, polyphenols, phenolic acids and alkaloids)
that meddle with typical thyroid capacity.
[131]
The phenolic optional plant metabolites present in
vascular plants and natural products have an assortment of beneficial impacts on wellbeing like the
anticipation of malignancy and cardiovascular illnesses and even chemical substitution treatment.
However, genistein, the principle part of soybeans and flavonoids, is known to meddle with the thyroid
chemical framework incompletely because they are fundamentally like thyroid chemicals.
[132]
Previous studies suggest that plant derived compounds including curcumin, quercetin, catechins,
resveratrol, myricetin and apigenin could be suitable for the treatment of thyroid cancer by slowing or
blocking dedifferentiation and cancer progression.
[133]
Another review suggests beneficial effects of
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 985

some plant-derived phytochemicals including myricetin, quercetin, apigenin, rutin, genistein, and
curcumin, and their possible role as adjuvants for the treatment of thyroid cancers have been
described.
[134]
Vitamins and minerals are necessary for the proper functioning of the thyroid. Essential micro-
nutrients for thyroid health are iodine, iron, selenium and zinc while, vitamins include vitamin A, D,
E, B2, B3 and B12.
[135]
Iodine is one of the most necessary nutrients for thyroid functioning. It is
essential for the proper production of thyroid hormones.
[136]
An iron-rich diet such as wholegrain
cereals, parsley leaves must be consumed. Patients suffering from hypothyroidism must consume
healthy and nutritious that contained polyunsaturated fatty acids and protein. For intake of unsatu-
rated fatty acids vegetable oils, nuts, avocados are recommended.
[137]
Selenium supplementation has
a good impact on the treatment of Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. Selenium can neutralize free radicals and
reduce inflammation and is also vital for the production of hormones. The deficiency of selenium can
cause oxidative damage to the thyroid structure.
[138]
Rich sources of selenium are mushrooms and
nuts. Thyroid antibodies are positively associated with zinc concentration that shows the role of zinc in
the immune defense of the organism. The deficiency of zinc causes a reduction of the metabolic rate of
hormones.
[139]
Plant-derived foods components regulate pineal and pituitary glands that play a role in brain
The pineal and pituitary glands are vital neuroendocrine organs. The fundamental chemical dis-
charged by the pineal organ is melatonin, however the pineal organ additionally delivers numerous
different chemicals, including arginine angiotensin. The pineal organ controls gonadal activity,
intervenes in light reactions, and affects the shade color. The pituitary organ dangles from the lower
part of the nerve center at the lower part of the mind, in a little hard hole over the highest point of the
mouth.
[140]
Nutrition that is essential for supporting the role of the hypothalamus includes omega-3 fatty acids,
antioxidants, vitamin C, vitamins B-1 and B-12 .
[141]
Thiamine plays an important role to boost
hypothalamus health.
[142]
It helps to control the “satiety center” located in the hypothalamus of the
brain, has a beneficial impact on the maintenance of appetite and helps to improve the function of the
nervous system. The main sources of thiamine are sunflower seeds, lima beans, split peas, whole grains
and bran. Vitamin B12 plays a primary function in the hypothalamus.
[143]
It controls moods, energy
levels, regulates fatigue and lowers depression symptoms. Vitamin B12 sources include fortified plant
milk (soy, almond, coconut and rice), tempeh, cereals, algae, seaweed and mushrooms. Vitamin C is
essential for brain and hypothalamus functioning.
[144]
It plays a role in immunity promotion, sleep
regulation, anxiety reduction and defend the hypothalamus against toxins. Food rich in vitamin C are
red bell peppers, grapefruits, cantaloupe plus potatoes, strawberries and lemons. N-3 PUFAs have
anti-inflammatory properties and are aid in control brain functioning positively.
[145]
Omega-3 poly-
unsaturated fatty acids, such as docosahexaenoic acid, eicosatetraenoic acid, and alpha-linolenic acid,
are found mostly in fatty fish and some other seeds, nuts, and seafood. Essential fatty acids and
prebiotics are found in many plant sources.
[146]
The good sources are walnuts, hemp seeds, chia seeds,
artichoke, garlic, banana, flaxseeds, algae, seaweed, and edamame. Small quantities can also be found
in other green leafy vegetables including legumes. Prebiotics are beneficial for long-term blood glucose
and insulin sensitivity due to the higher contents of plasma-free fatty acids using low tissue glucose.
Omega-3 fatty acids are good for the brain by regulating pineal and pituitary glands and reducing the
risk of heart diseases and metabolic disorders.
[147,148]
Previous report shows a novel relation between
a neuroendocrine system- and stress response-dependent mechanism and the regulation of cancer
growth in vivo. Polyphenols derived from natural source can interfere with the growth and defense of
cancer cells by down-regulating the pituitary gland-dependent ACTH synthesis.
[149]
Another study
was conducted psychologically stressed female rats that treat with flavonoids (semen cuscutae) on the
hippocampal-hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian sex hormone receptors in female rats exposed to psy-
chological stress and to explore the related mechanism. Flavonoids from semen cuscutae is ability to
986 W. KHALID ET AL.

enhance estrogen receptor (ER) expression in the hippocampus, hypothalamus, and pituitaries, as well
as luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) expression in the ovaries. Conculsivly, Flavonoids from semen
cuscutae is effective medicine that can treat the ovarian endocrine dysfunction in psychologically
stressed rats.
[150]
Plant-derived foods components regulate ADRENAL that improves renal health and others
diseases
The endocrine gland incorporates organs and tissues which produce chemicals to direct and organize
significant body capacities. The adrenal organs are pyramid-formed organs on top of every kidney.
Every adrenal organ comprises two constructions: the external adrenal cortex and the internal adrenal
medulla.
[151]
The adrenal cortex is the fine connective tissue network that makes up the greater part of
the organs. It secretes a progression of steroid chemicals. The adrenal medulla (in the organs)
produces adrenaline and norepinephrine (NE). These synthetics advance “acute stress,” the body’s
underlying reaction to stretch.
[152]
Adrenal deficiency is a reduction in the chemicals delivered by the
adrenal organs (situated at the highest point of the kidneys). Inordinate adrenal capacity brought
about by pituitary or adrenal cancers can likewise prompt genuine sicknesses like corpulence, muscle
shortcoming, glucose bigotry, and disposition issues.
[153]
The connection between the adrenal organ’s
reaction to push stress mirrors a deviation from the typical body’s physiological or mental set point
demonstrates that the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) hub is a more normal and similarly
significant capacity in everyday transformation conditions.
[154]
Plant medicines can play an important role in discovering novel targets for any illness. The leaves of
Polygonum multiflorum include a variety of beneficial properties. The capacity of its basic fixes to act
as energizers has been examined. The leaf portion of Polygonum multiflorum less can turn into
a stimulant decision later on due to the existence of flavonoids expressly related with increasing
memory activities and expanding synapse levels. As per them the detailed impact is in the cerebrum. In
light of the perceptions of momentum audits, it is unequivocally prescribed to direct exploratory
screening of the stimulant movement of Polygonum multiflorum less leaves.
[155]
The job of normal
mixtures in the therapy of kidney infections (counting intense renal disappointment and persistent
kidney sickness) shows that regular mixtures from restorative plants have solid kidney and cardio-
protective potential. The flavonoids in natural citrus products, red wine, tea and cocoa have mitigating
action, managing pulse, and diminishing oxidative pressure. Olive oil wealthy in phenols; omega-3
unsaturated fats in flaxseed, soybean, rapeseed oil, and verdant vegetables; lycopene found in toma-
toes, watermelons, and papaya; resveratrol in grape skins and seeds; the organically dynamic elements
of tea and espresso; and different normal mixtures, for example, plant sterols, saponins, phenolic
corrosive, phytic corrosive and isoflavones give more secure applications in the avoidance and therapy
of different ongoing sicknesses. Regular mixtures separated from medicinal plants can be helpful
guides due to their wide accessibility, better decency, less incidental effects, and essentialness in
conventional medication.
[156]
Plant based diet including leafy greens and whole grains (hemp, chia, flax, almonds, chickpeas,
lentils & quinoa) having vital amino acids are important for adrenal health. Some herbs like valerian
help to reduce cortisol levels.
[86]
Leafy green vegetables provide magnesium, vitamin C, iron and
chlorophyll that provide energy and promote balance in the body. Leafy green vegetables are necessary
fibers for the endocrine system to work well.
[157]
Some herbs like ashwagandha and rhodiola are
excellent for stabilizing adrenals and reducing stress. Likewise, an herb, valerian helps to reduce
cortisol levels.
[158]
Vitamin C is used by the adrenal glands to produce adrenal hormones. Principally,
cortisol is a fat-storing and stress-related hormone. Fresh fruits and vegetables high in vitamin
C include berries, citrus fruits, pineapple, broccoli, capsicum, papaya and leafy green vegetables.
Pantothenic acid is most important to the adrenal gland working. It enhances the supplementation of
progesterone and cortisol. It prevents the adrenal gland from being hyper-responsive and regulates its
metabolism. Its deficiency causes adrenal exhaustion and metabolic disorders.
[159]
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 987

Plant-derived foods components regulate ovaries or testes that helpful in dierent diseases
In ladies, ovaries organ produces estrogen and progesterone. These chemicals assist with
creating bosoms during adolescence, direct cycles, and backing pregnancy. Male gonads, the
balls produce testosterone. It can assist them with developing facial and body hair during
adolescence. It likewise advises the penis to grow and assume sperm creation.
[160]
Sex separa-
tion is the aftereffect of intricate hereditary and endocrine instruments which are firmly
identified with improving the urogenital framework and adrenal organs. The arrangement of
bipotent balls and one development testicles’ ensuing development. The testicles emit steroids
and peptide chemicals which are essential for improving the male interior and outside
genitalia.
[161]
The association of sex chemicals in the pathogenesis of immune system illnesses
is by all accounts dependable because ladies experience the ill effects of immune system
sicknesses more habitually than men. 5% of everyone experiences immune system infections,
of which 78% are ladies. Ladies’ immune system sicknesses have a prior beginning and are
generally connected with raised sex chemicals.
[162]
Youthfulness problems can significantly affect physical and social-emotional wellness.
Intelligent adolescence implies that young ladies and young men start to enter pubescence
before eight. Patients with early disconnected pubertal changes, straight development before
pubescence and no stressing neurological indications normally have a harmless advancement
design and should be observed in a fitting clinical setting.
[163]
Among patients with genuine
bright adolescence or complete actuation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicle pivot, youngest
ladies have idiopathic causes, while young men are typical because of specific imaging pathol-
ogy. After the clinical history and actual assessment, serum follicle-animating chemical,
luteinizing chemical, testosterone (young men), or estradiol (young ladies) should be esti-
mated; thyroid capacity testing; and bone age radiography. Mind-attractive reverberation
imaging should be performed in young ladies under 6, all young men with gifted pubescence,
and youngsters with neurological indications.
[164]
Polycystic ovary condition (PCOS) is the most widely recognized female endocrine illness in
ladies of childbearing age. Ladies with PCOS have relative estrogen levels, higher testosterone,
and lower progesterone levels. Ovarian brokenness can prompt uncommon or no period
hyperandrogenemia and additionally hyperandrogenemia, polycystic ovaries/ovaries in gyne-
cological insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, stoutness (particularly the focal sort of corpu-
lence), hypertension and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) lastly entirely created metabolic
disorder.
[165]
PCOS is related to insulin obstruction and expanded degrees of male chemicals
(androgens). In addition to other things, a dormant way of life, absence of activity, dietary
changes, and stress are mainly contributing elements. Turmeric, aloe vera, peppermint, chives,
cinnamon and different plants have been demonstrated to be powerful in treating polycystic
ovary disorder.
[166]
Phytoestrogens are non-endocrine, non-steroidal auxiliary subordinates of plants that are
burned through a plant-based eating regimen, otherwise called “dietary estrogen.” The primary
wellsprings of phytoestrogens are soybeans and soy food sources, flaxseed, chickpeas, green
beans, dairy items, etc. The use of phytoestrogens has an important role in the management of
metabolic disorders such as obesity, diabetes, cancer, aggravation, cardiovascular infection,
postmenopausal diseases and associated complexities.
[167]
Some Ayurvedic plants like
Ashwagandha, Shatavari, green tea, garlic, fenugreek, pumpkin, angelica, cohosh racemosa
and heavenly berry have sexual enhancer impacts and work on the quality and amount of
semen. These spices give better nourishment to conceptive tissues. A natural medication that
positively affects the conceptive framework. These common spices animate spermatogenesis,
sperm motility and seminiferous tubule width, increment leydig cell count, dispose of strange
sperm, improve histopathological recuperation, and sexual incitement.
[168–170]
988 W. KHALID ET AL.

Conclusion
It is concluded that endocrine glands regulate their functions directly related to the perfect diet. Plant-
based foods are composed of fruits, vegetables, cereals, beans, legumes, grains, herbs and spices. The
different parts of plants contain functional components, including vitamins, minerals, antioxidants
and phenolic compounds suitable for the health and regulation of all endocrine glands. The irregu-
larity in their functions is the reason for various types of disorders. Furthermore, more study is
required that specified the food for each gland in the future.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
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