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Animals in Stone
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Handbook of Oriental Studies
Handbuch der Orientalistik
Section Two
India
Edited by
J. Bronkhorst
VOLUME 21
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Animals in Stone
Indian Mammals Sculptured Through Time
By
Alexandra van der Geer
LEIDEN • BOSTON
2008
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CHAPTER FORTY-FOUR
CONCLUDING REMARKS
On an impressive rock-cut panel at Mammalapuram in Tamil Nadu an
assemblage of animals is advancing towards a cleft in the rock ( gs. 527
and 528). The panel is known as Arjuna’s Penance, after the popular
poem Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi, a native poet of nearby Kanchipuram.
The sculpted animals include nearly every wild mammal, reptile and
bird known to Indian iconography, except for the wild boar as Harle
remarked already.1 These commonly known wild animals turn out to
be elephants, lions, deer, bears, monkeys, cats, mice, turtles, lizards,
geese, and peacocks.
As becomes clear from this book, this spectrum is indeed common,
not only in Tamil Nadu during the reign of the Pallavas, but in the rest
of the subcontinent as well. Other wild species do, however, occur in
Indian stone sculpture, but to a much lesser extent. Depictions of wild
bison, nilgai, ibexes and bezoar goats, antelopes and gazelles, squir-
rels, jackals, dholes, hares, otters, leopards and snow leopards, tigers,
rhinoceroses, and foxes are extremely rare, especially taking the vast
amount of sculptural remains into account.
The wild animals that are depicted in Indian stone sculpture are often
unrealistic, lacking the characteristic details of the species or showing a
mixture of the features of two different species, which makes it dif cult
to identify them properly. For example, the animals that traditionally
ank the wheel (dharmachakra) in front of the Buddha in illustrations of
the life episode in which he teaches for the rst time, also known as
the First Sermon, are either explained as gazelles, antelopes or deer,
and in analogy the park in which the scene takes place is called such.
The Sanskrit and Pali texts are not very helpful in distinguishing these
animals, since they are simply referred to as respectively mriga or miga,
meaning nothing more than game, an animal that can be hunted.
Looking at the available depictions of this episode we see that in most
1 Harle, op. cit. (1987), 282.
This is an open access title distributed under the terms of the
in any medium, provided no alterations are made and the original author(s) and
The terms of the
On the cover: Pairs of animals (sloth bears, human-faced lions, rhinoceroses, horses and
guardians with dogs) anking the steps leading towards the brick podium of the Nyata
Poul or Siddhi Lakshmi temple at Bhaktapur, Nepal, 17th century. Photograph: courtesy
Ron Layters.
The publication of this book has been nancially supported by the J. Gonda Foundation
(Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences).
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Geer, Alexandra Anna Enrica van der, 1963-
Animals in stone : Indian mammals sculptured through time / by Alexandra van
der Geer.
p. cm. — (Handbook of oriental studies. Section 2, South Asia ; 21)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-90-04-16819-0 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Animal sculpture—India.
2. Stone carving—India. 3. Animals—India. 4. Animals—Mythology—India. I. Title.
NB1940.G44 2008
730.954—dc22
2008029644
ISSN 0169-9377
ISBN 978 90 04 16819 0
Copyright 2008 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.
Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing,
IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission
from the publisher.
Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by
Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to
The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910,
Danvers, MA 01923, USA.
Fees are subject to change.
printed in the netherlands
On the cover: Pairs of animals (sloth bears, human-faced lions, rhinoceroses, horses and
guardians with dogs) anking the steps leading towards the brick podium of the Nyata
Poul or Siddhi Lakshmi temple at Bhaktapur, Nepal, 17th century. Photograph: courtesy
Ron Layters.
The publication of this book has been nancially supported by the J. Gonda Foundation
(Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences).
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Geer, Alexandra Anna Enrica van der, 1963-
Animals in stone : Indian mammals sculptured through time / by Alexandra van
der Geer.
p. cm. — (Handbook of oriental studies. Section 2, South Asia ; 21)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-90-04-16819-0 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Animal sculpture—India.
2. Stone carving—India. 3. Animals—India. 4. Animals—Mythology—India. I. Title.
NB1940.G44 2008
730.954—dc22
2008029644
ISSN 0169-9377
ISBN 978 90 04 16819 0
Copyright 2008 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.
Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing,
IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission
from the publisher.
Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by
Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to
The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910,
Danvers, MA 01923, USA.
Fees are subject to change.
printed in the netherlands
On the cover: Pairs of animals (sloth bears, human-faced lions, rhinoceroses, horses and
guardians with dogs) anking the steps leading towards the brick podium of the Nyata
Poul or Siddhi Lakshmi temple at Bhaktapur, Nepal, 17th century. Photograph: courtesy
Ron Layters.
The publication of this book has been nancially supported by the J. Gonda Foundation
(Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences).
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Geer, Alexandra Anna Enrica van der, 1963-
Animals in stone : Indian mammals sculptured through time / by Alexandra van
der Geer.
p. cm. — (Handbook of oriental studies. Section 2, South Asia ; 21)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-90-04-16819-0 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Animal sculpture—India.
2. Stone carving—India. 3. Animals—India. 4. Animals—Mythology—India. I. Title.
NB1940.G44 2008
730.954—dc22
2008029644
ISSN 0169-9377
ISBN 978 90 04 16819 0
Copyright 2008 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.
Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing,
IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission
from the publisher.
Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by
Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to
The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910,
Danvers, MA 01923, USA.
Fees are subject to change.
printed in the netherlands
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CONTENTS
Acknowledgments ....................................................................... ix
List of Figures ............................................................................. xi
List of Abbreviations .................................................................. lxvii
Timetable .................................................................................... lxix
Introduction ................................................................................ 1
Chapter One Antilope cervicapra, the blackbuck ........................ 55
Chapter Two Axis axis, the spotted deer ................................. 64
Chapter Three Bandicota indica, the bandicoot rat .................. 74
Chapter Four Bos gaurus, the gaur ........................................... 83
Chapter Five Bos indicus, the zebu ........................................... 88
Chapter Six Bos primigenius, the aurochs .................................. 111
Chapter Seven Boselaphus tragocamelus, the nilgai ..................... 115
Chapter Eight Bubalus bubalis, the water buffalo ..................... 119
Chapter Nine Camelus bactrianus, the Bactrian camel .............. 140
Chapter Ten Camelus dromedarius, the dromedary .................... 144
Chapter Eleven Canis aureus, the golden jackal ....................... 150
Chapter Twelve Canis familiaris, the domestic dog .................. 159
Chapter Thirteen Capra hircus, the domestic goat ................... 169
Chapter Fourteen Capra sibrica, the Asiatic ibex ..................... 174
Chapter Fifteen Cervus unicolor, sambar deer ........................... 180
Chapter Sixteen Cuon alpinus, the red dog .............................. 187
Chapter Seventeen Elephas maximus, the Indian elephant ....... 189
Chapter Eighteen Equus caballus, the domestic horse ............. 226
Chapter Nineteen Equus hemionus, the khur ............................ 259
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vi contents
Chapter Twenty Felis spp., the small cats ................................ 264
Chapter Twenty-One Funambulus spp., the striped palm
squirrels ................................................................................... 270
Chapter Twenty-Two Gazella bennetti, the chinkara ................. 274
Chapter Twenty-Three Giraffa camelopardalis, the giraffe ......... 280
Chapter Twenty-Four Herpestes spp., the Indian mongooses ... 286
Chapter Twenty-Five Hylobates hoolock, the white-browed
gibbon ..................................................................................... 291
Chapter Twenty-Six nigricollis, the Indian hare ..................... 293
Chapter Twenty-Seven Lutrogale perspicillata, the smooth
Indian otter ............................................................................. 297
Chapter Twenty-Eight Macaca mulatta, M. radiata, the rhesus
monkey and bonnet macaque ................................................ 301
Chapter Twenty-Nine Melursus ursinus, the sloth bear ............ 310
Chapter Thirty Muntiacus muntjak, the Indian muntjac ........... 315
Chapter Thirty-One Mus musculus, the common house mouse 318
Chapter Thirty-Two Ovis aries, the domestic sheep ................ 321
Chapter Thirty-Three Panthera leo, the lion ............................. 332
Chapter Thirty-Four Panthera pardus, the leopard .................... 362
Chapter Thirty-Five Panthera tigris, the tiger ........................... 368
Chapter Thirty-Six Platanista gangetica, the river dolphin ........ 376
Chapter Thirty-Seven Rhinoceros unicornis, the Indian
rhinoceros ................................................................................ 380
Chapter Thirty-Eight Semnopithecus entellus, the common
langur ...................................................................................... 387
Chapter Thirty-Nine Sus scrofa, pigs and boars ...................... 395
Chapter Forty Tapirus indicus, the Asian tapir ......................... 415
Chapter Forty-One Tetracerus quadricornis, the chousingha ...... 418
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contents vii
Chapter Forty-Two Vulpes bengalensis, the Indian fox ............... 421
Chapter Forty-Three Who are Missing? ................................. 424
Chapter Forty-Four Concluding Remarks ............................... 430
Bibliography ................................................................................ 435
Glossary ....................................................................................... 449
Index ........................................................................................... 453
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As a veterinary medicine student, in 1985, my interest in Indian art and
archaeology was strengthened during a bachelor course given at the
Faculty for South Asian Languages and Cultures by Karel van Kooij. As
a result of his great enthusiasm, it was that I decided to add as many
art history lessons as possible to the curriculum of my secondary study,
that of Indology. The rest of this curriculum was devoted to Sanskrit,
in which I evidently fi nished my PhD. This classic language, had my
interest, not only because of the inspiring lessons and admiration for
classic literature of my teachers, the late Leendert van Daalen and Henk
Bodewitz, for which I am very grateful, but also because it is the key to
the understanding of Indian culture and religion. In the fi eld, I learned
to appreciate archaeological objects and to observe preserved details by
Fabio Martini of the University of Sienna, Italy. Needless to say, my love
for animals was well fed during my primary study, that of veterinary
medicine. Later, it was John de Vos of Naturalis, Leiden, who learned
me to see differences in external appearance of the various mammalian
species. The late Paul Sondaar taught me the principles of zooarchae-
ology. The combination of art history, archaeology, literature, mythol-
ogy and zoology fi nally culminated in this project, Animals in Stone.
I am particularly grateful to Janet Kamphorst for information on
Rajasthan’s history and folklore, especially concerning the horse-rid-
ing heroes, princely hunting and the mother goddesses. Next I would
like to express my gratitude towards Stephen Nash (Stony Brook
University, New York) for monkeys in art, Eleni Voultsiadou (Aristotle
University of Thessaloniki, Greece) for fauna in Homer’s time, George
Lyras (University of Athens, Greece) for his expertise on living canids
and for taking photographs for study at the Metropolitan Museum of
Art (New York), Kurt Behrendt (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York) for information on animals in the art of Gandhara, Michael
Dermitzakis (National University of Athens, Greece) for the geologi-
cal history of the Indian subcontinent, Arlo Griffi ths (Kern Institute,
Leiden University, the Netherlands) for dating of several Indian texts,
and Susan Huntington for our discussion on the absence of the donkey
from Indian lithic art.
This study necessarily included travels abroad to visit zoological gar-
dens, natural history museums and their comparative collections, and
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art museums, collections and sites. I want to express my sincere thanks
to the people of these institutes for granting me permission to visit the
collections and specimens in their care. My thanks are especially due to
the following persons: John de Vos and Cor Strang (Naturalis, Leiden),
Amy McEwen (Asian Society, New York), Wolfang Stein (Munich,
Germany), Mark Alvey (Field Museum, Chicago), Katrin Krohmann
and Andreas Allspach (Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, Frankfurt) and
a host of local guides who showed me sculptures in India in situ.
Thanks are further due to the following persons, who helped me with
images and copyright issues: Dory Heilijgers and Gerda Theuns-de Boer
(Kern Institute, Leiden), Gerard Foekema (Amsterdam), Jackie Maman
(Art Institute, Chicago), William Stanley and Lawrence Heaney (Field
Museum, Chicago), Elizabeth Bell (Asian Society, New York), Pauline
Scheurleer (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam), Ruth Janson (Brooklyn Museum
of Art, New York), Anjali Goswami (University of Cambridge, Cam-
bridge), Dorothy Sutton (The John C. and Susan L. Huntington Archive
of Buddhist and Related Art, The Ohio State University, Columbus,
Ohio), Alexis Vlachos (Athens, Greece), and several photographers
whose names are acknowledged in the fi gure and plate captions.
I am grateful to the members of the board of the Jan Gonda Foun-
dation of the Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences (Amsterdam) for
their approval and funding of this project. I am further grateful to the
International Institute for Asian Studies of the University of Leiden
(the Netherlands) for giving me the possibility to work on this funded
project for the granted two years and allowing me to use their facili-
ties thereafter. The stimulating support of the previous director Wim
Stokhof and the present director Max Sparrenboom is very much
appreciated.
Further, I would like to thank the following persons for critically
reading the manuscript in one or another version: Janet Kamphorst,
Johanna de Visser, George Lyras, Kees and Joris van der Geer. I thank
Patricia Radder and Albert Hoffstädt of Brill Publishers for their guid-
ance throughout the production process. I fi nally thank two anonymous
readers, who critically examined the manuscript in its earlier stages and
gave valuable comments for its improvement.
In a more personal sphere, my gratitude and appreciation goes to
my daughters Carmen and Anna, who patiently waited while I was far
away from home, or got carried away behind my computer to fi nish
yet another version of this book.
Alexandra van der Geer
x acknowledgments
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LIST OF FIGURES
Introduction
1. For the indologist, this is Nandi, the vahana of the Hindu god Shiva,
as worshipped at Mysore in Karnataka. For the art-historian, this is
a giant monolithic statue, dated to 1659–1672, carved at Mysore.
For the zoologist, this is evidence of the role in religion of Bos
indicus, the humped cattle of South Asia. For the geologist, this
is an artefact made out of volcanic rocks, mainly composed of a
black granite originating from the Chamundi Hills. Photograph:
courtesy L. Meerson
2. The role of animals in human society seen through the eyes of
the artist and translated into a stone sculpture. Mammalapuram,
Tamil Nadu, granite. Photograph: courtesy E. Sentner
3. The tropical thorn forests of the dry part of the Indo-Gangetic
plain. Photograph: courtesy A. Kamphorst
4. The Thar desert of the dry part of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Pho-
tograph: courtesy A. Kamphorst
5. The tropical dry evergreen forest of the Eastern Ghats. Photograph:
A. van der Geer
6. The alpine forests of the Himalayan foothills. Shimla, The Mall
below Barnes Court. Photograph: ASI, 1905–1915, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
7. The desert-town Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. Photograph: courtesy A. Kamp-
horst
8. Burial with a human, a goat and pottery. Harappa, Indus Valley,
Pakistan, Harappa Period, c. 2,300–1,750 B.C.E., skeleton H 689.
Photograph: ASI, 1933–35, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
9. Hunting resort of the Mughal emperor Jahangir (reign 1605–1627).
Sheikhpura, Pakistan. Photograph: courtesy Sarfraz Hayat
10. Leg of an ivory palanquin with a hunting scene. Orissa, 17th cen-
tury. Brooklyn Museum of Art, 1992.83, New York. Photograph:
courtesy The Brooklyn Museum of Art, New York
11. Tiger trap in Hazaribagh National Park, Jharkhand. Photograph:
courtesy J. Kamphorst
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12. The so-called ‘Pashupati’ seal (DK 5828) with an ascetic fi gure, wear-
ing a horned mask and surrounded by several animals. Mohenjo-
daro, Indus Valley, Pakistan, Harappa Period, c. 2,300–1,750
B.C.E., steatite. Photograph: ASI, 1928–29, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
13. Detail of a plinth with three animal series. Keshava temple, Belur,
Karnataka, 12th century, soapstone. Photograph: courtesy A. Moor-
jani
14. Cows often have to fi nd their own food, including garbage and
plastic bags. Jodhpur, Rajasthan. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamp-
horst
15. A goat sacrifi ce in a courtyard. Photograph: ASI, 1910–1930,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
16. The elephant-headed Hindu god Ganesha. New Delhi, 20th cen-
tury, terra cotta. Private collection. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamp-
horst
17. The Hindu monkey god Hanuman. Modern concrete statue (20th
century) along the trail up to the Hanuman temple (16th century)
in the Tirumala hills of Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh. Photograph:
courtesy S. Harsha
18. The river goddess Yamuna standing on her tortoise. Northern
India, 10th–11th century, reddish sandstone. Linden Museum,
SA 36796 S, Stuttgart, Germany. Photograph: A. van der Geer,
courtesy Linden Museum, Stuttgart
19. A herostone for Pabuji Dhamdhal Rathaur riding his mare Kalmi
or Kesar. Koli temple, Koli, Rajasthan, c. 17th century, yellow
sandstone. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
20. An unrealistic lion with bulging eyes, blunt teeth and horns. Archi-
tectural relief, style of Bhumara, post-Gupta Period, 6th–7th cen-
tury, red sandstone. Brooklyn Museum of Art, 78.195.2, anonymous
gift, New York. Photograph: courtesy The Brooklyn Museum of
Art, New York
Colour Plates
These colour plates can be found after the Introduction.
1. The blackbuck or Indian antelope (Antilope cervicapra). Diorama
of the Field Museum for Natural History, Chicago. Photograph:
A. van der Geer, courtesy The Field Museum, Chicago
xii list of figures
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2. A mother-goddess dancing on a blackbuck. Mukteshvara temple,
Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, 10th century. She might be somehow linked
to the martial goddesses of victory Korravai (Tamil Nadu) and Karni
Mata (Rajasthan). Photograph: courtesy Rita Willaert
3. A hunting scene below the ceiling of the upper storey. Rani Nur
Cave, Udayagiri Hill, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, 2nd century, granite.
The escaping animal to the right resembles a winged blackbuck.
Photograph: courtesy Rita Willaert
4. Heramba, a fi ve-headed manifestation of the elephant-headed god
Ganesha standing on two rats. Funeral ghats of Bhaktapur, Nepal.
Photograph: courtesy Ron Layters
5. Ganesha and his rat bfl anked by two fl y-whisk bearers. Green Gate
(Ganesha Pol), Jaipur City Palace, Rajastan, 18th century, marble.
Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
6. Rats are protected and taken care of as the vehicles of souls
of Charan devotees. Karni Mata temple, Deshnok, Rajasthan.
Photograph: courtesy Paul Veltman and Antje Brunt
7. Common house rats running along a plinth as sculpted on the same
Karni Mata temple at Deshnok, early 20th century, white marble.
Photograph: courtesy Edvar van Daalen
8. Giant monolithic statue of Nandi, the bull mount of the Hindu god
Shiva. Chamundi Hills, Mysore, Karnataka, 1659–1672, granite.
Photograph: courtesy Paul Billinger
9. Yama, the god of death, with his buffalo standing in one of the
numerous niches of the Chandella temples at Khajuraho, Mad-
hya Pradesh, 10th–11th century, sandstone. Photograph: courtesy
Dingeman Steijn
10. Durga rides towards the buffalo-headed demon. Cave 16 or Kai-
lashanatha temple, Ellora, Maharashtra, 8th–9th century, basalt.
Photograph: courtesy Arup Kumar Datta
11. Domestic goats are found all over South Asia, but especially so
in the north. Female long-haired goat with mixed colours taking
advantage of the shadow of a complex of buildings around a desert
well, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
12. Pair of goats with riders at the junction of the central architrave
with the vertical post. Gateway to the Great Stupa, Sanchi, Madhya
Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Manu
Narayan
13. Body-grasping war elephants amidst erotic scenes on several
plinths of the Chandella temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh,
list of figures xiii
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xiv list of figures
10th–11th century, sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Dingeman
Steijn
14. Fighting elephant bulls as decoration on the walls of Udaipur Pal-
ace, Rajasthan, late 16th century, greyish-white marble. Photograph:
courtesy Dingeman Steijn
15. An elephant and a mythical water monster (makara) as balustrade
decoration of the steps towards the Airavateshvara temple at
Darasuram, Tamil Nadu, mid-12th century. Photograph: courtesy
Antje Brunt and Paul Veltman
16. Elephant caryatids at the Karni Mata temple at Deshnok, Rajas-
than, early 20th century, marble. Photograph: courtesy Edvar van
Daalen
17. A pair of elephant-attacking lions ( gajasimhas) on the Sun Temple
at Konarak, Orissa, 11th century, khondalite. Photograph: courtesy
Rita Willaert
18. Riding an elephant. Northern gateway of the Great Stupa, Sanchi,
Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone. Photograph: courtesy
A. Kamphorst
19. Dancing Ganesha on the Chennakeshava temple at Belur, Kar-
nataka, 12th century, soapstone. Photograph: courtesy Sriram
Lakshminarayanan
20. Shiva Killing the Elephant Demon at Belur, Karnataka, 12th cen-
tury, soapstone. Photograph: courtesy Sriram Lakshminarayanan
21. Indra and Sachi on their elephant are fi ghting for Parijata. Western
hall of the Lakshminarasimha temple at Nuggihalla, Karnataka,
c. 1246, soapstone. Photograph: courtesy Sriram Lakshminarayanan
22. An elephant sprays water over its back. Railing medallion of the
northeast quadrant, Small Stupa or Stupa 2, Sanchi, Madhya
Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Patrik
M. Loeff
23. Relief of a horse-rider on the Keshava temple at Somnathpur,
Karnataka, c. 1268. Photograph: courtesy Matthew Logelin
24. Hero stones, scattered through the Thar desert of Rajasthan and
dedicated to folk-heroes like Devanarayan, Rupnath and Pabuji,
sandstone, 17th–18th century. Photograph: courtesy A. Kamphorst
25. Hero stones dedicated to Pabuji in a small shrine at Kolu, Raja-
sthan, on the occasion of Navaratri, 17th–18th century, yellow
sandstone and white marble. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
26. Unassociated hero stones dedicated to Pabuji at Malunga, Rajasthan,
16th–18th century, sandstone. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
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list of figures xv
27. Great Departure of the Buddha. Greater Gandhara, northern
Pakistan, 2nd–3rd century, schist. Linden Museum, SA 38184,
Stuttgart, Germany. Photograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy Linden
Museum, Stuttgart, Germany
28. A small group of Indian khurs or wild asses (Equus hemionus), close
relatives of the domestic horse. Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat.
Photograph: courtesy A. Kamphorst
29. The fi ve-striped Indian palm squirrel (Funambulus pennanti), Jodhpur,
Rajasthan. Photograph: courtesy Paul Billinger
30. Panel with so-called foreign delegation with a giraffe on the platform
of the jagamohana, south side, upper series. Sun Temple, Konarak,
Orissa, c. 1238–1258. The strange, long-necked animal to the right
is, however, best explained as a young dromedary. Dromedaries were
exotic animals at that period in south-eastern India. Photograph:
courtesy JamesThomas Allen
31. Portrait of an Indian lion (Panthera leo), showing the rosette pattern
of its coat. Nandankanan Zoo, Orissa. Photograph: courtesy Arup
Datta
32. A pair of winged lions on the vertical post of the western gateway.
Great Stupa, Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone.
Photograph: Patrik M. Loeff
33. Lion capitals as decoration of the southern gateway of the Great
Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh. General outer view, c. 50–25
B.C.E., sandstone. Photograph: courtesy A. Kamphorst
34. Panel with a depiction of a stupa with surrounding railing, gateway
and pillars with lion capitals. Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th
century, limestone. Government Museum, Chennai. Photograph:
courtesy Soham Pablo
35. The lion of Dionysus in a Bacchanalian scene from Greater Gand-
hara, Pakistan, 2nd–3rd century, schist. Linden Museum, SA.31527,
Stuttgart. Photograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy Linden Museum,
Stuttgart
36. Statue of Vishnu’s Man-Lion incarnation (Lakshmi-Narasimha or
Ugra-Narasimha) wearing a yogic belt around his knees. Hampi,
Karnataka, c. 1528, granite. Photograph: courtesy Paul Veltman
and Antje Brunt
37. Statue of a sleeping lion outside the Karni Mata temple at Deshnok,
Rajasthan, early 20th century, white marble. Photograph: courtesy
Steve Brown
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xvi list of figures
38. Shala fi ghting the lion. Paired doorway statue at the Keshava temple,
Belur, Karnataka, c. 1117, soapstone. Photograph: courtesy Anita
Moorjani
39. The great Indian one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Amers-
foort Zoo, the Netherlands. Photograph: courtesy Arjan Haverkamp
40. Pairs of animals (sloth bears, human-faced lions, rhinoceroses,
horses and guardians with dogs) fl anking the steps leading towards
the brick podium of the Nyata Poul or Siddhi Lakshmi temple at
Bhaktapur, Nepal, 17th century. Photograph: courtesy Ron Layters
41. A family group of common langurs or Hanuman monkeys (Semno-
pithecus entellus) at Mandor, Rajasthan. Photograph: courtesy Antje
Brunt and Paul Veltman
42. A Ramayana episode: Hanuman goes to Lanka. Hampi, Karnataka,
16th century, granite. Photograph: courtesy Brad Herman
43. Rural steles in honour of Hanuman in a small shrine at Sajjan-
garh, Maharashtra, unknown date, painted stone. Only the long
tail reveals that this is the monkey god Hanuman. Photograph:
courtesy Maitreya Borayin Larios
44. Rural stele with Hanuman along the road at Dholpur, Rajasthan.
Photograph: courtesy Ed Sentner
45. A family group of wild boars searching for food on the coast of
Daman, north-western India. Photograph: courtesy Skot!
46. Vishnu in his Boar Incarnation Rescuing the Earth. Mamallapuram,
Tamil Nadu, 7th–mid 8th century, granite. Photograph: courtesy
Gunther Groenewege
47. Vishnu in his Boar Incarnation Rescuing the Earth. Stele at Khaju-
raho, Madhya Pradesh, 11th century, beige sandstone. Photograph:
courtesy Dingeman Steijn
48. Vishnu and His Avatars, Eastern India, 11th century, black schist.
Brooklyn Museum of Art, 1991.244, Gift of Dr. David R. Nalin,
New York. Photograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy The Brooklyn
Museum of Art, New York
49. Stele of the boar-headed Buddhist goddess of dawn Marichi or
Vajravarahi on her boar chariot from West Bengal or Bangla-
desh, 11th century, chlorit-graphit schist. Staatliches Museum für
Völkerkunde, L115, Munich. Above: detail of the pedestal, showing
the boars. Below: overview. Photographs: A. van der Geer
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Black and White Figures
These fi gures can be found at the end of the book.
The Indian antelope or blackbuck
21. The ‘wavy’ horns of the blackbuck male (Antilope cervicapra) and a
hornless female. National Zoological Park, New Delhi. Photograph:
courtesy Dingeman Steijn
22. Buddha’s First Sermon. Domeslab of stupa 2, Nagarjunakonda,
Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century, limestone. Photograph: ASI SC,
1928–193, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
23. Fragment of a relief with an empty seat with two antelopes in front.
Goli, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd century, limestone. Photograph: ASI,
1926–1929, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
24. Buddha’s First Sermon on the ayaka frieze of stupa 2. Nagarjuna-
konda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century. Photograph: ASI SC,
B412, 1928–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
25. Group of men with blackbucks proceeding towards the Wheel on
the gateway of the Great Stupa, Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–
25 B.C.E., sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Patrik M. Loeff
26. Jina’s Last Sermon. Uttar Pradesh, 10th–13th century. Fyzabad
Museum, Uttar Pradesh. Photograph: ASI NC, 928, 1907–1908,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
27. Korravai, the Tamil goddess of victory, with her blackbuck standing
behind her. Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, 7th–mid 8th century,
granite. Photograph: A. van der Geer
28. A Bodhisattva torso, known as the Sanchi torso, wearing an ante-
lope skin. Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 900, sandstone. Victoria
and Albert Museum, IM 184–1910, London, UK. Photograph:
courtesy Jamie Barras
29. An antelope skin worn by Narayana. Dashavatara temple, Deog-
arh, Madhya Pradesh, 6th century, sandstone. Photograph: ASI,
1915–1916, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
30. An antelope running behind a leogryph and a lion on the top panel
of stupa 2. Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, 2nd–4th century,
limestone. Photograph: ASI SC, B414 1928–1930, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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31. Part of a halo of a Bodhisattva statue with running antelopes.
Greater Gandhara, 1st–4th century, schist. Central Museum, 424,
Lahore. Photograph: ASI, 1900–1910, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
32. Buddha visiting the resort of naga Apalala in the Himalaya.
Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century, limestone.
Photograph: ASI SC, B563, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
33. Krishna Playing the Flute. Hoysaleshvara Temple, Halebid, Karna-
taka, c. 1121, soapstone. To the right, next to Krishna’s left bent
knee, an antelope buck and two does can be discerned. Photo-
graph: Gerard Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
The spotted deer or chital
34. Spotted deer (Axis axis) in Ranthambore Wildlife Reserve, Rajasthan.
Photograph: courtesy Neil Better
35. A herd of spotted deer in Jim Corbett National Park, Uttaranchal.
Photograph: courtesy N. Kamphorst
36. Hog-deer (Axis porcinus). Zoological Museum La Specola, Florence,
Italy. Photograph: A. van der Geer
37. Indian spotted mouse-deer (Moschiola nemmina). Diorama of the
Field Museum for Natural History, Chicago, USA. Photograph:
A. van der Geer, courtesy The Field Museum, Chicago
38. A wise man (sadhu) sitting on a skin of a spotted deer, Nepal, 2001.
Photograph: courtesy Maurice van Lieshout
39. Steles of two different manifestations of Shiva with an antelope.
Left: Shiva Dakshinamurti. Panchanadeshvara Temple, Tiruvadi,
Tamil Nadu, late 10th century, sandstone. Photograph: ASI SC,
D1248, 1905–1906, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands. Right: Shiva Bhikshatanamurti. Rajarajeshvara temple,
Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, c. 1010, granite. Photograph: courtesy
Ed Sentner
40. Shiva Chandeshanugrahamurti on the west side of the north
entrance. Brihadishvara temple, Gangaikondacolapuram, Tamil
Nadu, c. 1025, granite. Photograph: courtesy Krishna Swamysk
41. Shiva Bhikshatanamurti on a pilaster of the Virabhadra temple at
Lepakshi, Andhra Pradesh, mid-16th century. Photograph: courtesy
Sanjesh Ananda
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42. Shiva Bhikshatanamurti with a leaping mriga. Tortoise mandapa,
Arulmigu Vedhagireshvarar temple, Tirukkalikundram, Tamil
Nadu, 17th–18th century, granite. Photograph: courtesy Kumar
Saurabh
43. Shiva Lingotbhava in a niche of the Patteshvaram Shiva Temple,
southwest of Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, 16th century, granite.
Photograph: courtesy Sendil Visvalingam
44. Shiva Bhikshatanamurti. Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, 19th century,
wood. Museum für Völkerkunde, MIKI 319, Berlin-Dahlem,
Germany. Photograph: A. van der Geer
45. Fragment of a larger panel illustrating the Conversion of the
Kasyapa Brothers. Greater Gandhara, 1st–4th century. Peshawar
Museum, Pakistan. Photograph: ASI FC, 1808, 1920–1921, cour-
tesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
46. Ayaka frieze with the Story of Vessantara. Goli, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd
century, limestone. Above: left part. Below: right part. Government
Museum, Chennai. Photograph: Madras Government Museum,
1926–1929, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
47. Pedestal of Buddha’s First Sermon. Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, 6th–8th
century. Photograph: DGA, 1906–1907, 552, courtesy Kern Insti-
tute, Leiden, the Netherlands
48. Story of the Two Deer on a coping stone of a stupa railing.
Uttar Pradesh, 1st–3rd century, sandstone. Government Museum,
Mathura. Photograph: ASI NC, 775, 1905–1906, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
49. Rama Shooting the Golden Deer on the railing of the mandapa.
Amriteshvara temple, Amritapura, Karnataka, c. 1196. Photograph:
Gerard Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
The bandicoot rat
50. The Indian mole-rat (Bandicota bengalensis). Staatliches Museum für
Naturkunde, Stuttgart, Germany. Photograph: A. van der Geer
51. The brown rat (Rattus norvegicus). Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg,
Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Photograph: A. van der Geer
52. Ganesha dancing on his rat. Above: overview. Below: detail of the
pedestal. West Bengal, 11th century, chloritic gneiss. Museum für
Völkerkunde, MIKI 5855, Berlin-Dahlem, Germany. Photograph:
courtesy A. van der Geer
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53. Ganesha dancing on his rat. Hoysaleshvara temple, Halebid, Kar-
nataka, mid-12th century, soapstone. Photograph: Gerard Foekema,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
54. Dancing Ganesha with rat. Uttar Pradesh, 8th century, sandstone,
H. 125.7 cm. Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd Collection,
1979.12, Asia Society, New York. Photography © The Asia Society,
New York. For detail of the pedestal, showing the rat, see 55
55. Detail of the pedestal of the dancing Ganesha of 54. Photograph:
A. van der Geer, courtesy Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd
Collection, The Asia Society, New York
56. Heramba, the fi ve-headed form of Ganesha. Above: overview.
Below: pedestal showing Heramba’s rat to the left. Orissa, 11th–13th
century, chloritic schist. British Museum, 60, London. Photo-
graphy © The John C. and Susan L. Huntington Archive of Bud-
dhist and Related Art, The Ohio State University, Columbus,
Ohio, USA
57. Ganesha from Gangarampur, West Bengal, 8th–12th century, basalt.
Indian Museum, 5695, Calcutta. Photograph: ASI, 1920–1940,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
58. Ganesha from north-east Madhya Pradesh, 9th–12th century, sand-
stone. State Museum, H18, Lucknow. Photograph: ASI, 1910–1930,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
59. Detail view of a Ganesha pedestal, showing his rat nibbling some
sweets. Hoysaleshvara temple, Halebid, Karnataka, mid-12th
century, soapstone. Photograph: Gerard Foekema, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
60. Ganesha’s rat from Shiva Devale 7, Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka, 993–
1070. National Museum, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Photograph: ASC,
C 1811, 1908, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
61. Ganesha and his rat on the Brihadeshvara temple at Thanjavur,
Tamil Nadu, c. 1010, granite. Photograph: courtesy Sivaprakash
Kannan
62. Ganesha on the wall of the Minakshi-Sundareshvara temple,
Madurai, Tamil Nadu, 17th century, granite. Photograph: courtesy
Eric Parker
63. Ganesha with caparisoned rat. Virabhadra temple, Lepakshi,
Andhra Pradesh, mid-16th century. Photograph: courtesy Stephanie
Bowie
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64. Story of Mandhatu. Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th
century, limestone. Site Museum, Nagarjunakonda. Photograph:
ASI, 1928–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
65. Common house rats nibbling some sweets. Karni Mata temple,
Deshnok, Rajasthan, early 20th century, white marble. Photograph:
courtesy Steve Brown
The Indian bison or gaur
66. The Indian bison (Bos gaurus). Diorama Field Museum of Natural
History, Chicago. Photograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy The Field
Museum, Chicago
67. Two steatite seals with bisons from Mohenjo-daro, Indus Valley,
Pakistan, c. 2,300–1,750 B.C.E. National Museum, Karachi. Left:
photograph ASI, 1925–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands, Right: photography © The John C. and Susan
L. Huntington Archive of Buddhist and Related Art, The Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
68. Two seals with a multi-headed bull. Mohenjo-daro, Indus Valley,
Pakistan, 2,300–1,750 B.C.E., steatite. Left: National Museum,
DK 12688, Karachi. Photograph: ASI, 1930–31, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands. Right: National Museum, New
Delhi. Photography © The John C. and Susan L. Huntington
Archive of Buddhist and Related Art, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio, USA
69. Figure of a bull. Mohenjo-daro, Indus Valley, Pakistan, 2,100–1,750
B.C.E., terracotta. National Museum, New Delhi. Photograph: ASI,
1926–1927, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
The zebu or Indian humped cattle
70. A typical zebu (Bos indicus) with a distinct hump, an elongated head,
elongated eyes, large pendulous ears, and a large dewlap. Bihar.
Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
71. Zebu bull with free-hanging prepuce. Amantapura, Tamil Nadu.
Photograph: E.H. Hunt, 1925–1931, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
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xxii list of figures
72. Gir zebus of Gujarat. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
73. A pair of zebus with grey-white short horns as draught animals,
Karnataka. Photograph: courtesy A. Kamphorst
74. A zebu with lyre-shaped horns. Ahmadabad, Gujarat. Photograph:
A. Kamphorst
75. A zebu cow of the Hallikar breed. Nagamangala, Karnataka.
Photograph: Gerard Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
76. A pahari zebu at Landaur, Uttaranchal. Photograph: courtesy
M. Tivari
77. Typical desi or nadudana zebus in Bihar. Photograph: courtesy
J. Kamphorst
78. Toy cart with zebus. Chanhu Daru, Pakistan, c. 2,500 B.C.E.,
terracotta. Brooklyn Museum of Art, 37.93–.94, New York. Pho-
tograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy The Brooklyn Museum of Art,
New York
79. Seal with a zebu bull. Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, c. 2,300–1,750
B.C.E., steatite. National Museum, 1966, Karachi. Photograph: ASI,
1925–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
80. Zebu bull showing the hump separated from the shoulder bone,
Orissa. Photograph: courtesy Rita Willaert
81. A zebu calf. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
82. Shiva and Parvati. Bihar, 6th–8th century, sandstone. Indian
Museum, Calcutta. Photograph: IM List 1900, 70, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
83. Dwarfs (ganas) playing with Nandi below Shiva and Parvati Playing
Dice. Dhumar Lena Cave 29, Ellora, Maharashtra, late 6th cen-
tury, basalt. Photograph: ASI, 1907–1908, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
84. Women are feeding Nandi, Shiva’s bull-calf. Pedestal of Shiva and
Parvati Playing Dice. Kanauj style, c. 12th century. Robert Gedon
Collection, MU 204, Munich, Germany. Photograph: A. van der
Geer
85. Detached stele of a ten-armed Shiva, found near a Shiva temple.
Govindapur, Sundarbans, West Bengal, 8th–12th century, black
stone. Dacca Museum. Photograph: ASI, 1930–1931, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
86. India, West Bengal, Cosmic Form of Shiva (Sadashiva), c. 11th
century, Black chloritic schist, 80.7 × 46.4 × 12.7 cm, Private
Collection, 146.1997, The Art Institute of Chicago. Photography
© The Art Institute of Chicago
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87. Monolithic Nandi statue. Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, 7th–mid
8th century, granite. Photograph: ASI SC, D456, 1912–1913,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
88. Small Nandi statue in the Ekambaranatha temple, Kanchipuram,
Tamil Nadu, 16th–17th century, granite. Photograph: courtesy Paul
Veltman and Antje Brunt
89. Detached Nandi statue from Tamil Nadu, 13th–15th century,
granite. Linden Museum, Stuttgart. Photograph: A. van der Geer,
courtesy Linden Museum, Stuttgart
90. The largest monolithic Nandi in the world. Lepakshi, Andhra
Pradesh, mid-16th century. Photograph: courtesy Stefanie Bowie
91. The Jina Rishabhanatha, Gwalior, Rajasthan, 15th century, sand-
stone. Photograph: courtesy jumpingITA
92. Walking zebu bull. Abacus of a free-standing pillar, Sarnath, Uttar
Pradesh, 3rd century B.C.E., sandstone. Archaeological Museum,
Sarnath. Photograph: ASI NC, 1271, 1911–1912, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
93. Zebu bull capital from Rampurva, Bihar, 3rd century B.C.E.,
polished sandstone. Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi. Photograph:
ASI CC, 2022, 1919–1920, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
94. Bull capital of the southern vahaldaka platform. Kantakachetiya
stupa, Mihintale, Sri Lanka, 2nd–1st century B.C.E. Photograph:
ASI SC, 1910–1911, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
95. Moonstone with animal series. Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, 6th–7th
century, granulite. Photograph: Skeen and Co., 217, 1892–1895,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
96. Pair of zebus with riders. Southern gateway to the Great Stupa,
Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone. Above: detail
view, photograph: courtesy Peter Michalcik, www.michalcik.info.
Below: overview, photograph: courtesy Ly Caron
97. Coping stone with the Story of Sujata and the Dead Ox. Bhar-
hut, Madhya Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian Museum,
Calcutta. Photograph: IO List 1900, 1073, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
98. Cross-bar of the reconstructed outer stupa railing. Amaravati,
Andhra Pradesh, 1st century B.C.E.–2nd century C.E., limestone.
Government Museum, Chennai. Photograph: Musee Guimet,
62609, 1900–1920, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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xxiv list of figures
99. The Story of the Jetavana Purchase. Ajatashatru pillar, SE quad-
rant, Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian
Museum, Calcutta. Photograph: IM List 1900, 1494, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
100. Detail of the Story of Champeyya on ayaka frieze 3. Stupa 9,
Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century. Photograph:
ASI SC, 1928–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
101. Milking scene below Krishna Lifting Mount Govardhana. Krishna
Cave, Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, 7th–mid 8th century, granite.
Photograph: ASI SC, 1415, 1919–1920, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
102. Krishna Lifting Mount Govardhana. Hoysaleshvara temple, Hale-
bid, Karnataka, mid-12th century, soapstone. Photograph: Gerard
Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
103. Inscribed stele with a scene of linga worship and a Nandi statue.
Amriteshvara temple, Amritapura, Karnataka, 1196. Photograph:
Gerard Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
104. Hybrid fi gure of a zebu bull and an elephant sharing their heads.
Cave 3, Badami, Karnataka, 6th century, red sandstone. Photo-
graph: courtesy Abhishek Dan
105. Hybrid fi gure of a zebu bull and an elephant sharing their heads.
Airavateshvara temple, Darasuram, Tamil Nadu, mid-12th cen-
tury. Photograph: courtesy B. Balaji
106. Three-headed cow with calf. Lepakshi, Andhra Pradesh, mid-16th
century, granite. Photograph: courtesy Sanjesh Ananda
The aurochs
107. Heck-cow with calf (Bos primigenius retro-bred). Munich Zoo,
Germany. Photograph: courtesy A. Trotter
108. Prehistoric painting of an aurochs. Drawing by Alexis Vlachos, Ath-
ens, Greece (after a cave painting at Vallon-Pont d’Arc, France)
109. Four ‘unicorn’ seals from Mohenjo-daro (above and below, left)
and one from Harappa (below, right), Pakistan, 2,300–1,750
B.C.E., steatite. National Museum, Karachi. Above: photograph:
ASI DGA, 1925–1926, 449, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands. Below: photography © The John C. and Susan L.
Huntington Archive of Buddhist and Related Art, The Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
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The nilgai or blue bull
110. The nilgai or blue bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus). Diorama of the
Field Museum for Natural History, Chicago, USA. Photograph:
A. van der Geer, courtesy The Field Museum, Chicago
111. Nilgai at the forest edge, Sultanpur, Uttar Pradesh. Photograph:
courtesy Jon Clark
112. Story of the Woodpecker, the Turtle and the Deer. Bharhut,
Madhya Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Photograph: I.O.
List 1900, 1085, 1874–1876, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
113. Buddha’s First Sermon. Loriyan Tangai, Greater Gandhara, c. 50–
250 C.E., phyllite. Indian Museum, Calcutta. Photograph: A. Caddy,
ASI, c. 1896, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
114. Tympanum with Worship of the Wheel. Mathura region, Uttar
Pradesh, 1st century. Museum of Fine Arts, 26.241, Boston, USA.
Inset: detail, showing the short horns. Photograph: Museum of
Fine Arts, 1926–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
The water buffalo
115. Wild female water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). Diorama of the Field
Museum for Natural History, Chicago. Photograph: A. van der
Geer, courtesy The Field Museum, Chicago
116. Young domestic buffaloes ridden by two boys, Bihar. Photograph:
courtesy J. Kamphorst
117. Pair of domestic buffaloes used as draught animals at Salem,
Tamil Nadu. Photograph: E.H. Hunt, 1925–1931, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
118. Buffalo sacrifi ce at the Bhadra Kali temple, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Photograph: courtesy Mariola Buzia
119. Yama and Yami riding the buffalo. Tarappa Gudi or Tarabasappa
temple (“temple in survey 270”), Aihole, Karnataka, 7th–8th
century. Photograph: ASI WC, 3185, 1908–1909, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
120. Yama with his buffalo. Detached stele from Madhya Pradesh,
6th–8th century. Archaeological Museum, Gwalior. Photograph:
ASI Gwalior State, 1653, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
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xxvi list of figures
121. The boar-headed Varahi with her buffalo. Northern India, 6th–
8th century. British Museum, London, UK. Photograph: Brit-
ish Museum, 1910–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
122. The boar-headed Varahi with her buffalo. Jajpur, Orissa, c. 950–
1300. Photograph: IM List 1900, 38, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
123. Dancing mother-goddesses (saptamatrikas). Central India, 9th
century. Linden Museum SA 03954 L, Stuttgart, Germany. Pho-
tograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy Linden Museum, Stuttgart
124. Nara (to the left) with buffaloes. Naranarayana panel, Vishnu
temple, Deogarh, Madhya Pradesh, 6th century, sandstone. Pho-
tograph: ASI, 1910–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
125. The buffalo-headed mother-goddess Maheshvari. Satna, Madhya
Pradesh, 8th–early 11th century. Photograph: ASI, 1920–1940,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
126. Niche with buffalo-headed Yama and severed buffalo head. Khaju-
raho, Madhya Pradesh, 10th–11th century, sandstone. Photograph:
courtesy Ed Sentner
127. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon, Midhauli, Uttar Pradesh,
1st–3rd century, sandstone. Government Museum, D32, Mathura.
Photograph: ASI, 1914–1915, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
128. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon. Mathura, Uttar Pradesh,
c. 300 C.E., mottled red sandstone. Staatliche Kunstsammlungen,
MIKI 5817, Berlin-Dahlem, Germany. Photograph: A. van der
Geer
129. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon. Uttar Pradesh, 3rd–4th century,
sandstone. Government Museum, Mathura. Photograph: ASI,
1905–1906, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
130. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon. Cave 6, Udayagiri, Madhya
Pradesh, early 5th century, sandstone. Photograph: ASI, 1900–
1920, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
131. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon. Isolated stele from Bhumara,
Madhya Pradesh, 4th–6th century. Photograph: ASI, 1919–1920,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
132. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon. Cave 1, Badami, Karnataka,
late 6th century, red sandstone. Photograph: ASI WC, 5592,
1921–1922, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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133. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon from Uttar Pradesh, 8th to
early 11th century. State Museum, H24, Lucknow. Photograph:
ASI, 1905–1920, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
134. India, Madhya Pradesh, Durga, Slayer of the Buffalo Titan (Mahi-
shasuramardini), 6th century, Red sandstone, 76.5 × 44.5 × 15 cm,
The James W. and Marilynn Alsdorf Collection, 2006.187, The
Art Institute of Chicago. Photography © The Art Institute of
Chicago
135. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon. Isolated stele from Elephanta,
Maharashtra, late 6th century, basalt. Prince of Wales Museum,
80, Mumbai. Photograph: ASI WC, 2600, 1906–1907, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
136. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon. Cave 21 or Rameshvara tem-
ple, Ellora, Maharashtra, late 6th century, basalt. Photograph: ASI,
1910–1911, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
137. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon. Cave 14 or Ravana ka Khai,
detail of the south wall, Ellora, Maharashtra, early 7th century,
basalt. Photograph: E.H. Hunt, 1925, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
138. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon. Durga temple, Aihole, Kar-
nataka, c. 700–725, sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Meena
Madhrani and Shireen Cama
139. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon. Hoysaleshvara temple, Halebid,
Karnataka, mid-12th century, soapstone. Photograph: Gerard
Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
140. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon. Lakshminarayana temple, Hosa-
holalu, Karnataka, 13th century. Photograph: Gerard Foekema,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
141. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon from Svaim, Kashmir, 7th–mid
9th century. Photograph: ASI, 1908–1909, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
142. Detail of a statue of Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon from
Kashmir, 9th–10th century, chlorit. Linden Museum, SA 03963L,
Stuttgart. Photograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy Linden Museum,
Stuttgart
143. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon from the region of Kulu-
Kangra-Chamba, Himachal Pradesh, 14th–16th century. Linden
Museum, SA 00297L, Stuttgart. Photograph: A. van der Geer,
courtesy Linden Museum, Stuttgart
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144. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon from Verinaga, Jammu and
Kashmir, 10th–12th century. Photograph: ASI Jammu & Kashmir
Dept., 22, 1936–38, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
145. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon from Majhauli, Uttar Pradesh,
8th-early 11th century. Photograph: ASI, 1910–1930, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
146. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon at the Basheshar Mahadeva
temple, Bajaura, Himachal Pradesh, c. 800–850. Photograph: ASI,
1909–1910, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
147. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon from Central India, 10th cen-
tury, brownish sandstone. Brooklyn Museum of Art, 1994.199.5,
gift of Mr and Mrs Paul E Mannheim, New York. Photograph:
A. van der Geer, courtesy The Brooklyn Museum of Art, New York
148. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon. Isolated stele from Puruliya,
West Bengal, late 11th–12th century. Indian Museum, Calcutta.
Photograph: ASI, 1910–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
149. Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon from Karnataka, 11th-mid 14th
century. Photograph: ASI, 1880–1910, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
150. Durga Rides towards the Buffalo-headed Demon. Wall of the
Varaha Cave, Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, 7th–mid 8th century,
granite. Photograph: A. van der Geer
151. Durga Kills the Buffalo-headed Demon. Stele from Mukhed in
West Bengal or Bangladesh, 10th–13th century. Indian Museum,
6314, Calcutta. Photograph: ASI, 1911–1912, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
152. Korravai standing on a buffalo-head, Mammalapuram, Tamil
Nadu, 7th–mid 8th century, granite. Above: Trimurti temple.
Below: Adipurishvara temple. Photographs: ASI, 1917–1918 and
1910–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
153. Steles of Korravai standing on a buffalo-head. Left: Pakkam,
Tamil Nadu, 9th–12th century. Right: Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka,
c. 993–1070. National Museum, Colombo. Photographs: ASI,
1910–1930 and Platee ltd Colombo, A–45, 1900–1905, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
154. Stele of Korravai standing on a buffalo head in a niche of the
Airavateshvara temple at Darasuram, Tamil Nadu, mid-12th
century. Photograph: courtesy Vicky Robinson
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155. Animals Pay Hommage to the Bodhi Tree. Eastern gateway of
the Great Stupa, Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sand-
stone. Photograph: IO List 1900, 2373, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
156. Bhima approaches Bakasura by buffalo cart. Amriteshvara temple,
Amritapura, Karnataka, c. 1196, soapstone. Photograph: Gerard
Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
The Bactrian camel and the dromedary
157. Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) in summer coat. Burgers Zoo,
Arnhem, the Netherlands. Photograph: A. van der Geer
158. The dromedary or Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius). Thar
desert, Rajasthan. Photograph: courtesy A. Kamphorst
159. The Buddhist winter goddess Hemantadevi on her Bactrian camel.
Bairhatta, Dinajpur District, Bangladesh, 8th–12th century. Indian
Museum, Calcutta. Photograph: ASI, 1933–1934, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
160. Ringstone from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 1st–3rd century. Pho-
tograph: Mathura Museum, 1935–1936, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
161. Pair of Bactrian camels with riders on the junction of the central
architrave with the vertical post. Eastern gateway, Great Stupa,
Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone. Photograph:
courtesy Patrik M. Loeff
162. Transport of the Relics of the Budda, Greater Gandhara, Paki-
stan, schist. Above: two friezes from Sahri-Bahlol, 4th–5th century,
Peshawar Museum. Below: stupa drum from Sikri, mid 1st–4th
century. Central Museum, 1258, Lahore. Photographs: ASI FC
1909–1910 and ASI 1885–190, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
163. The dromedary as draught animal, Rajasthan. Photograph: cour-
tesy J. Kamphorst
164. Pastoralists with their dromedaries in the Thar desert, Rajasthan.
Photograph: courtesy A. Kamphorst
165. Plinth decoration with a dromedary caravan. Jain temple, Man-
dor, Rajasthan, 13th–16th century. Photograph: ASI, 1910–1930,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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166. War caravan of dromedaries and horses on a plinth of one of the
Chandella temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, 11th century,
sandstone. Photograph: courtesy JumpingITA
The golden jackal
167. The golden jackal (Canis aureus). Zoological Museum La Specola,
Florence, Italy. Photograph: A. van der Geer
168. Stele of the emaciated Chamunda and her jackals from eastern
India, 11th–12th century. National Museum, 63.939, New Delhi.
Photograph: courtesy Hideyuki Kamon
169. Stele of Chamunda and her jackal and owl from Bihar, c. 900. Brit-
ish Museum, London. Photograph: courtesy Kate Underwood
170. A panel with the seven mother-goddesses (saptamatrikas). Siddhesh-
vara Temple, Haveri, Karnataka, 10th–12th century. Photograph:
ASI WC, 3394, 1909–1910, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
171. Two Jackal-Headed Yoginis from Central India, 10th–11th century,
sandstone. Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, I.5922, Berlin, Germany.
Photograph: A. van der Geer
172. Frieze with the Story of the Geese and the Turtle. Tripurantakesh-
vara temple, Belgavi, Karnataka, c. 1070. Photograph: Gerard
Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
173. Frieze with the Story of the Jackal at the Ram Fight. Tripuran-
takeshvara temple, Belgavi, Karnataka, c. 1070. Photograph:
Gerard Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
174. Coping stone with the Story of Jackal the Arbiter. Bharhut, Mad-
hya Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian Museum, Calcutta.
Photograph: IO List 1900, 1075, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
175. Medallion with the Story of the Bull and the Wolf. Bharhut, Mad-
hya Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian Museum, Calcutta.
Photograph: IO List 1900, 1085, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
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The domestic dog
176. A typical Indian village dog (Canis familiaris), Rajasthan. Photo-
graph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
177. Figurine of a dog. Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, c. 2,300–1,750 B.C.E.
National Museum, DK 4732, New Delhi. Photograph: DGA 1928–
1929, 511, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
178. The Rajasthani folk-god Devanarayana with two Bhairos. Rajast-
hani bazaar print, c. 1999. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
179. Detail of Bhairava’s dog, Hoysaleshvara Temple, Karnataka, c.
1121, soapstone. Photograph: Gerard Foekema, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
180. Isolated stele of Bhairava with his dog from Thanjavur, Tamil
Nadu, 11th–12th century, granolith. Robert Gedon Collection,
322, Munich, Germany. Photograph A. van der Geer
181. Isolated stele of Bhairava with his dog from Tamil Nadu, 12th–
13th century, granite. Linden Museum, SA 01266L, Stuttgart,
Germany. Photograph: A. van der Geer
182. Bhairava with his dog in a niche of the Patteshvaram Shiva temple,
southwest of Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, 16th century, granite.
Photograph: courtesy Sendil Kumaran Visvalingam
183. Three-headed form of Karttikeya (?) from Central India, 9th–10th
century, sandstone. Brooklyn Museum of Art, 1994.199.1, New
York. Photograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy The Brooklyn
Museum of Art, New York
184. The Buddhist fertility goddess Vasudhara. Greater Gandhara,
1st–4th century. Central Museum, 94–343, Lahore. Photograph:
IM List 1900, 1868–1897, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
185. Stele of Revanta at hunt from Bihar, 8th–12th century. Indian
Museum, Calcutta. Photograph: courtesy Kyle Brannic
186. Stele of Revanta at hunt from Sonapur, Orissa, c. 10th century.
Photograph: S. Saraswati, 1935, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
187. Coping stone with the Story of Bodhi the Great. Bharhut, Mad-
hya Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian Museum, Calcutta.
Photograph: IO List 1900, 1082, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
188. Frieze with the Story of the White Dog Barking at the Buddha.
Greater Gandhara, 1st–4th century. Central Museum, Lahore.
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Photograph: ASI, 1910–130, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
189. Fragment of the Story of the White Dog Barking at the Buddha.
Jamalgarhi, Greater Gandhara, 3rd–4th century. Indian Museum,
Calcutta. Photograph: IM List 1900, 996, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
190. Attack by Mara’s Army. Greater Gandhara, 3rd century, schist.
Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, MIKI 10.198, Berlin, Germany.
Above: overview. Below: detail with a dog. Photographs: A. van
der Geer
The domestic goat
191. Short-haired white milk goats (Capra hircus). Photograph: A. van
der Geer
192. Black-brown goat with pendulous ears, Nepal. Photograph: cour-
tesy Dirk Borchers
193. Above and below, left: pairs of goats with riders on the gateways,
Great Stupa, Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sand-
stone. Above: northern gateway, central architrave. Photograph:
courtesy Zach Hessler. Below, left: eastern gateway, lower archi-
trave. Photograph: IO List 1900, 2373, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
194. Scene with a speaking goat on a railing pillar of the Mahabodhi
temple, Bodhgaya, Bihar, 1st century B.C.E. or later, sandstone.
Photograph: IM List 1900, 55, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
195. Fragment of a larger panel with the Attack by Mara’s Army.
Greater Gandhara, 1st–4th century. Central Museum, 543,
Lahore. Photograph: ASI, 1885–1897, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
196. Relief with the goat-headed Jain god Naigamesha. Kankali Tila,
Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 1st–3rd century. State Museum, J 626,
Lucknow. Photograph: ASI, 1908–1909, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
197. Architrave with the seven mother-goddesses (saptamatrikas) and
Naigamesha. Katra mound, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 10th–13th
century. State Museum, H83, Lucknow. Photograph: ASI, 1910–
1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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The wild goats
198. The ibex (Capra sibrica) with its square horns. Diorama of the
Field Museum for Natural History, Chicago. Photograph: A. van
der Geer, courtesy The Field Museum, Chicago
199. The bezoar goat (Capra aegagrus) with its fl attened horns. Diorama
of the Natural History Museum of Crete, Heraklion, Crete,
Greece. Photograph: A. van der Geer
200. The Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) or Nilgiri ibex with its very
small horns. Eravikulam National Park, Kerala. Photograph:
courtesy Shankar Subramanian
201. Worshipped ibex head at Leh, Jammu and Kashmir, 1909.
Photograph: ASI FC, 560, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
202. The markhor (Capra falconeri) with its impressive horns. Wilhelma
Zoo, Stuttgart, Germany. Photograph: courtesy Volker Wurst
203. Horns of ibexes, blue sheep, chamois and deer antlers as charms
against the evil eye. Hadimba temple, Nepal. Photograph: courtesy
Chiels Liu
204. Rock-carving of a bezoar hunt. Dongga, between Chanigund
and Shimsha Kharbu, Kashmir. Above: overview. Below: detail
showing wild goats. Photograph: ASI FC, 609, 1909, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
205. Seal with a worshipping scene and a markhor. Mohenjo-daro,
Pakistan, c. 2,100–1,750 B.C.E., steatite. National Museum, DK
6847, Karachi. Photograph: ASI DGA 1928–1929, 620, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
206. Unidentifi ed scene with a goat and several human fi gures. Mohenjo-
daro, Pakistan, c. 2,100–1,750 B.C.E., steatite. National Museum,
New Delhi. Photography © The John C. and Susan L. Huntington
Archive of Buddhist and Related Art, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio, USA
207. Decorative band with a tahr and wild elephants on a crossbar of
the outer railing of the stupa of Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, 1st
B.C.E.–2nd century, limestone. Government Museum, Chennai.
Photograph: Musée Guimet, Paris, 62609, 1900–1920, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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The sambar deer
208. Sambar stag with doe and young (Cervus unicolor). Diorama of the
Field Museum for Natural History, Chicago. Photograph: A. van
der Geer, courtesy The Field Museum, Chicago
209. Sambar herd in Jim Corbett National Park, Uttaranchal. Photo-
graph: courtesy N. Kamphorst
210. Sambar antlers, ibex and wild sheep horns as charms against the
evil eye. Hadimba temple, Nepal. Photograph: courtesy Chiels
Liu
211. Pair of antlered lions on the western gateway to the Great Stupa
at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone. Photo-
graph: courtesy A. Kamphorst
212. Two details of the Story of Prince Vessantara on the lower archi-
trave of the northern gateway, inner view. Great Stupa, Sanchi,
Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone. Left: central part
of the architrave. Right: right end of the architrave. Photograph:
courtesy A. Kamphorst
213. Two details with sambar deer on the rock-boulder illustrating
Arjuna’s Penance . Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, 7th–mid 8th
century, granite. Photographs: ASI SC, D429 and D423, 1912–
1913, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
214. Story of the Worst Evil on a railing pillar found in the Yamuna
River at Surajghat, Saptarshi Tila, 1st century B.C.E. Government
Museum, 15.586, Mathura. Photograph: W. Goosens, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
215. Story of the Deer on a railing pillar medallion. Bharhut, Madhya
Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E. Indian Museum, Calcutta. Photograph:
IO List 1900, 1044, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
216. Vayu with his stag. Kotah Region, Rajasthan, c. 875–900, sand-
stone. Brooklyn Museum of Art, 86.183.3, New York. Photograph:
A. van der Geer, courtesy The Brooklyn Museum of Art
217. Erotic scene with a stag. Sas-Bahu temples (see below) near the
Eklingji temple, Nagda, Rajasthan, 10th century, sandstone. Pho-
tograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
218. The larger of the two Sas-Bahu temples Nagda. Photograph:
courtesy J. Kamphorst
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The red dog or dhole
219. The red dog or dhole (Cuon alpinus). Kanha National Park, Madhya
Pradesh. Photograph: courtesy Chris Morgan
220. Unidentifi ed story (Asilakkhana Jataka?) on a railing coping stone
from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian
Museum, Calcutta. Photograph: IO List 1900, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
The Indian or Asian elephant
221. The Indian elephant (Elephas maximus). Bronx Zoo, New York.
Photograph: A. van der Geer
222. Herd of wild elephants in Jim Corbett Natural Reserve, Utta-
ranchal. Photograph: courtesy N. Kamphorst
223. Elephants taking a bath. Nepal. Photograph: courtesy J. Kam-
phorst
224. Jaipur State elephant at Ambar Fort, 1900–1920. Photograph:
Clifton and Co, Bombay, 1900–1920, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
225. A temple elephant at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. Photograph: Paul
Veltman and Antje Brunt
226. Transport means with a simple wooden seat, Chitwan National
Park, Nepal. Photograph: courtesy Paul Billinger
227. Seal with an elephant from Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, 2300–1750
B.C.E., steatite. National Museum, Karachi. Photograph: ASI,
1925–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
228. The Dream of Queen Maya. Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, c. 100
B.C.E., sandstone. Photograph: ASI, 1909–1910, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
229. The Dream of Queen Maya. Greater Gandhara, 2nd–3rd century.
Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Berlin, Germany. Photograph: A.
van der Geer
230. The Dream of Queen Maya. Sikri, Pakistan, mid-1st–4th century,
schist. Central Museum, Lahore. Photograph: ASI, 1900–1920,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
231. The Dream of Queen Maya. Stupa 9, Nagarjunakonda, Andhra
Pradesh, 3rd–4th century, limestone. Site Museum, Nagarjunakonda.
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Photograph: ASI, 1929–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
232. The Transport of the White Elephant. Stupa 3, Nagarjunak-
onda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century, limestone. Site Museum,
Nagarjunakonda. Photograph: ASI, 1928–1930, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
233. Young elephant in the procession hall, Arunachaleswar Temple,
Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu. Photograph: courtesy Sue Magee
234. Panel with Life Scenes of the Buddha. Sarnath, Madhya Pradesh,
4th–6th century. Photograph: ASI, 1922–1925, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
235. Dream of Queen Kaushalya. Upper Shivalaya temple, Badami,
Karnataka, 6th–9th century, red sandstone. Photograph: Gerard
Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
236. Gateway to a Hindu temple with elephants in a lotus pont (above)
and Gajalakshmi (below). Aihole, Karnataka, late 6th–early 8th
century. Photograph: ASI, 1910–1930, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
237. Elephants at the shore. Detail of Arjuna’s Penance. Mammala-
puram, Tamil Nadu, 7th–mid 8th century, granite. Photograph: ASI
SC, 1900–1920, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
238. Bathing elephants at the Naga Pokuna, Tisawewa Lake, Isuru-
muni, c. 6th–10th century. Photograph: ASC, 767, 1922–1923,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
239. Lakshmi Being Bathed by Elephants. Gateway to the Great Stupa
at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone. Photo-
graph: courtesy Zach Hessler
240. Lakshmi Being Bathed by Elephants. Cave 1, Badami, Karnataka,
late 6th century, red sandstone. Photograph: ASI, 1921–1922,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
241. Lakshmi Being Bathed by Elephants above the yaksha on railing
pillar 91 of the Mahabodhi temple, Bodhgaya, Bihar, 1st B.C.E.,
sandstone. Photograph: ASI, 1900–1920, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
242. Lakshmi Being Bathed by Elephants from Bargadhi, Bangladesh,
8th–12th century. Indian Museum, Calcutta. Photograph: ASI,
1905–1920, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
243. Life-size rock-cut wall relief with Gajalakshmi. Varaha Cave,
Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, 7th–mid 8th century, granite.
Photograph: ASI, D434, 1912–1913, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
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244. Life-size rock-cut wall relief with Gajalakshmi. Adipurishvara or
Adivaraha Cave, Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, late 7th century,
granite. Photograph: ASI, 1910–1930, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
245. Shiva Killing the Elephant Demon. Hoysaleshvara temple,
Halebid, Karnataka, mid-12th century, soapstone. Photograph:
courtesy Paul Veltman and Antje Brunt
246. Shiva Killing the Elephant Demon. Chennakeshava temple, Belur,
Karnataka, mid-12th century, soapstone. Photograph: courtesy
Sriram Lakshminarayanan
247. Krishna Killing the Elephant (?) on a plinth at Mandor, Rajasthan,
10th–14th century. Photograph: ASI, 1908–1909, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
248. Frieze with the Story of the Buddha Taming the Mad Elephant
Nalagiri. Greater Gandhara, 1st–4th century, schist. Central
Museum, Lahore. Photograph: ASI, 1900–1930, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
249. Buddha Taming the Mad Elephant. Greater Gandhara, 1st–4th
century, schist. Victoria and Albert Museum, London, UK. Pho-
tograph: ASI, 1920–1940, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
250. Buddha Taming the Mad Elephant Nalagiri. Panel C2, Nagar-
junakonda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century, limestone. Site
Museum, Nagarjunakonda. Photograph: ASI, 1927–1928, cour-
tesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
251. Buddha Taming the Mad Elephant Nalagiri. Cross-bar from
Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, 1st B.C.E.–2nd century, limestone.
Government Museum, Chennai. Photograph: ASI, 1900–1920,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
252. Buddha Taming the Mad Elephant Nalagiri. Goli, Andhra
Pradesh, 3rd century limestone. Government Museum, Chennai.
Photograph: ASI, 1926–1929, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
253. Buddha Taming the Mad Elephant. Ayaka platform of stupa 9,
Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century, limestone.
Site Museum, Nagarjunakonda. Photograph: ASI, 1928–1930,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
254. India, Bihar, Stele with Buddhas and Tara, Pala period, 10th
century, Black chlorite, 76.2 × 44.5 × 17.8 cm, Private Collection,
80.1965, The Art Institute of Chicago. Photography © The Art
Institute of Chicago. Inset: Detail of the stele with Buddhas and
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xxxviii list of figures
Tara, showing a miniature version of Nalagiri, the tamed elephant,
with a wheel on its back. Photograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy
The Art Institute of Chicago, New York
255. Wall panel with the Story of Vishnu Rescues the Elephant King.
Northern wall of the Vishnu (= Dashavatara) temple, Deogarh,
Madhya Pradesh, early 6th century, sandstone. Photograph: ASI,
1920–1940, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
256. Vishnu Rescues the Elephant King. Northern wall of a later
Vishnu temple, Deogarh, Madhya Pradesh, 8th century, sandstone.
Photograph: ASI, 1900–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
257. Vishnu Rescues the Elephant King. Bucheshvara temple, Kora-
vangala, Karnataka, 11th-mid 14th century. Photograph: ASI,
1900–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
258. The Story of the Six-tusked Elephant. Upper architrave of the
northern gateway, inner view, of the Great Stupa, Sanchi, Madhya
Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone. Photograph: IO List 1900,
1881–1883, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
259. The Story of the Six-tusked Elephant. Medallion of a cross-bar
of the outer railing, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, mid-2nd century.
Government Museum, Chennai. Photograph: ASI, 1911–1912,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
260. The Story of the Six-tusked Elephant. Ayaka frieze from Goli,
Andhra Pradesh, c. 250, limestone. Government Museum, Chen-
nai. Photograph: ASI, 1926–1929, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
261. Coping stone with the Story of the Lotus Stalk. Bharhut, Madhya
Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian Museum, Calcutta.
Photograph: IO List 1900, 1075, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
262. Medallion with the Story of Tikutiko Chakamo. Bharhut, Madhya
Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian Museum, Calcutta.
Photograph: IO List 1900, 1028, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
263. Temple pillar illustrating the capturing of wild elephants in a
nagavana (elephant forest). Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, c. 8th century,
sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Rita Willaert
264. Elephants Worship the Stupa. Lower architrave of the eastern
gateway at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone.
Photograph: ASI, 1915–1925, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
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265. Story of Self-defeating Forethought on the Tripurantakeshvara
temple at Belgavi, Karnataka, c. 1070, soapstone. Photograph:
Gerard Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
266. Mara’s Army on the western gateway of the Great Stupa at San-
chi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone. Photograph:
courtesy A. Kamphorst
267. An elephant and its rider coming back from war. Architrave of the
gateway to the Great Stupa, Sanchi, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone.
Photograph: courtesy Patrik M. Loeff
268. Panel with Mahabharata episodes on the northern wall of the main
hall of the Kailashanatha temple or Cave 16, Ellora, Maharashtra,
8th–9th century, basalt. Photograph: courtesy Ken S. Wilson
269. Two temple plinths with series of war elephants, Karnataka.
Above: Santinatha basti, Kadambahalli, 11th–mid 14th cen-
tury. Below: Hoysaleshvara temple, Halebid, mid-12th century,
soapstone. Photographs: Gerard Foekema (above) and ASI WC,
1900–1920 (below), courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
270. Life-sized elephant statues outside the Sun Temple at Konarak,
Orissa, 13th century, khondalite. Photograph: anonymous pho-
tographer, c. 1970
271. Body-grasping war elephants on the plinths of the Chandella
temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, 10th–11th century,
sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Chiels Liu
272. Elephant statue at the Delhi Gate of the Red Fort of Old Delhi,
built in 1903 by Lord Curzon after the originals of 1638–1648
that were destroyed by Aurangzeb. Photograph: H.R. Mirza and
Sons, Delhi, 1903–1930 15, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
273. Elephant statue at Orchha fort, Madhya Pradesh, 17th century,
sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Dingeman Steijn
274. Elephant statue at Jaipur Fort, Rajasthan, early 18th century,
sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Chiels Liu
275. Rashtrapati Bhavan, formerly the Viceroy’s House, New Delhi,
1931, designed by Edwin Lutyens. Photograph: courtesy Dey
Alexander
276. A series of life-sized elephants and two miniature elephants above
the heads of door guardians fl anking the entrance of the Buddhist
rock-cut cave at Pitalkhora, Maharashtra, c. 100 B.C.E., volcanic
trap rock. Photograph: A. van der Geer
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277. Elephant emerging from the rock at Ajanta, Maharashtra, late
5th–early 6th century. Photograph: courtesy Mark Kobayashi-
Hillary
278. Elephant as pillars, alternated with a lion attacking an elephant.
Kailashanatha temple or Cave 16 at Ellora, Maharashtra, 8th–9th
century, basalt. Photograph: courtesy Ken S. Wilson
279. Elephants carrying the superstructure of the northern gateway
of the Great Stupa, Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E.,
sandstone. Photograph: courtesy A. Kamphorst
280. Abacus with walking elephant. Free-standing pillar with lion capital
from Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, 3rd B.C.E., sandstone. Photograph:
ASI NC, 1269, 1911–1912, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
281. Moonstone at the Abhayagiri Vihara, Anuradhapura, c. 5th
century, granulite. Photograph: Platee Ltd Colombo, 1900–1920,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
282. Elephant statues in the corridor of the Luna-vasahi, Mount Abu,
Rajasthan, 1232–1248, built by minister Tejapala, marble. Pho-
tograph: ASI, 1900–1901, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
283. Memorial stone with an elephant and three satis—women who
were burnt alive on the funeral pyre of their husband—found
near a Jain temple at Hampi, Karnataka, unknown date, granite.
Photograph: ASI, 1916–1917, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
284. Indra sitting on his elephant. Indra Sabha Cave, Ellora, Maharash-
tra, 10th century, basalt. Photograph: courtesy Mark Kobayashi-
Hillary
285. Elephant statue at Sahadeva’s shrine, Panchapandavarathas,
Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, 7th–mid 8th century, granite.
Photograph: ASI SC, 1912–1913, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
286. Stele of the mother-goddess Indrani with her elephant. North
India, 6th–8th century. Photograph: ASI, 1919–1920, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
287. Stele of the mother-goddess Indrani with her elephant. North
India, 8th–early 11th century. Musée National des Arts Asiatiques
Guimet, Paris. Photograph: ASI, 1920–1940, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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288. The mother-goddess Indrani with her elephant on the pedestal.
Jajpur, Orissa, c. 950–1300. Photograph: ASI, 1919–1920, cour-
tesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
289. The mother-goddess Indrani sitting on her elphant. Satna, Mad-
hya Pradesh, 8th–early 11th century, sandstone. Photograph: ASI,
1920–1940, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
290. The mother-goddess Indrani sitting on her elephant. Paogachha,
Bangladesh, 8th–12th century. Varendra Research Museum, 656,
Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Photograph: Varendra Research Museum,
1925–1926, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
291. Yaksha Gangita standing on an elephant. Railing pillar before
transport to the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Bharhut, Madhya
Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Photograph: IM List 1900,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
292. Dancing Ganesha from Central India, 10th century, sandstone.
Brooklyn Museum, L68.35.1, Lent by Anthony A. Manheim, New
York, USA. Photograh: A. van der Geer, courtesy The Brooklyn
Museum of Art, New York
293. Dancing Ganesha in a niche of the back wall of the Devi Jagad-
ambi temple, Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, early 11th C.E.,
sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Chiels Liu
294. Sitting Ganesha with his rat on the pedestal. Eastern India, 10th
century, basalt. National Museum, 60.1300, New Delhi. Photo-
graph: courtesy Hideyuki Kamon
295. Dancing Ganesha as column decoration in the Hall of the Thou-
sand Pillars, Minakshi-Sundareshvara temple complex, Madurai,
Tamil Nadu, 17th century, granite. Photograph: courtesy Paul
Bilinger
The domestic horse
296. The Marwari or Mewari breed of Rajasthan, the famous war
horse of the Rajputs. Photograph: courtesy Snehal Patel
297. The Spiti breed of the Himalayas, ideal as pack animal at high
mountain passes. Photograph: courtesy Joe Burton
298. A mixed breed revealing a certain amount of Arabian or Kathi-
awari blood. Mussorie, Himanchal Pradesh. Photograph: courtesy
J. Kamphorst
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xlii list of figures
299. The English thoroughbred mare Coquette, Chennai, 1925. Pho-
tograph: E.H. Hunt, 1925, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
300. The groom’s horse is given some sweets by the bride’s family at
a Rajasthani wedding ceremony. Photograph: courtesy Dewang
Modi, India
301. Clay horses are found on altars for local deities in the Thar desert,
Rajasthan, 20th century. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
302. Abacus of a free-standing pillar, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, 3rd
B.C.E., polished sandstone. Photograph: ASI NC, 1265, 1911–
1912, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
303. Two horse-riders on a corner of the eastern gateway, Bharhut,
Madhya Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian Museum,
Calcutta. Photograph: IO List 1900, 1062 and 1478, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
304. Horse capital of the western vahaldaka, Kantakachetiya stupa,
Mihintale, Sri Lanka, 2nd–1st B.C.E. Photograph: ASC, 1910–
1911, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
305. Horse rider on a column. Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, 2nd B.C.E.
Archaeological Museum, DG 4, Sarnath. Photograph: ASI DGA,
462, 1906–1907, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
306. Pair of horse riders on the southern gateway, outer view, of the
Great Stupa, Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sand-
stone. Photograph: courtesy A. Kamphorst
307. Frieze with the Transport of the Buddha’s Relics. Shahr-i-Bahlol,
Greater Gandhara, Pakistan, 1st–4th century, schist. Peshawar
Museum. Photograph: ASI DGA, 1909–1910, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
308. Sport scene with nude riders from Greater Gandhara, Paki-
stan, 1st–4th century, schist. Photograph: Musée Guimet, Paris,
1900–1920, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
309. Birth of the fowl Kanthaka. Greater Gandhara, Pakistan, 1st–4th
century, schist. National Museum, 1966, Karachi. Photograph:
ASI NC, 1432, 1912–1913, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
310. Return of the Buddha’s horse Kanthaka and his servant Chan-
daka. Greater Gandhara, Pakistan, 3rd century, schist. Central
Museum, Lahore. Photograph: courtesy Scott Christian
311. Great Departure of the Buddha on his steed Kanthaka. Greater
Gandhara, Pakistan, 1st–4th century, schist. Indian Museum,
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5043, Calcutta. Photograph: ASI DGA, 1909–1910, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
312. Statue of the horse of Samudra Gupta at Khairigarh, Uttar
Pradesh, 4th–6th century. State Museum, M219, Lucknow. Pho-
tograph: ASI, 1908–1920, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
313. Stele of the god of hunt Revanta on his horse. Northern India,
9th–10th century, sandstone. Linden Museum, Stuttgart, Ger-
many. Photograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy Linden Museum,
Stuttgart
314. Stele of the god of hunt Revanta. Ghatnagar, Bangladesh, 10th–
13th century. Varendra Research Museum, 726, Rajshahi, Ban-
gladesh. Photograph: Varendra Research Museum, 1927–1928,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
315. Stele of the sun god Surya on his chariot drawn by seven horses.
Bangladesh, 8th–12th century, basalt. Varendra Research Museum,
1475, Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Photograph: ASI, 1932–1933, cour-
tesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
316. Marichi, the Buddhist goddess of dawn, on a chariot drawn
by seven horses. Bodhgaya, Bihar, 9th century, grey sandstone.
Above: detail of the pedestal showing the seven uproaring horses.
Below: overview of the stele. Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Berlin,
Germany. Photograph: A. van der Geer
317. Free-standing horse statues outside the Sun Temple at Konarak,
Orissa, c. 1238–1258, sandstone. Photograph: anonymous pho-
tographer, c. 1970
318. Detail of one of the rearing horses, showing the wide-open mouth.
Horse mandapa, Shrirangam temple complex, Tamil Nadu, 17th
century, granite. Photograph: courtesy Byron Aihara
319. Panel with a horse and an elephant from Govardhan, Uttar
Pradesh, c. 1600. Government Museum, S 43, Mathura. Photo-
graph: ASI NC Hindu and Buddhist Monuments, Lahore 1319,
1911–1912, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
320. Attack by Mara’s Army. Architrave of the southern gateway, Great
Stupa, Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone.
Photograph: courtesy A. Kamphorst
321. Frieze with the Transport of the Relics of the Buddha. Kankali
Tila near Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 1st–3rd century, sandstone.
State Museum, J 535, Lucknow. Photograph: ASI DGA, 383–692,
1908–1909, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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xliv list of figures
322. Mahabharata scenes on columns of the Virupaksha temple at Pat-
tadakal, Karnataka, c. 733–744, sandstone. Photographs: ASI
1874–1900, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
323. Combat scene on panel C5 of the ayaka frieze at Nagarjunak-
onda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century, limestone. Site Museum,
Nagarjunakonda. Photograph: ASI, 1927–1928, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
324. Hero stone in the memory of Sri Godadadeva from Dumad,
Gujarat, inscription dated to 1298. Baroda Museum. Photograph:
ASI, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
325. Hero stone dedicated to Pabuji, Rajasthan. Kolu, new shrine,
c. 1987, herostone itself 18th–19th century, sandstone. Photo-
graph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
326. Hero stone dedicated to Pabuji, Rajasthan. Kher, 17th–18th
century, sandstone. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
327. Hero stone dedicated to twin folk-gods, Keru, Rajasthan, c. 14th–
15th century, sandstone. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
328. Votive relief in honour of the oriental god Kaka(s)bos, Palace of
the Knights, Rhodes, Greece, 3rd–4th century, limestone. Photo-
graph: A. van der Geer
329. Great Departure of the Buddha. Greater Gandhara, northern
Pakistan, 1st–4th century, schist. Staatliche Sammlungen, Berlin,
Germany. Photograph: A. van der Geer
330. Krishna Fights the Horse Demon. Unspecifi ed Hindu temple,
Paharpur, Bangladesh, 8th–12th century. Photograph: ASI,
1925–1934, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
331. Erotic scene involving a mare on the plinth of the Lakshmana
Temple at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, c. 930–950, sandstone.
Photograph: courtesy Ja-Yeon Jeong
The wild horse or khur
332. Detail of the head of a khur, showing the lack of a forelock.
Diorama of the Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde, Stuttgart,
Germany. Photograph: A. van der Geer
333. The Valahassa Jataka on a railing pillar from Bhuteshvara near
Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 1st–3rd century, sandstone. Indian
Museum, A 24946, Calcutta. Photograph: ASI, 1910–1930,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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list of figures xlv
334. Running horses or khurs on a domeslab of stupa 2, Nagarjunak-
onda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century, limestone. Site Museum,
Nagarjunakonda. Photograph: ASI SC, 1928–1930, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
The small cats
335. The desert cat (Felis libyca). Zoological Museum, National Museum
of Natural History, Kiev, Ukraine. Photograph: courtesy E.M.
Pisanets
336. Skins of three wild cat species from South Asia. Above: the leop-
ard cat (Felis bengalensis), Assam, AMNH(M) 186957. Centre: the
jungle cat (F. chaus), Nilgiri Hills, AMNH(M) 163140. Below: the
fi shing cat (F. viverrina), Bangladesh, AMNH(M) 244437. American
Museum of Natural History, Department of Mammalogy, New
York. Photograph: G. Lyras, courtesy The American Museum of
Natural History, New York
337. Frieze with the seven mother-goddesses (saptamatrikas) with Shashthi
as third fi gure from the left. North India, c. 950–c. 1300. British
Museum, London, UK. Photograph: ASI, 1920–1940, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
338. Story of the Rooster and the Cat on a coping stone from Bhar-
hut, Madhya Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian Museum,
Calcutta. Photograph: IO List 1900, 1973, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
The squirrels
339. The Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa indica). Staatliches Museum für
Naturkunde, Stuttgart, Germany. Photograph: A. van der Geer
340. The giant fl ying squirrel (Petaurista petaurista). Zoological Museum
La Specola, Florence, Italy. Photograph: A. van der Geer
341. Medallion with the Story of the Monkey King. Railing pillar
from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian
Museum, 407, Calcutta. Photograph: IO List 1900, 1033, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
342. Reverse side of a yakshi stele. Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, 1st–3rd cen-
tury, sandstone. Government Museum, Mathura. Below: overview
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xlvi list of figures
of the front side, amongst other sculptures. Photographs: ASI,
1905–1920, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
The Indian gazelle or chinkara
343. The chinkara or Indian gazelle (Gazella bennetti), buck with doe.
Diorama of the Field Museum for Natural History, Chicago. Photo-
graph: A. van der Geer, courtesy The Field Museum, Chicago
344. Detail of the pedestal of next fi gure. Brooklyn Museum of Art,
86.227.24, gift of the Ernest Erickson Foundation, New York.
345. Seated Buddha torso from Andhra Pradesh, probably Nagarju-
nakonda, late 3rd century, pale green limestone. For detail of the
pedestal, see previous fi gure. Brooklyn Museum of Art, 86.227.24,
gift of the Ernest Erickson Foundation, New York. Photographs:
A. van der Geer, courtesy The Brooklyn Museum of Art, New
Yo r k
346. Medallion with the Story of The Buddha Visiting the Shakyas.
Railing pillar from Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, 1st–2nd century,
limestone. Government Museum, Chennai. Photograph: ASI SC,
B162, 1916–1917, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
347. Buddha Visiting the Shakyas. Panel from Stupa 9, Nagarjunak-
onda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd-th century, limestone. Site Museum,
Nagarjunakonda. Photograph: ASI SC, 1928–1930, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
348. Buddha Visiting the Resort of Naga Apalala in the Himalayas.
Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century, limestone.
Photograph: ASI SC, B533, 1930–1934, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
The giraffe
349. The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis). Diorama of the Field Museum
for Natural History, Chicago, USA. Photograph: A. van der Geer,
courtesy The Field Museum, Chicago
350. Roman, Section of a Mosaic Floor, Late Imperial Period (5th
century C.E.), Stone, mosaic, 170.8 × 167 cm, Gift of Mrs. Robert
B. Mayer, 1993.345, The Art Institute of Chicago. Photography
© The Art Institute of Chicago
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list of figures xlvii
351. Young dromedary browsing a tree. Rajasthan. Photograph: cour-
tesy J. Kamphorst
The mongoose
352. The common or grey mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi). Zoological
Museum, National Museum of Natural History, Kiev, Ukraine.
Photograph: courtesy E.M. Pisanets
353. The common mongoose preying upon a snake. Field Museum of
Natural History, 34854, Chicago, USA. Photograph: A. Goswami,
courtesy The Field Museum, Chicago
354. Skin of the common mongoose, India. American Museum
of Natural History, Department of Mammalogy, AMNH(M)
70006, New York. Photograph: G. Lyras, courtesy The American
Museum of Natural History
355. Panel with the Visit to the Indrashailaguha Cave, Mathura, Uttar
Pradesh, 1st–3rd century, sandstone. Indian Museum, Calcutta.
Photograph: ASI DGA, 1909–1910, 61, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
356. Stele of Jambhala, the Buddhist god of riches, holding a mon-
goose. Kurkihar near Bodhgaya, Bihar, 10th century. Indian
Museum, A 24139, Calcutta. Photograph: ASI, 1905–1920,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
357. Stele of Kubera, the Hindu god of riches, holding a mongoose.
Yogyakarta, Java, 13th–16th century. Photograph: Isidore van
Kinsbergen, 1865, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
358. Kubera/Jambhala with jewel-spitting mongoose. Satna, Madhya
Pradesh, 8th–early 11th century, sandstone. Indian Museum, 6499,
Calcutta. Photograph: ASI, 1920–1940, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
359. Kubera with money bag instead of a mongoose. Sarnath, Uttar
Pradesh, 4th–6th century, sandstone. Archaeological Museum,
Dd1, Sarnath. Photograph: ASI, 1910–1911, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
360. Kubera with money bag. Saheth-Maheth, Uttar Pradesh, 6th–8th
century. Photograph: ASI, 1907–1908, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
361. Jambhala holding an unclear object, likely either a money bag or
a mongoose. Stele from Ghasikundi, Bengal, late 12th century.
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xlviii list of figures
Indian Museum, 4571, Calcutta. Photograph: ASI, 1914–1915,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
The gibbon or hoolock
362. The white-browed gibbon or hoolock (Hylobates hoolock). Diorama
of the Field Museum for Natural History, Chicago, USA. Photo-
graph: A. van der Geer, courtesy The Field Museum, Chicago
363. Stele with the Story of The Monkey Offering Honey to the Bud-
dha. Bihar, 10th century. Indian Museum, N.S. 2074/A25150,
Calcutta. Photograph: ASI, 1910–1930, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
The Indian hare
364. The Indian hare (Lepus nigricollis). National Museum of Natural
History Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. Photograph: A. van
der Geer, courtesy Naturalis, Leiden
365. Seal impression in baked clay, Harappa, Pakistan, 2,300–1,750
B.C.E. Photograph: ASI, 1930–1933, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
366. Panel with the Story of the Hare on the Moon. Nagarjunakonda,
Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century, limestone. Site Museum,
Nagarjunakonda. Photograph: ASI SC, 1929–1930, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
367. Story of the Hare on the Moon. Goli, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd cen-
tury, limestone. Government Museum, Chennai. Photograph: ASI,
1926–1929, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
The Indian otters
368. The smooth Indian otter (Lutrogale perspicillata). Sungai Buloh
Wetland Reserve, Thailand. Photograph: courtesy Lip Kee Yap
369. The common otter (Lutra lutra). Naturmuseum Basel, Basel, Swit-
zerland. Photograph: A. van der Geer
370. Shiva and Parvati Sitting Together. South-western wall of the
southern navaranga of the Hoysaleshvara Temple at Halebid,
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Karnataka, mid-12th century, soapstone. An otter is present below
Parvati. Photograph: Gerard Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
371. Ravana Lifting Up Mount Kailasha. Kedareshvara temple, north
side of navaranga, Nuggihalli, Karnataka, c. 1219. Photograph:
Gerard Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
The macaques
372. Several macaque species of South Asia. Above: rhesus monkeys
(Macaca mulatta) in Rajasthan. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst.
Below, left: bonnet macaques (M. radiata), mother and child show-
ing “bonnet”. California, Primate Center. Photograph: courtesy
Susan Clarke/WPRC AV Archives 004272. Below, right: liontail
macaque (M. silenus). Field Museum for Natural History, Chicago.
Photograph: Anjali Goswami, courtesy The Field Museum
373. Group of grooming Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Monkey
jungle, Miami, Florida. Photograph: courtesy Roy Fontaine/
WPRC AV Archives 002063
374. Statue of fur-picking bonnet macaques at Mammalapuram, Tamil
Nadu, 7th–mid 8th century, granite. Photograph: ASI SC, D461,
1912–1913, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
375. Detail of a panel of the Miracle of Sravasti from Greater Gand-
hara, Pakistan, 1st–4th century, schist. County Museum, Los
Angeles. Photograph: ASI, 1900–1920, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
377. Story of the Monkey King. Panel G 3–4 of the ayaka frieze of
stupa 6, Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century, lime-
stone. Photograph: ASI SC, 1928–1930, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
376. Panel with the Story of the Monkey King. Right jamb of the
western gateway to the Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh,
c. 50–25 B.C.E. Photograph: courtesy Susannah Stevens
378. Coping stone with the Story of the Monkeys and the Gardener.
Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian
Museum, Calcutta. Photograph: IO List 1900, 1079, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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379. Story of the Flying Buddha on panel D2 of the ayaka frieze,
Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century, limestone.
Site Museum, Nagarjunakonda. Photograph: ASI, 1928–1930,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
381. Story of the Monkey and the Crocodile. Tripurantakeshvara tem-
ple, Belgami, Karnataka, c. 1070. Photograph: Gerard Foekema,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
380. Panel with the Story of the Monkey Offering Honey to the Bud-
dha. Northern gateway, west pillar, east side, Great Stupa, San-
chi, Madhya Pradesh, c. 50–25 B.C.E., sandstone. Photograph:
courtesy Zach Hessler
382. Hanuman Goes To Lanka. Baghbhairava temple, Bhaktapur,
Nepal, 16th century. Photography © The John C. and Susan
L. Huntington Archive of Buddhist and Related Art, The Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
383. Hanuman Meets Rama. Panel from Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, 4th–
6th century. Archaeological Museum, Sarnath. Photograph: ASI,
1910–1920, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
384. Loving couple disturbed by a monkey on the north vestibule of
the Lakshmana temple, Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, c. 930–950,
sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Christine Mounier
The sloth bear
385. The sloth bear (Melursus ursinus). Zoological Museum La Specola,
Florence, Italy. Photograph: A. van der Geer
386. The red panda or cat bear (Ailurus fulgens). Padmaja Naidu Hima-
layan Zoo, Darjeeling, West Bengal. Photograph: courtesy Chiels
Liu
387. Statuette of a sloth bear. Mathura region, Uttar Pradesh, 1st–3rd
century, mottled red sandstone. Government Museum, Mathura.
Left: front view. Right: reverse. Photograph: ASI, 1905–1920,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
388. Detail of a Ramayana relief with the bear Jambavan, Andhra
Pradesh, c. 1900, wood. Naturmuseum, Basel, Switzerland. Pho-
tograph: A. van der Geer
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The Indian muntjac or barking deer
389. The Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak). Diorama of the Field
Museum for Natural History, Chicago, USA. Photograph: A. van
der Geer, courtesy The Field Museum, Chicago
390. A muntjac crossing a lane in Jim Corbett Natural Park, Utta-
ranchal. Photograph: courtesy N. Kamphorst
The house mouse
391. The common house mouse (Mus musculus). Naturmuseum, Basel,
Switzerland. Photograph: A. van der Geer
392. Story of the Mice as detail of the monolithic relief of Arjuna’s
Penance, Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, 7th–mid 8th century,
granite. Photograph: ASI SC, D428, 1912–1913, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
The domestic and wild sheep
393. Pastoralists with their domestic sheep (Ovis aries) on the move in
Rajasthan. Photograph: courtesy A. Kamphorst
394. Sheep hold their heads together to prevent overheating. Photo-
graph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
395. Wild sheep of the Indian subcontinent, the argali or nayan (Ovis
ammon). Diorama, Field Museum for Natural History, Chicago,
USA. Photograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy The Field Museum,
Chicago
396. Blue sheep or bharal (Pseudois nayaur). Museum für Naturkunde,
Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany. Photograph: A. van der
Geer
397. Agni and his spouse Savitri riding their ram. Tarappa Gudi temple,
Aihole, Karnataka, 7th–8th century, sandstone. Photograph: ASI,
1908–1909, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
398. Stele of Agni on his ram from Rudrapur, Uttaranchal, 8th–early
11th century. State Museum, H91, Luckow. Photograph: ASI,
1900–1920, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
399. Steles of Agni on his ram. Above, left: Part of a set of eight
guardians (ashthadikpalas), Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, 975–1025, Orissa
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State Museum. Above, right: Patharpunja, Orissa, 10th century,
black stone. State Archaeological Museum of Bengal, Calcutta.
Photography © The John C. and Susan L. Huntington Archive
of Buddhist and Related Art, The Ohio State University, Colum-
bus, Ohio, USA. Below, left and right: British Museum, London
UK, unknown origin and date. Photograph: British Museum,
1920–1940, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
400. Agni on his ram from Bangladesh or West Bengal, 10th century,
black stone. Ashutosh Museum, collection P.C. Nahar, Calcutta.
Photograph: ASI, 1920–1940, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
401. Sheep-headed bracket figure. Chennakeshava temple, Belur,
Karnataka, c. 1117, soapstone. Photograph: Byron Aihara
402. Siddhartha Going To Shool on a ram. Stupa drum, Greater
Gandhara, Pakistan, 1st–4th century, schist. Central Museum, 125,
Lahore. Photograph: ASI, 1871–1897, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
403. Story of the Ram that Laughed and Wept. Panel C6 of the
ayaka frieze, Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, 3rd–4th century,
limestone. Site Museum, Nagarjunkonda. Photograph: ASI SC,
1928–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
404. Story of the Leather Garment on a coping stone from Bharhut,
Madhya Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian Museum, Cal-
cutta. Photograph: IO List 1900, 1081, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
405. Two pedestals of Hariti with nude children playing with a sheep,
Greater Gandhara, Pakistan, schist. Above: Sahri-Bahlol, 4th–5th
century. Peshawar Museum. Below: 1st–4th century. Photographs:
ASI FC, 1906–1907, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
406. Loose capital with nude children and a sheep. Terrain of the
Roman agora, Athens, Greece, c. 2nd century B.C.E.–2nd century
C.E., marble. Photograph: courtesy Carmen Heijstee
407. Erotic scene with a sheep. Tripurantakeshvara temple, Belgami,
Karnataka, c. 1070. Photograph: Gerard Foekema, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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The Indian lion
408. A male lion (Panthera leo), showing its long-haired manes. The
Indian variety of the species has a scantier mane than the African
variety. Bronx Zoo, New York, USA. Photograph: A. van der
Geer
409. The earliest Indian lion statuette. Mohenjo-daro, Indus Valley,
Pakistan, c. 2,300–1,750 B.C.E., steatite. National Museum,
Karachi. Photograph: ASI, 1925–1930, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
410. Fragment of a steatite seal with the hindquarters of a lion, recog-
nised by its whisked tail. Mohenjo-daro, Indus Valley, Pakistan,
2,300–1,750 B.C.E. Photograph: ASI, 447, 1925–1926 447,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
411. Terracotta amulet with a lion, a fi gure in a tree, and two fi g-
ures uprooting trees. Mohenjo-daro, Indus Valley, Pakistan,
2,300–1,750 B.C.E. Photograph: ASI, 1930–1931, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
412. The lion capital from Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, 3rd century
B.C.E., polished sandstone. Archaeological Museum, Sarnath.
Photograph: ASI NC, 1263, 1911–1912, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
413. Pakistan (Ancient Gandhara), Stupa Reliquary, c. 200, Gray schist,
30.5 × 19.7 × 19.1 cm, The James W. and Marilynn Alsdorf
Collection, 2006.18, The Art Institute of Chicago. Photography
© The Art Institute of Chicago
414. Three friezes with running lions from Nagarjunakonda, Andhra
Pradesh, 3rd–4th century, limestone. Site Museum, Nagarjunak-
onda. Above: panel F3, stupa 3. Centre: panel D1, stupa 3. Below:
drum panel, stupa 2. Photographs: ASI SC B535 1930–1934, ASI
1928–1930 and ASI 1930–1934, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
415. Marcus’ lion, Palace of the Knights, Rhodes, Greece, c. 1400,
based on Roman examples, 1st–4th century. Photograph: A. van
der Geer
416. Lion series as decoration on the plinth of the Kedareshvara tem-
ple, Halebid, Karnataka, c. 1219, soapstone. Photograph: Gerard
Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
417. Royal emblem of Raja Prithvi Singh on the Hanuman temple,
Chamba, Himachal Pradesh, mid-17th century. Photograph:
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Hermann Goetz, 1939–1947, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
418. Detail of Maitreya’s pedestal from Kharki, Greater Gandhara,
Pakistan, 1st–3rd century, grey schist. Central Archaeological
Museum, 569, Lahore. Photograph: ASI, 1910–1930, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
419. Isolated pedestal of a Jain Tirthankara, with two lions, a buf-
falo-headed fi gure, possibly Yama, to the left and a female fi gure
to the right. Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh, 6th century, sandstone.
Photograph: ASI, 1914–1915, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
420. Parshvanatha Tirthankara from Rajasthan, 10th–11th century,
sandstone. Linden Museum, SA.017271, Stuttgart, Germany. Pho-
tograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy Linden Museum, Stuttgart
421. Vrishabhanatha Tirthankara from Saheth-Maheth, Uttar Pradesh,
12th century. Photograph: ASI, 1907–1908, courtesy Kern Insti-
tute, Leiden, the Netherlands
422. Stele of Tara with a lion pedestal. Bengal, 10th century, grey
schist. Brooklyn Museum of Art, 76.179.5, gift of Martha M.
Green, New York. Photograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy The
Brooklyn Museum of Art, New York
423. The Goddess Durga with Two Lions, Southern Uttar Pradesh,
c. 850–900, sandstone. Brooklyn Museum of Art, 79.254.2, anony-
mous gift, New York. Photograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy The
Brooklyn Museum of Art, New York
424. Ambika stele from Gujarat or Rajasthan, 8th–early 11th century,
Baroda Museum. Photograph: ASI, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
425. Durga’s lion in front of the Draupadi Ratha, Panchapanda-
varathas, Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, 7th–mid 8th century,
granite. Photograph: ASI SC, D453, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
426. Gigantic lion-throne at Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, 7th–mid
8th century, granite. Photograph: ASI, D462, 1912–1913, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
427. Detail of the rock-boulder with Arjuna’s Penance, left upper part.
Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, 7th-mid 8th century, granite.
Photograph: ASI, SC D423, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
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428. Various lion-reliefs in the Krishna Cave. Mammalapuram, Tamil
Nadu, 7th–mid 8th century, granite. Photograph: ASI SC, D460,
1912–1913, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
429. The Bodhisattva Simhanada Lokeshvara on his lion. Mahoba,
Uttar Pradesh, 10th–13th century, sandstone. State Museum,
Lucknow. Photograph: ASI, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
430. The Bodhisattva Simhanada Lokeshvara on his lion. Sultanganj,
originally from the Rajmahal Hills, Bihar, 12th century. Photo-
graph: City of Birmingham Museum, UK, 1920–1926, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
431. The Bodhisattva Manjuvajra on his lion. Deul, Bangladesh,
10th–13th century. Varendra Research Museum, A(b) 10/204,
Rajshahi. Photograph: Varendra Research Museum, 1925–1926,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
432. The lion of Dionysus. Yusufzai, Greater Gandhara, Pakistan,
1st–4th century, schist. Indian Museum, Calcutta. Photograph:
ASI DGA, 65, 1909–1910, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
433. Two steles of Vishnu’s lion-headed manifestation Narasimha from
Verinaga, Jammu and Kashmir, 10th–12th century. Sri Pratap
Singh Museum, Srinagar. Photographs: ASI, 1936–1938, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
434. Narasimha from Uttar Pradesh, 8th–9th century. State Museum,
H.125, Lucknow. Photograph: ASI, 1908–1909, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
435. Narasimha from the Trimurti Temple at Devanagara, Uttar
Pradesh, 8th–early 11th century, sandstone. Photograph: ASI, 2780,
1906–1907, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
436. Narasimha on the Hoysaleshvara temple, Halebid, Karnataka,
mid-12th century, soapstone. Photograph: courtesy Anita Moor-
jani
437. Lion statue as door guardian outside the Dhumar Lena or Cave
29, Ellora, Maharashtra, 6th century, basalt. Photograph: E.H.
Hunt, 1925, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
438. Panel with the Attack by Mara’s Army, showing detail of the
lion. Greater Gandhara, 3rd century, schist. Staatliche Kunstsam-
mlungen, MIKI 10.198, Berlin, Germany. Photograph: A. van
der Geer
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439. Panel with the Story of the Indrashailaguha Visit. Shanti stupa,
Dhaulagiri hill near Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, 1972. Photograph:
courtesy Rita Willaert
440. Pakistan (Ancient Gandhara), Relief with Scenes from the
Buddha’s Life, 2nd/3rd century, Gray schist, 60 × 37.1 × 7.3
cm, Private Collection, 180.1997, The Art Institute of Chicago.
Photography © The Art Institute of Chicago
441. Women on a balcony looking to a fi ghting lion. Sarnath, Uttar
Pradesh, 6th–8th century, sandstone. Photograph: ASI, 1904–
1905, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
442. A lion hunt on a frieze from Jamalgarhi, Greater Gandhara,
1st–4th century. Indian Museum, Calcutta. Photograph: ASI,
1872–1873, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
443. Fighting lion and bull. Doorjamb, Uttar Pradesh, 4th–6th century.
State Museum, B.107, Lucknow. Photograph: ASI DGA, 1908–
1909, 383–632, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
444. Four different steles with Durga Slaying the Buffalo Demon.
Above, left: Sundarbans, West Bengal or Bangladesh, 13th–16th
century, granite. Indian Museum, Sn.2, Calcutta. Above, right:
Raniganj, West Bengal, 12th century. Below, left: Mata Temple
at Bhatal or Bhatund near Jodhpur, Rajasthan, 8th–early 11th
century, sandstone. Below, right: Salad near Karvan, Gujarat,
9th century, Baroda Museum, AS.2.421. Photographs: ASI,
1900–1920, 1935 and 1909–1910, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
445. Panel with a lion attacking a warrior (centre) and a warrior wear-
ing a lion skin over his shield (left). Delphi, Greece, 4th B.C.E.,
marble. Photograph: A. van der Geer
446. Shala Fighting the Lion. Chennakeshava temple, Belur, Karnataka,
c. 1117, soapstone. Photograph: Gerard Foekema, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
447. Shala Fighting the Lion as bracket fi gure at the south side of
the navaranga of the Nageshvara temple at Mosale, Karnataka,
c. 1200, soapstone. Photograph: Gerard Foekema, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
448. Rearing leonine yalis or vyalas attacking a warrior. Left: bracket
fi gure from Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, 10th–13th century. Orissa
State Museum. Right: doorjamb from Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh,
4th–6th century. National Museum, New Delhi. Photographs: ASI
1909–1910, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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The leopards
449. A leopard (Panthera pardus) as hunting trophie. Junagarh Fort,
Bikaner, Rajasthan. Photograph: courtesy Paul Veltman and Antje
Brunt
450. The black panther (Panthera pardus). Bronx Zoo, New York. Photo-
graph: A. van der Geer
451. The snow leopard or ounce (Panthera uncia or Uncia uncia). Padmaja
Naidu Himalayan Zoo, Darjeeling, West Bengal. Photograph:
courtesy J. Kamphorst
452. A wise man (sadhu) on a leopard skin. Bhartrihari Cave, Ujjain,
Madhya Pradesh. Photograph: Jean-Philippe Vogel, 1925, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
453. Outer pier of the wedding hall (kalyana mandapa), outer enclosure
of the Jalakantheshvara temple, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, late 16th
century, granite. Photograph: courtesy K.R. Loknath
454. Stele of Shiva and Parvati sitting on a leopard skin. Varanasi, Uttar
Pradesh, 17th–18th century. Indian Museum, 8561, Calcutta.
Photograph: ASI, 1930–1931, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
455. Unidentifi ed male fi gure wearing a leopard skin around his waist.
Detached statue lying on the compounds of a Tala temple, Chat-
tisgarh. Photograph: courtesy Akhilesh Bharos
456. Torso of a male fi gure, often referred to as a ‘priest’. DK-area,
Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, c. 2,100–1,750 B.C.E., limestone.
National Museum, Karachi. Photograph: ASI DGA, 1925–1926,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
457. Potsherd with trifoliate or rosette pattern from Harappa, Pakistan,
c. 2,300–1,750 B.C.E. Photograph: ASI, 1933–1934, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
The Indian or Asian tiger
458. The Asian tiger (Panthera tigris). Bronx Zoo, New York. Photograph:
A. van der Geer
459. Tiger hunting in the early 20th century, between Chandur and
Manickgarh, Maharashtra. Photograph: E.H. Hunt, 1929, cour-
tesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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460. Tiger skins were collected in great numbers. Photograph: G. Lyras,
courtesy The American Museum of Natural History, Department
of Mammalogy, New York
461. Three tiger-seals from Mohenjo-daro, Indus Valley, Pakistan,
c. 2,300–1,750 B.C.E., steatite. Above: National Museum, Kara-
chi. Photographs: ASI, 1925–1930 and 1930–1931, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands. Below: National Museum, New
Delhi. Photography © The John C. and Susan L. Huntington
Archive of Buddhist and Related Art, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio, USA
462. Killing a tiger. Pier of the Sheshagiri mandapa of the Ranganatha
temple, Shrirangam, Tamil Nadu, late 16th century, granite. Pho-
tograph: courtesy Byron Aihara. Below: overview. Photograph:
© 2006 Y. Giridhar Appaji Nag <giridhar@appaji.net>
The river dolphin
463. Detail of the beak with sharp teeth of the river dolphin of the
Ganges (Platanista gangetica). Zoological Museum La Specola, Flor-
ence, Italy. Photograph: A. van der Geer
464. Dolphin statue, Palace of the Knights, Rhodes, Greece, unknown
period, limestone. Photograph: A. van der Geer
465. The river goddess Ganga standing on her makara. Besnagar,
Madhya Pradesh, 4th–6th century. Photograph: ASI, 1900–1920,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
466. Dolpin-based makara as ending of an architrave. Bharhut, Madhya
Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., sandstone. Indian Museum, Calcutta.
Photograph: ASI, 1900–1915, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
The Indian one-horned rhinoceros
467. The greater Indian one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis).
Nepal. Photograph: courtesy J. Kamphorst
468. Rhinoceros calf, lacking the characteristic horn. Photograph:
courtesy J. Kamphorst
469. Three steatite seals with a rhinoceros from Mohenjo-daro, Pakis-
tan, c. 2,300–1,750 B.C.E. National Museum, Karachi. Photo-
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graphs: Above: © The John C. and Susan L. Huntington Archive
of Buddhist and Related Art, The Ohio State University, Colum-
bus, Ohio, USA. Below: ASI, 1925–1930, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
470. Cylinder seal from Tell Asmar, Iraq, c. 2000–1800 B.C.E., glazed
steatite. Indian Museum, IM 14674, Calcutta. Photograph: ASI,
1925–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
The langur or Hanuman monkey
471. Fighting common langurs or Hanuman monkeys (Semnopithecus
entellus) in Ranthambore Wildlife Reserve, Rajasthan. Photograph:
courtesy Neil Better
472. Hanuman Goes To Battle. Pillar at the Shrirangam temple com-
plex, Tamil Nadu, late 16th century. Photograph: courtesy Byron
Aihara
473. Statue of Rama, Lakshmana and Sita from Ganeshpur, Bangla-
desh, 10th–12th century, basalt. Varendra Research Museum,
1526, Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Photograph: ASI, 1934–1935,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
474. Three friezes with Ramayana episodes. Amriteshvara temple,
Amritapura, Karnataka, c. 1196, granite. Above: Rama Blesses
Hanuman, south side of the main hall. Centre: Hanuman Fights
Ravana, southern entrance, east side. Below: Hanuman Teaches
Ravana, southern entrance, east side. Photographs: Gerard
Foekema, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
475. Three steles of Hanuman Going to Lanka. Hampi, Karnataka,
16th century, granite. Above, left: Site Museum, Hampi. Pho-
tography: © The John C. and Susan L. Huntington Archive of
Buddhist and Related Art, The Ohio State University, Columbus,
Ohio, USA. Above, right: Archaeological Museum, Kamala-
puram. Photograph: courtesy Yann. Below, left: Hanuman temple.
Photograph: courtesy Lee Meerson
476. Hanuman Goes to Lanka. Madhya Pradesh, 17th–18th century,
painted sandstone. Archaeological Museum, Gwalior. Photograph:
courtesy Ed Sentner
477. Fight Between Vali and the Demon. Kailashanatha temple or Cave
16, Ellora, Maharashtra, 8th–9th century, basalt. Photograph:
courtesy Luc Seurin
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lx list of figures
478. Hanuman Captures Ravana. Sheshagirirayar, Shrirangam, Tamil
Nadu, late 16th century, granite. Photograph: courtesy Byron
Aihara
479. Hanuman Reads a Manuscript. Navabrindavanam, Anegundi,
Karnataka, 14th–16th century. Photograph: courtesy Balaji Srini-
vasan
480. Hanuman Standing Peacefully. Right: Four-armed Hanuman,
Keshava temple, Somnathpur, Karnataka, c. 1268. Left: Hanu-
man and Sugriva. Hazara Rama temple, Hampi, Karnataka,
16th century, granite. Photography: © The John C. and Susan
L. Huntington Archive of Buddhist and Related Art, The Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
481. Hanuman Standing Peacefully. Undavalli Cave, Andhra Pradesh,
7th–8th century, sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Brock Hen-
derson
482. Hanuman Standing Peacefully. South India, 13th–16th century.
British Museum, London. Photograph: ASI, 1920–1940, courtesy
Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
The domestic pig and the wild boar
483. Domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) lack a mane. Mammalapuram, Tamil
Nadu. Photograph: courtesy Paul Veltman and Antje Brunt
484. Wild boar (Sus scrofa) with a prominent mane crossing the street.
Udaipur, Rajasthan. Photograph: courtesy Evan Maher
485. All swine bear two protruding canines. Zoological Museum La
Specola, Florence, Italy. Photograph: A. van der Geer
486. A decorative relief on a column at Aihole, Karnataka, 7th cen-
tury, sandstone. The four symbols—a wild boar, a cross-marked
sun, a disc on a pillar and a conch—might be interpreted as a
royal insignia like that of the much later Vijayanagara dynasty.
Photograph: courtesy Sriram Lakshminarayanan
487. A running wild boar with a prominent mane and protruding tusks
as decoration. Panel C1 of stupa 3, Nagarjunakonda, Andhra
Pradesh, 3rd century, limestone. Site Museum, Nagarjunakonda.
Photograph: ASI SC, B561, 1929–1931, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
488. Colossal zoomorphic Varaha statue at Eran, Madhya Pradesh,
c. 490 or 510, sandstone. Photograph: ASI DGA, 25, 1909–1910,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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list of figures lxi
489. Colossal zoomorphic Varaha statue at Muradpur, West Bengal,
6th–8th century. Photograph: ASI, 1905–1920, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
490. Zoomorphic Varaha statue from Badoh-Pathari, Madhya Pradesh,
9th century. Archaeological Museum, Gwalior. Photograph: ASI,
1900–1920, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
491. Anthropomorphic Varaha. Cave 2, Badami, Karnataka, late 6th
century, red sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Rachit Prasad
492. Varaha Rescues the Earth. Facade of Cave 5 at Udayagiri, Mad-
hya Pradesh, c. 401–450, sandstone. Photograph: ASI, 1908–1909,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
493. Varaha Rescues the Earth. Garhwa, Uttar Pradesh, 10th century,
sandstone. Photograph: ASI, 1909–1910, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
494. India, Rajasthan, Boar (Varaha) Incarnation of Vishnu, c. 11th
century, Red sandstone, 132.1 × 58.5 × 29.3 cm, Gift of Marilynn
B. Alsdorf, 1997.707, The Art Institute of Chicago. Photography
© The Art Institute of Chicago
495. Varaha Rescues the Earth. North India, 11th–12th century. Vic-
toria and Albert Museum, London. Photograph: V&A Museum,
1920–1940, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
496. Varaha Rescues the Earth. Left: Bargaon, Bihar, 8th–12th century.
Indian Museum, Calcutta. Photograph: courtesy Kyle Brannic.
Right: North India, 10th–13th century. British Museum, London.
Photograph: British Museum, 1920–1940, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
497. Varaha Rescues the Earth. Orissa, 14th century, basalt. Staatliches
Museum für Völkerkunde, 43, Munich, Germany. Photograph:
A. van der Geer
498. Varaha Rescues the Earth. Keshava temple, Belur, Karnataka,
c. 1117, soapstone. Photograph: courtesy Matthew Logelin
499. Varaha Rescues the Earth. Hoysaleshvara temple, Halebid, Karna-
taka, mid-12th century, soapstone. Photograph: Anita Moorjani
500. Cosmic boar-headed forms of Vishnu. Left: Vishvarupa from
Bhankari, Uttar Pradesh, c. mid-5th century, pink sandstone.
Government Museum, 42.43.29.89, Mathura. Right: Vishnu
and Lakshmi(?) on Garuda, Narayana temple, Changu, Nepal,
13th century, stone. Photography: © The John C. and Susan L.
Huntington Archive of Buddhist and Related Art, The Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
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lxii list of figures
501. Three-headed form of Vishnu with a boar and lion head. Sas
Bahu temple at Nagda near Udaipur, Rajastan, 10th century,
sandstone. Photograph: courtesy Fairouz Hammache
502. Varaha stele with a miniature boar between Varaha’s feet. Bangla-
desh, 11th–13th century, basalt. National Museum of Bangladesh,
Dhaka. Photography: ASI, 1900–1930, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
503. The boar-headed mother-goddess Varahi. North India, 6th–8th
century. British Museum, London, UK. Photograph: British
Museum, 1910–1930, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Nether-
lands
504. The boar-headed mother-goddess Varahi. North India, 10th
century, red sandstone. Linden Museum, SA 32628 L, Stuttgart,
Germany. Photograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy Linden Museum,
Stuttgart
505. The boar-headed mother-goddess in various iconographies. Above,
left: Varahi as part of a saptamatrikas series, Bala Brahma temple,
Alampur, Andhra Pradesh, c. 650–750. Above, right: Vajravarahi
with Chakrasamvara, Sundhari Chowk, Patan, Nepal, 17th
century. Below, left: Vajravarahi from eastern India, 8th–12th
century, black stone. Ashutosh Museum, Calcutta. Photography:
© The John C. and Susan L. Huntington Archive of Buddhist
and Related Art, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio,
USA. Below, right: Marichi, West Bengal or Bangladesh, 11th cen-
tury, chlorit-graphit schist. Staatliches Museum für Völkerkunde,
L115, Sammlung Lamare Picquot, Munich, Germany. Photo-
graph: A. van der Geer. For overview and detail of the boar
chariot, see Plate 48
506. Marichi, the Buddhist goddess of dawn, on her boar chariot.
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, 8th–12th century, black stone. Photo-
graph: ASI DGA, 1903–1904, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden,
the Netherlands
507. Marichi on her boar chariot. Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, 10th–13th
century. Archaeological Museum, Bf23, Sarnath. Photograph:
ASI, 1905, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
508. Rock-carving of a wild boar at Kila near Khalatse, Jammu and
Kashmir. Photograph: ASI FC, 585, 1909, courtesy Kern Institute,
Leiden, the Netherlands
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list of figures lxiii
509. Killing a Boar on a pier of the tortoise mandapa, Arulmigu Veda-
gireshvara temple, Tirukkalikundram, Tamil Nadu, 17th–18th
century, granite. Photograph: ASI, 1900–1920, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
The Asian or saddle-backed tapir
510. The Asian or saddle-backed tapir (Tapirus indicus). Diorama of the
Field Museum for Natural History, Chicago. Photograph: A. van
der Geer, courtesy The Field Museum, Chicago
511. Detail of the head of an adult tapir, showing the small trunk,
and a young with stripes. Naturmuseum, Basel, Switzerland.
Photograph: A. van der Geer
512. Coping stone with perhaps the carving of a tapir. Bharhut, Mad-
hya Pradesh, c. 100 B.C.E., brown sandstone. Indian Museum,
Calcutta. Detail view showing the muzzle with a short trunk and
the split hooves of the front feet. Photograph: IO List 1900, 1073,
courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
513. Overview of the complete coping stone. Photography: © The John
C. and Susan L. Huntington Archive of Buddhist and Related
Art, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
The four-horned antelope or chousingha
514. The chousingha or four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis).
Diorama of the Field Museum for Natural History, Chicago,
USA. Photograph: A. van der Geer, courtesy The Field Museum,
Chicago
515. Hunting scene with a fl eeing four-horned antelope on a frieze from
Greater Gandhara, Pakistan, 1st–4th century. Indian Museum,
IM 5130, Calcutta. Photograph: ASI, 1911–1916, courtesy Kern
Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
516. Panel illustrating the Story of the Indrashailaguha Visit. A pair
of four-horned antelopes is present above the Buddha to the left.
Loriyan Tangai, Greater Gandhara, Pakistan, c. 50–250, schist.
Indian Museum, Calcutta. Photograph: ASI DGA, 1909–1910
60, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the Netherlands
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lxiv list of figures
The Indian foxes
517. The common or red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Diorama of the Naturmu-
seum, Basel, Switzerland. Photograph: A. van der Geer
The missing species (not found depicted in stone)
518. Flying foxes (Pteropus giganteus), the largest Indian bats, roosting
in a tree. Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh. Photograph: courtesy Zach
Hessler
519. The dugong or sea cow (Dugong dugong), a possible basis for a type
of mythical water monster (makara). National Natural History
Museum Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. Photograph: A. van
der Geer, courtesy Naturalis, Leiden
520. Varuna, the Hindu god of waters, on his makara, Karnataka,
8th century, trap rock. Prince of Wales museum, Mumbai. Pho-
tograph: ASI, 1921–1925, courtesy Kern Institute, Leiden, the
Netherlands
521. The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), the fastest cat on Earth. Bronx Zoo,
New York. Photograph: A. van der Geer
522. Skin of a cheetah. American Museum of Natural History,
AMNH(M) 36426, Department of Mammalogy, New York. Pho-
tograph: G. Lyras, courtesy The American Museum of Natural
History, New York
523. The striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena). National Natural History
Museum Naturalis, Leiden, the Netherlands. Photograph: A. van
der Geer, courtesy Naturalis, Leiden
524. The scaly anteater (Manis pentadactyla), one of the most remarkable
South Asian animals. Zoological Museum La Specola, Florence,
Italy. Photograph: A. van der Geer
525. A donkey (Equus asinus) differs from a horse by its erect mane, stiff
tail, large ears, and stripes along its back and over the shoulder.
Udaipur, Rajasthan. Photograph: courtesy Paul Veltman and
Antje Brunt
526. Donkeys are typical for poor households. Orissa. Photograph:
anonymous photographer, c. 1970
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list of figures lxv
Conclusion
527. The huge rock-boulder representing the myth of Arjuna’s Penance
abounds in carvings of wild animals, not just elephants and lions,
but also small deer and mice. Mammalapuram, Tamil Nadu, 7th–
mid 8th century, granite. Photograph: courtesy M. Blafkin
528. Detail of Arjuna’s Penance showing the elephant family and the
Story of the Mice. Photograph: A. van der Geer
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AitB Aittareya Brahmana
AP Abhidhamma Pitaka
Arth Arthasastra of Kautilya
ASI Archaeological Survey of India (CC Central Circle Series,
DGA Director General Annual Report, FC Frontier Circle
Series, IM Indian Museum List, IO Indian Offi ce List, NC
Northern Circle Series, SC Southern Circle Series, WC
Western Circle Series)
BDCRI Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society
JBNHS Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society
Kir Kiratarjuniyam of Bharavi
Mbh Mahabharata
PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA
PRS Proceedings of the Royal Society, London
RV Rig Veda
ShB Shatapatha Brahmana
TB Taittiriya Brahmana
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TIMETABLE OF MAJOR PERIODS AND DYNASTIES (STYLES)
IN INDIAN ART HISTORY
Date
(by rough estimation)
Period/Dynasty Main infl uence Example in Stone
8000–2500 B.C.E. Neolithic Entire subcontinent Flint tools
2600–1750 B.C.E. Harappa (Indus Valley
culture; Bronze Age)
Indus Valley, Gujarat,
Punjab, doab
Seals
1750–1200 B.C.E. post-Harappan Indus Valley, Gujarat,
Punjab, doab
1050–450 B.C.E. Painted Grey Ware
(Iron Age)
Pakistan, northern
India
800–200 B.C.E. Northern Black Polished
Ware (Iron Age)
Pakistan, northern
India
Fortifi cations (e.g. Rajgir)
700–200 B.C.E. Megalithic period
(Iron Age)
Southern India Megalithic tombs
326–185 B.C.E. Maurya Northern India Free-standing pillars
(e.g. Sarnath)
185–75 B.C.E. Shunga Madhya Pradesh,
Bihar, West Bengal
Stupa railing at Bharhut
100 B.C.E.–50 C.E. Shaka-Parthian Ancient Gandhara
(Bactria, Pakistan,
NW India)
Double-headed Eagle
shrine (Sirkap, Taxila)
225–400 Ikshvaku (Late Andhra) Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa
Stupa’s (e.g.
Nagarjunakonda)
100 B.C.E.–400 C.E. Kushana, Gandhara
style
Ancient Gandhara
(Bactria, Pakistan)
Hellenistic Buddha
images
0–300 Kushana, Mathura
style
Uttar Pradesh Stupa railings and
gateways (Mathura
district)
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Date
(by rough estimation)
Period/Dynasty Main infl uence Example in Stone
100 B.C.E.–200 C.E. Satavahana (Early
Andhra in A.P.)
Deccan, Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh
Great Stupa’s
(Amaravati, Sanchi),
railing of Mahabodhi
temple (Bodhgaya)
400–600 Gandhara Swat Valley,
Afghanistan
Portable shrines
300–800 Gupta, post-Gupta North India Dashavatara temple
(Deogarh), Mahabodhi
temple (Bodhgaya)
250–500 Vakataka Central Deccan Buddhist cave
monasteries (Ajanta)
520–600 Kalachuri Maharashtra, west
Deccan
Shiva Cave (Elephanta
Island)
550–728 Pallava Tamil Nadu Arjuna’s
Penance boulder
(Mammalapuram)
600–850 and 850–1200 Pandya, early and late Tamil Nadu Meenakshi temple
(Madurai)
500–800 Chalukya, early western Karnataka Rock-cut caves (Badami)
600–900 Chalukya, early eastern Andhra Pradesh Bhairavakonda Hill
caves (Kottapalle)
800–1000 Nolamba Karnataka Bhoganandishvara
temple (Nandi)
750–982 Rashtrakuta Northern Deccan Kailashanatha temple
(Ellora)
736–11825 Tomar Delhi Sun temple (Surajkund)
300–600 and 625–1003 pre-Karkota and
Karkota
Jammu and Kashmir Sun temple (Martand)
300–850 and 850–1450 Lichchavi and
post-Lichchavi
Nepal Svayambhu stupa and
Kashthamandapa
(Kathmandu)
575–795 Panduvamsi, Nala Orissa Parashurameshvara
temple (Bhubaneswar)
795–1000 Somavamsi Orissa Mukteshvara temple
(Bhubaneshwar)
Table (cont.)
lxx timetable
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Date
(by rough estimation)
Period/Dynasty Main infl uence Example in Stone
1077–1300 Ganga, eastern Orissa Surya temple (Konarak)
750–1200 Pala-Sena Bihar, West Bengal,
Bangladesh
Buddhist university
(Nalanda)
730–1027 Gurjara-Pratihara Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh,
Gujarat, Rajasthan
Hindu temples (Osian)
925–1308 Chandella Madhya Pradesh Erotic sculptures
(Khajuraho)
1000–1100 Paramara Rajasthan Mahanaleshvara temple
(Menal)
950–1304 Solanki Gujarat Vimala-vasahi temple
(Dilwara, Mount Abu)
862–1310 Chola Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Sri Lanka
Rajarajeshvara temple
(Thanjavur)
900–1050 Ganga, western Karnataka Hindu temples (Talakad)
973–1189 Kalyani (“Chalukya”) Karnataka Siddheshvara temple
(Haveri)
900–1200 Chalukya, late eastern Andhra Pradesh Amareshvara temple
(Amaravati)
1050–1325 Kakatiya Andhra Pradesh Hindu temples
(Palampet)
1050–1346 Hoysala Karnataka Chennakeshava temple
(Belur)
1336–1564 Vijayanagar (Sangama,
Tuluva)
Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka
Hazara Rama (Hampi)
1529–1736 Nayak Tamil Nadu Pudu Mandapa
(Madurai)
1206–1526 Delhi Sultanate
(Mamluk, Khalji,
Tughlak, Sayyid and
Lodi sultans)
Northern India Qutb Minar, Red Fort
(Old Delhi)
1480–1767 Malla Nepal, Bengal Jaggannatha dega
(Kathmandu)
1498–1964 Portugese Goa Bom Jesus church (Velha
Goa)
Table (cont.)
timetable lxxi
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Date
(by rough estimation)
Period/Dynasty Main infl uence Example in Stone
1526–1858 Mughal Northern India Taj Mahal (Agra)
1347–1686 Deccani Sultanate
(Bahmani, Shahi)
Deccan Ibrahim Adil Shah’s
tomb (Bijapur)
250 B.C.E.–459 C.E. Anuradhapura, Early Sri Lanka Thuparama stupa
(Anuradhapura)
459–993 Anuradhapura, Late Sri Lanka Abhayagiri Vehera
(Anuradhapura)
1055–1270 Polonnaruwa Sri Lanka Potgul Vehera
(Polonnaruwa)
1357–1815 Kandy Sri Lanka Temple of the Tooth
(Kandy)
1613–1772 and
1772–1857
British trading centres
and British East India
Company
Surat, Chennai,
Calcutta, Mumbai
Banquet Hall (Chennai)
1858–1947 British Raj Entire subcontinent,
except for Nepal
Victoria Terminus
(Mumbai)
1948–present Independency Five independent
states (India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,
Nepal)
Sangath (Ahmedabad),
Bahai Lotus temple
(New Delhi)
Table (cont.)
lxxii timetable
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