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Value chain analysis and managing supply chain costs
Abstract
The study aimed to reveal the effect of value chain analysis (VCA) of internal and external activities to manage and reduce product costs along the supply chain (SC) in industrial facilities in the Red Sea State in Sudan from the point of view of managers, financial managers and accountants there, from the basic dimensions of value chain analysis represented by VCA of suppliers' activities, VCA for product design activities, VCA for production activities, and VCA for customer activities. The supply chain costs are defined in just-in-time (JIT), target costing (TC), and activity-based costing (ABC). The study revealed that analyzing VCA contributes to managing and reducing product costs along the supply chain by exploiting the interrelationships and overlap between the value chain analysis and the supply chain for each supplier's production and customer activities.
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Received: 2022 November th 24 The products of the economic (industrial) entities operating in the Iraqi environment face intense competition from imported products, due to several problems, the most important of which is the high production costs and the lack of interest by these units in studying the market, as well as the lack of government support in the manufacturing sector and sinking the local markets with imported products at a price and specifications. Competitiveness, in addition to the reliance of these entities on traditional systems in determining the costs of their products, as these systems do not provide appropriate information for pricing decisions, which requires studying and analyzing these problems and working to address them by relying on modern technologies that enable industrial economic entities to compete. The research is based on the statement of the knowledge bases of activity-based costing technology and the study and analysis of the role of activity-based costing technology in reducing costs.(ABC) in the research sample (Al-Raklim Factory) contributed to reducing costs with an amount of (67420602) only sixty-seven million four hundred twenty thousand six hundred and two Iraqi dinars for the main activities of the factory through distributing the indirect costs of these activities in a more fair and objective manner, as these costs are not related to the Rakelim factory, taking into account maintaining the required level of product quality and maximizing the level of customer benefit .
Abstract: This study aimed at determining the role of
activity-based costing system for cost control in Saudi
manufacturing firms that produce "Raw Materials". The data
was collected from 154 staff members with a job title of
general managers, assistant managers, financial managers,
and accountants working at Saudi manufacturing Firms that
produce "Raw Materials" and listed in Saudi Stock Exchange
and use ABC system at the end of July 2021 using a
questionnaire that was developed and distributed to them.
This study revealed that the ABC system; achieves
production efficiency, increases the effectiveness of control
over administrative and financial costs, and helps managers
make cost and price decisions. The Researchers
recommended that other Saudi manufacturing firms adopt
the ABC system to reduce the cost of their products, greater
production efficiency, and raise profitability.
Keywords: Activity-Based Costing system, Cost control,
Saudi manufacturing firms, Saudi Stock Exchange.
This research aims to apply the concepts of the target cost and the supply chain as tools to analyze and lean the
cost of activities in Najaf Cement factory, where the traditional cost accounting system applied in the factory is no longer
able to provide the appropriate information for management to make needed decisions to enhance customer satisfaction
in light of the competition by the Domestic and imported products. The research included discussion of the literature on
the related concepts about how to use the target cost within the supply chain to lean costs, to drawing up a basis for
conducting the applied study based on the data of Najaf Cement Factory as a case study of the cement factories in Iraq
under competition among them. Because the case study factory faces the problem of the high price compared with similar
products in the local market and seeks to reduce costs and achieve efficiency and effectiveness in using its resources .The
most important results of the research are that the Iraqi industrial companies should abandon the traditional system and
the total cost method in the costing, and begin to implement the target cost within the supply chain activities to lean
product costs and achieve customer satisfaction in the light of competition.
Target Costing (TC) has been widely recognised by many organisations worldwide, but the inclusion of Supply Chain Management (SCM) when implementing TC is ambiguous. This study examined the implementation of TC through the mediation role of SCM based on the company strategies employed in the Saudi Arabian food and beverage industry. A questionnaire link was posted to 248 companies that were selected from a total of 791 companies, in which 186 responses were received and used for this study. The results revealed that the suppliers' participation had a significant mediating role in the relationship between price-based TC processes and TC financial and non-financial implications. Moreover, customers' inputs displayed a significant mediating role in the relationship between value-based TC processes and TC financial and non-financial implications. Interestingly, these effects were found to be different among companies adopting the confrontation strategy and those adopting non-confrontation strategies, namely cost leadership and differentiation. This study addressed the significant gap in the literature regarding the mediating role of SCM when implementing the TC technique. From a methodological perspective, this study provides a new method of analysis that combines the use of the Rasch Measurement Model (RMM) and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) for management accounting research.
Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) has become a standard approach for analyzing complex inter-relationships between observed and latent variables. Researchers appreciate the many advantages of PLS-SEM such as the possibility to estimate very complex models and the method’s flexibility in terms of data requirements and measurement specification.
This practical open access guide provides a step-by-step treatment of the major choices in analyzing PLS path models using R, a free software environment for statistical computing, which runs on Windows, macOS, and UNIX computer platforms. Adopting the R software’s SEMinR package, which brings a friendly syntax to creating and estimating structural equation models, each chapter offers a concise overview of relevant topics and metrics, followed by an in-depth description of a case study. Simple instructions give readers the “how-tos” of using SEMinR to obtain solutions and document their results. Rules of thumb in every chapter provide guidance on best practices in the application and interpretation of PLS-SEM.
Background
Insufficient cost data and limited capacity constrains the understanding of the actual resources required for effective TB control. This study used process maps and time-driven activity-based costing to document TB service delivery processes. The analysis identified the resources required to sustain TB services in Zimbabwe, as well as several opportunities for more effective and efficient use of available resources.
Methods
A multi-disciplinary team applied time-driven activity-based costing (TDABC) to develop process maps and measure the cost of clinical pathways used for Drug Susceptible TB (DS-TB) at urban polyclinics, rural district and provincial hospitals, and community based targeted screening for TB (Tas4TB). The team performed interviews and observations to collect data on the time taken by health care worker-patient pairs at every stage of the treatment pathway. The personnel’s practical capacity and capacity cost rates were calculated on five cost domains. An MS Excel model calculated diagnostic and treatment costs.
Findings
Twenty-five stages were identified in the TB care pathway across all health facilities except for community targeted screening for TB. Considerable variations were observed among the facilities in how health care professionals performed client registration, taking of vital signs, treatment follow-up, dispensing medicines and processing samples.
The average cost per patient for the entire DS-TB care was USD324 with diagnosis costing USD69 and treatment costing USD255. The average cost for diagnosis and treatment was higher in clinics than in hospitals (USD392 versus USD256). Nurses in clinics were 1.6 time more expensive than in hospitals. The main cost components were personnel (USD130) and laboratory (USD119). Diagnostic cost in Tas4TB was twice that of health facility setting (USD153 vs USD69), with major cost drivers being demand creation (USD89) and sputum specimen transportation (USD5 vs USD3).
Conclusion
TDABC is a feasible and effective costing and management tool in low-resource settings. The TDABC process maps and treatment costs revealed several opportunities for innovative improvements in the NTP under public health programme settings. Re-engineering laboratory testing processes and synchronising TB treatment follow-up with antiretroviral treatments could produce better and more uniform TB treatments at significantly lower cost in Zimbabwe.
This paper aims to explore effect of supply chain members’ costs change on participants of the network. On one perspective, it explores when there is a cost change to a firm, how other firms are affected and who bear(s) the most effect. On the other perspective, it investigates how an individual firm’s performance is affected by the other members in its network and whose cost change would impose a most significant effect on its profit.
Provides a nontechnical introduction to the partial least squares (PLS) approach. As a logical base for comparison, the PLS approach for structural path estimation is contrasted to the covariance-based approach. In so doing, a set of considerations are then provided with the goal of helping the reader understand the conditions under which it might be reasonable or even more appropriate to employ this technique. This chapter builds up from various simple 2 latent variable models to a more complex one. The formal PLS model is provided along with a discussion of the properties of its estimates. An empirical example is provided as a basis for highlighting the various analytic considerations when using PLS and the set of tests that one can employ is assessing the validity of a PLS-based model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The applicability of integrated supply chain cost management and the insights this generates are illustrated for the optimization of a simplified, generic retail supply chain.
This paper provides a descriptive and qualitative analysis of how cost management practices should be redesigned to accommodate a shift from traditional management to value chain management strategies. First, the drawbacks of using traditional cost management techniques will be examined. Second, the advantages and disadvantages of using activity-based management will be explored. Finally, target costing and its impact on supply chain performance will be investigated through case studies. Our case studies illustrate how companies achieved better supply chain performance through integrated cost management techniques.
Purpose: We present partial least squares (PLS) as an evolving approach to structural equation modeling (SEM), highlight its advantages and limitations and provide an overview of recent research on the method across various fields.
Design/methodology/approach: In this review article we merge literatures from the marketing, management, and management information systems fields to present the state-of-the art of PLS-SEM research. Furthermore, we meta-analyze recent review studies to shed light on popular reasons for PLS-SEM usage.
Findings: PLS-SEM has experienced increasing dissemination in a variety of fields in recent years with non-normal data, small sample sizes and the use of formative indicators being the most prominent reasons for its application. Recent methodological research has extended PLS-SEM’s methodological toolbox to accommodate more complex model structures or handle data inadequacies such as heterogeneity.
Research limitations/implications: While research on the PLS-SEM method has gained momentum during the last decade, there are ample research opportunities on subjects such as mediation or multigroup analysis, which warrant further attention.
Originality/value: This article provides an introduction to PLS-SEM for researchers that have not yet been exposed to the method. The article is the first to meta-analyze reasons for PLS-SEM usage across the marketing, management, and management information systems fields. Our cross-disciplinary review of recent research on the PLS-SEM method also makes this article useful for researchers interested in advanced concepts.
Purpose
Value chain analysis (VCA) can expose strategic and operational misalignments within chains, and the consequential misallocation of resources, and hence opportunities for improvements which create value and economic sustainability. This paper's purpose is to argue why and how VCA needs to integrate the social and environmental aspects of sustainability in pursuit of sustainable competitive advantage.
Design/methodology/approach
Based on a review of existing methods and case studies, the paper proposes three dimensions of VCA, which illustrate the flaws in narrow tools, and the need to broaden the boundaries of VCA, the interpretation of “value” and relationships along the chain in order to highlight opportunities for creating sustainable value chains.
Findings
To date VCA has largely focused on economic sustainability and paid inadequate attention to social and environment consequences of firm behaviour and the (re) allocation of resources within and between firms in the chain. This risks producing recommendations which either ignore the competitive advantage offered from improving environmental management and social welfare, or have such detrimental external consequences as to render any proposals unsustainable when exposed to government or broader (public) scrutiny.
Research limitations/implications
VCA variants need to be developed which incorporate all three pillars of sustainability. Some initial experiences are presented and ideas for future research and applications proposed.
Practical implications
The development of sustainable VCA tools should identify business opportunities consistent with Porter and Kramer's imperative for value chains to create shared value between business and society.
Originality/value
Adopting the broader dimensions identified will allow VCA to become more widely applicable, and more relevant in business scenarios where there is a growing imperative to include social and environmental impacts into “mainstream” business strategies.
The growing interest in Structured Equation Modeling (SEM) techniques and recognition of their importance in IS research suggests the need to compare and contrast different types of SEM techniques so that research designs can be appropriately selected. After assessing the extent to which these techniques are currently being used in IS research, the article presents a running example which analyzes the same dataset via three very different statistical techniques. It then compares two classes of SEM: covariance-based SEM and partial-least-squaresbased SEM. Finally, the article discusses linear regression models and offers guidelines as to when SEM techniques and when regression techniques should be used. The article concludes with heuristics and rule of thumb thresholds to guide practice, and a discussion of the extent to which practice is in accord with these guidelines.
Purpose
The relationship between just-in-time (JIT) and supply chain disruption risk is unclear from the existing literature. This paper aims to investigate the impact of supplier JIT and customer JIT on supplier disruption risk (SDR), internal disruption risk (IDR), and customer disruption risk (CDR) and explore the moderating role of supply chain centralization.
Design/methodology/approach
Based on survey data collected from 213 manufacturing firms in China, this study employs structural equation modeling with SmartPLS 3.0 to test the main proposed model and applies an ordinary least square regression to test the moderating effect.
Findings
The results demonstrate that supplier JIT is positively related to SDR and negatively associated with IDR. Customer JIT is positively associated with CDR but has no significant effect on IDR. The results also show that SDR and CDR lead to IDR and mediate the relationship between supplier JIT, customer JIT, and IDR. In addition, supply chain centralization amplifies the positive impacts of supply chain JIT on SDR and IDR.
Originality/value
This study makes two main contributions. First, the study provides a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between supply chain JIT and disruption risk. Second, the study addresses that implementing JIT in a supply chain with a centralized decision-making structure leads to a higher level of disruption risk.
In distribution channels, the growing popularity of downstream retailers is a cause of both delight and despair for their upstream suppliers. While such retailers can generate more sales for the suppliers, they may also have higher leverage during any bargaining. This paper uses an analytical model to explore how a supplier's preference about the structure of her retail distribution channel is shaped by (1) the level of substitutability between the end products sold by the retailers, (2) the correlation between the popularity of the retailers and their bargaining power, and (3) the intensity of competition from other channels. In our base model, a monopolist supplier sells two substitutable products to two retailers who then sell to end customers. The two retailers are asymmetric in their ability to attract customers and their bargaining power during any contract negotiation with the supplier is proportional to that attraction potential. Analysis of the model and its extension reveals a number of robust insights, irrespective of whether the negotiation between the channel partners is about profit allocation or about wholesale price. First, an ideal situation for the supplier is that less asymmetric retailers sell differentiated products while more asymmetric ones sell similar products. That is, a supplier whose products are quite substitutable should not be too concerned about a dominant retail partner, but one selling differentiated products should be worried. Second, a stronger correlation between the retailers' popularity and their bargaining power makes the retail structure with less asymmetric retailers preferable from the supplier's perspective. Finally, the presence of competing channels selling substitutable variants significantly impacts the supplier's preference about its own channel structure, and a high level of channel competition reverses some of the above findings. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Additive Manufacturing (AM) has received a high interest in various applications, especially Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) technology. As for any industrial process, cost is one of the most important key performance indicators where good estimation and management have a direct impact on the competitiveness of the enterprise. Therefore, a detailed analysis of the current AM processes cost is essential. This paper has two main contributions, firstly, a critical analysis of the existing cost models in PBF, and metal-based material AM technologies by illustrating their main cost drivers and formulas. Secondly, an Activity-Based Costing (ABC) model is proposed with the aim to cover all important characteristics of AM process. The main cost drivers in AM process are exploited in this model to support the quotation of new product at earlier stages of AM project negotiation. The proposed costing model is part of a global knowledge-based framework for decision aid in AM project.KeywordsCost modelCost estimationCost driversActivity based costingAdditive manufacturing
Competitive advantage can be seen as the superiority of some market participants to properly use resources and utilize key competencies to deliver greater value than competitors, without compromising product quality and functionality. In that sense, accounting, especially management accounting, successfully responds to managers’ needs for information that will be their adequate support in strategy implementation. Lean concept and target costing are just some of the concepts whose strategic orientation can be a good support to managers. The aim of this paper is to point out the similarities and differences between lean concept and target costing and to show on a practical example how these concepts bring business improvements in supply chain.
Purpose: To evaluate time-driven activity-based costing (TDABC) in interventional radiology for image-guided vascular malformation treatment as an example.
Materials and methods: Retrospective analysis was performed on consecutive vascular malformation treatment cycles [67 venous malformations (VMs) and 11 arteriovenous malformations (AVMs)] in a university hospital in 2018. All activities were integrated with a process map, and spent resources were assigned accordingly. TDABC uses 2 parameters: (i) practical capacity cost rate, calculated as 80% of theoretical capacity, and (ii) time consumption of each resource determined by interviews (23 items). Thereby, the total costs were calculated. Treatment cycles were modified according to identified resource waste and TDABC-guided negotiations with health insurance.
Results: Total personnel time required was higher for AVM (1,191 min) than for VM (637 min) treatment. The interventional procedure comprised the major part (46%) of personnel time required in AVM, whereas it comprised 19% in VM treatment. Materials represented the major cost type in AVM (75%) and VM (45%) treatments. TDABC-based treatment process modification led to a decrease in personnel time need of 16% and 30% and a cost reduction of 5.5% and 15.7% for AVM and VM treatments, respectively. TDABC-guided cost reduction and TDABC-informed negotiations improved profit from -56% to +40% and from +41% to +69% for AVM and VM treatments, respectively.
Conclusions: TDABC facilitated the precise costing of interventional radiologic treatment cycles and optimized internal processes, cost reduction, and revenues. Hence, TDABC is a promising tool to determine the denominator of interventional radiology's value.
Drawing upon three strategies of demand-driven supply chain intelligence, this study examines the effects of three factors of demand-driven supply chain intelligence, including customer knowledge management capability, knowledge sharing, and cooperation, on a JIT supply chain, which is operationalized by production planning, sourcing, and logistics. It also assesses the effect of a JIT supply chain on operational performance. Employing path analysis on the data collected from manufacturing firms, this study offers empirical evidence of the pivotal role of demand-driven supply chain intelligence in achieving a JIT supply chain and its resultant performance implications. The theoretical and practical contributions are addressed.
An assembly-type just-in-time (JIT) supply chain system is composed of a main serial supply chain and several branching serial supply chains merging to the main supply chain. Under the assumption of constant demand rate, the replenishment problem in the assembly-type JIT supply chain systems can be formulated as a mixed-integer non-linear programming problem. We conduct thorough theoretical analysis on the properties of the objective function value curve in this study. Following our theoretical analysis, we propose a search algorithm that effectively solves an optimal solution. Our numerical experiments show that the average run time of the proposed algorithm grows in a linear order of the problem size, and the proposed algorithm may serve as an efficient solution approach for the decision-maker.
Measurement of the degree of novelty is extremely important to avoid risk and carry out a sound innovation process. This research attempts to offer a different conceptual framework to understand and measure the degree of novelty of an innovation. It is based on Porter's Value Chain approach and proposes a process-oriented model that considers the possible impact of a particular technology on the discrete business processes in a firm's value chain. A new technology employed by companies is expected to impact the value chain activities by requiring reorganization in the current value chain of the company. The 2-additive Choquet integral is used to measure how such impacts will be reflected on the degree of novelty of that technology. An application of the proposed model to technology alternatives for the energy sources of electrical automobiles is presented. The model is applied in a battery manufacturing company. Technology alternatives to be measured in terms of the degree of novelty consist of the nickel metal hydride battery, the lithium-ion battery and fuel cell technologies. The results indicate that fuel cell technology has the highest degree of novelty among the three energy sources for electrical automobiles.
Abstract
Purpose – In recent years, governments, donors, and NGOs have increasingly embraced value chain
development (VCD) for stimulating economic growth and combating rural poverty. In line with the rise in
interest, there has been a proliferation of guides for VCD. The purpose of this paper is to present the
results of a review of 11 guides for value chain along six different dimensions, ranging from objectives
and value chain definitions to monitoring impact. The paper concludes with suggestions for the use of
guides based on local needs and context, and recommendations for future guide development.
Design/methodology/approach – The review compares the concepts and methods endorsed and
it assesses the strengths and limitations of the guides for steering development practice.
Findings – Overall, the guides provide a useful framework for understanding markets and engaging
with chain stakeholders, with a strong emphasis on strengthening institutions and achieving
sustainability of interventions. However, the guides often lack discussions on the conditions necessary
at different levels for VCD to advance development objectives and achieve that sustainability.
The guides are designed to be implemented largely independently of the specific context, in which the
chain is situated, despite the major implications context has for the design of interventions and overall
success of the chain. Attention to mutual learning, whether related to tool design or the outcomes and
impacts of VCD interventions, is limited.
Research limitations/implications – More critical reflection and debate is needed on the design
of guides for VCD. The authors suggest three areas for this reflection and debate: concepts, methods,
and tools for addressing the needs of the poor in value chains; tools for addressing variations in the
context; and mechanisms for mutual learning on the design and implementation of VCD.
Originality/value – The paper concludes with various recommendations for guide authors and
donors that support VCD.
Keywords Small and medium-sized enterprises, Methods, Business environment,
Developing countries, Business performance, Rural economies, Value chains, Development practice,
Value chain development, Guides
Inter-organizational cost management is a strategic cost management approach to managing costs that span organizational boundaries in supply chains. Drawing on the resource-based view of the firm, we develop a model to predict which inter-related resources might enable companies to manage inter-organizational costs. We test this model using a survey of managerial accountants whose organizations are part of a supply chain. Using structural equation modeling, we conclude that the resources of internal electronic integration, external electronic integration, internal cost management, and absorptive capacity play significant direct and indirect roles in the development of an inter-organizational cost management (IOCM) resource. We find that these resources are inter-related and together are useful in enabling companies to ultimately benefit from managing inter-organizational costs. We find in particular the importance of relational resources associated with absorptive capacity in the development of an IOCM resource. Our research contributes to theory and practice by explaining how specific resources can be combined in allowing companies to better manage inter-organizational costs.
Purpose – Interorganizational cost management among companies can lead to significant cost reductions. However, the determinants of the implementation and long-term use of open book accounting as a tool in interorganizational cost management still remain unclear. We contribute to the academic literature by examining the influence of different determinants on the propensity to use open book accounting.
Design/methodology/approach – We conduct an experiment and use a covariance-based structural equation model to analyze the influence of the amount of the initially offered cost information, the offer of a relation-specific asset, and the relative power structure. The model introduced in this paper also integrates aspects of user acceptance that are derived from the Technology Acceptance Model.
Findings – The results demonstrate that both groups of variables have a significant effect on the willingness to use open book accounting. We also show that users of a management device are influenced in their choice by the perceived ease of use of the instrument; yet the extent to which open book accounting can help them achieve their goals (perceived usefulness) has an even stronger influence.
Research limitations/implications – Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the determinants that lead to the successful implementation of open book accounting as an interorganizational cost management tool, and help companies to avoid pitfalls during the implementation process.
Originality/value – This is the first study to analyze the simultaneous influence of different situational and attitudinal determinants on the propensity to engage in interorganizational cost information exchange.
The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.
Purpose
To develop an innovative methodology to apply lean value chain improvement techniques to a complete supply chain for a food product from farm to consumer.
Design/methodology/approach
Action research based on a UK case study involving farmers, a food processor and a major retailer.
Findings
Value stream analysis (VCA) highlights significant opportunities to improve supply chain performance, profitability and relationships.
Research limitations/implications
Lean/VCA methodologies can be readily applied to the retail and processor elements of food chains. However, further research is required to apply the concepts to farm operations.
Practical implications
Subsequent to this research, VCA techniques have been increasingly adopted in UK agri‐food sectors including meat, dairy, cereals and horticulture.
Originality/value
Application of lean concepts and VCA in the agri‐food sector. Development of a multi‐echelon supply chain improvement methodology.
Extant studies of open book accounting focus primarily on data disclosure in long-term, committed purchasing arrangements. We extend research beyond that context by exploring the association between open book practices (in terms of nature and uses of disclosed data as well as conditions of data disclosure) and two different purchasing strategies. Three case studies are performed. Results indicate that within market procurement characterized by a transactional purchasing strategy, cost data primarily serve to reduce purchase price. Therefore, data disclosure is limited in scope and scale, occurs primarily during supplier evaluation and selection, and is characterized by an adversarial atmosphere. Incentives for suppliers to open their books focus on short-term tangible gains. Within a hybrid exchange arrangement characterized by a relational purchasing strategy, data disclosure supports cost reduction, e.g., through joint product development, and is more comprehensive. The atmosphere is less adversarial and suppliers reap long-term benefits.
Criteria for evaluating structural equation models with latent variables are defined, critiqued, and illustrated. An overall
program for model evaluation is proposed based upon an interpretation of converging and diverging evidence. Model assessment
is considered to be a complex process mixing statistical criteria with philosophical, historical, and theoretical elements.
Inevitably the process entails some attempt at a reconcilation between so-called objective and subjective norms.
A general formula (α) of which a special case is the Kuder-Richardson coefficient of equivalence is shown to be the mean of
all split-half coefficients resulting from different splittings of a test. α is therefore an estimate of the correlation between
two random samples of items from a universe of items like those in the test. α is found to be an appropriate index of equivalence
and, except for very short tests, of the first-factor concentration in the test. Tests divisible into distinct subtests should
be so divided before using the formula. The index
[`(r)]ij\bar r_{ij}
, derived from α, is shown to be an index of inter-item homogeneity. Comparison is made to the Guttman and Loevinger approaches.
Parallel split coefficients are shown to be unnecessary for tests of common types. In designing tests, maximum interpretability
of scores is obtained by increasing the first-factor concentration in any separately-scored subtest and avoiding substantial
group-factor clusters within a subtest. Scalability is not a requisite.
Activity Based Costing Method As The Basis For Determining Service Rates In The Radiology Unit At Royal Prima Hospital Medan
- T M Arts
- C N Ginting
- R Ginting
Arts, T. M., Ginting, C. N., & Ginting, R. (2023). Activity Based Costing Method As The Basis For Determining Service
Rates In The Radiology Unit At Royal Prima Hospital Medan. International Journal of Health and Pharmaceutical
(IJHP), 3(4), 662-667, https://doi.org/10.51601/ijhp.v3i4.218
Value chain analysis in interfirm relationships: a field study
- H C Dekker
Dekker, H. C. (2003). Value chain analysis in interfirm relationships: a field study. Management Accounting Research, 14(1),
1-23, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1044-5005(02)00067-7
A brief study of value chain and supply chain. Agriculture Development and Economic Transformation in Global Scenario
- S Dubey
- R Singh
- S P Singh
- A Mishra
- N V Singh
Dubey, S., Singh, R., Singh, S. P., Mishra, A., & Singh, N. V. (2020). A brief study of value chain and supply chain.
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Successful strategies for teaching multivariate statistics
- J F Hair
Hair Jr, J. F. (2006). Successful strategies for teaching multivariate statistics. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 7th
International Conference On, 1-5.
Cost Accounting A Managerial Emphasis, Global Edition
- C T Horngren
- S M Datar
- M V Rajan
Horngren, C. T., Datar, S. M., & Rajan, M. V. (2012). Cost Accounting A Managerial Emphasis, Global Edition. Essex, UK:
Pearson Education Limited,