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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
Available online 10 February 2022
1364-0321/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A comprehensive review of stationary energy storage devices for large scale
renewable energy sources grid integration
Abraham Alem Kebede
a
,
b
,
*
, Theodoros Kalogiannis
a
,
**
, Joeri Van Mierlo
a
, Maitane Berecibar
a
a
Mobility, Logistics and Automotive Technology Research Center, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050, Brussel, Belgium
b
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Jimma Institute of Technology, Jimma University, Jimma, 378, Ethiopia
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Energy storage devices
Renewable energy sources
Grid scale
Green energy
Hybrid
Photovoltaic
ABSTRACT
Currently, the energy grid is changing to t the increasing energy demands but also to support the rapid
penetration of renewable energy sources. As a result, energy storage devices emerge to add buffer capacity and to
reinforce residential and commercial usage, as an attempt to improve the overall utilization of the available
green energy. Although various research has been conducted in the eld including photovoltaic and wind ap-
plications, the study on suitability identication of different storage devices for various stationary application
types is still the gap observed which needs further study and verication. The review performed lls these gaps
by investigating the current status and applicability of energy storage devices, and the most suitable type of
storage technologies for grid support applications are identied. Moreover, various technical, economic and
environmental impact evaluation criteria’s are taken into consideration for the identication of their charac-
teristics and potentials. The comprehensive review shows that, from the electrochemical storage category, the
lithium-ion battery ts both low and medium-size applications with high power and energy density re-
quirements. From the electrical storage categories, capacitors, supercapacitors, and superconductive magnetic
energy storage devices are identied as appropriate for high power applications. Besides, thermal energy storage
is identied as suitable in seasonal and bulk energy application areas. With proper identication of the appli-
cation’s requirement and based on the techno-economic, and environmental impact investigations of energy
storage devices, the use of a hybrid solutions with a combination of various storage devices is found to be a viable
solution in the sector.
1. Introduction
Currently, the globe is still fronting a challenge in the sector of en-
ergy with the lack of reliable energy sources at moderate charges and
environmental reparations triggered by polluting energy sources, such
as coal. For mitigation of this problem, countries are adopting various
types of renewable energy sources (RESs). Wind and solar RESs are
predicted to supply 50% of the world’s energy demand by 2050 [1]
while the electricity demand only from the electric vehicles (EVs) is
going to reach a 6% increase i.e. approximately 2 TWh by 2040 of the
total electricity produced [2]. According to the BNEF report of the global
power generation mix, from 1970 to 2017, compared to renewable
sources, fossil fuels have a large share in the generation mix and energy
supply system. However, from 2018 onwards, the energy contribution
share of fossil fuels including coal and gas gets decreased and will fall to
31% by 2050. Moreover, the expected renewable energy sources (hydro,
wind, solar, and others) will have a dominant share accounting for more
than 62%. Among these, solar and wind, in particular, will have a large
generation mix share of around 48%. This makes an exponential growth
of grid support and storage installations around the globe. Conse-
quently, by 2040 (accounting on a 9GW/17 GWh deployed as of 2018)
the market will rise to 1095 GW/2, 850 GWh, making a more than
120-times increase, based on a recent study published by Bloomberg
new energy nance (BNEF) [3].
Fig. 1 shows the forecast of global cumulative energy storage in-
stallations in various countries which illustrates that the need for energy
storage devices (ESDs) is dramatically increasing with the increase of
renewable energy sources. ESDs can be used for stationary applications
in every level of the network such as generation, transmission and,
distribution as well as local industrial and commercial customers.
Nowadays, in addition to the utilization of existing ESDs in stationary
* Corresponding author. Mobility, Logistics and Automotive Technology Research Center, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050, Brussel, Belgium.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: abraham.alem.kebede@vub.be, abraham.kebede@ju.edu.et (A.A. Kebede), theodoros.kalogiannis@vub.be (T. Kalogiannis).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112213
Received 20 October 2021; Received in revised form 22 December 2021; Accepted 29 January 2022
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
2
applications, there is an increased motivation in the use of future
advanced ESDs (Future Li-ion, solid-state batteries, Lithium-Polymer,
Lithium-Sulphur batteries, and Lithium-Metal-Polymer, Metal-ion Bat-
teries, Organic radical batteries, Hybrid Supercapacitors and others [4,
5]. According to the study [6,7] it is stated that for bulky power man-
agement, thermal storage (TES) is proposed as a possible candidate at
the moment. Bulky storage is considered here for higher ranges than
several MW. From the electric and electrochemical ESDs, it is provided
that only ow batteries, Sodium-Sulphur, and Lead Acid found to be
potentially considered to meet these requirements. Besides, for distri-
bution and transmission levels, where the green energy can be
integrated as a source, there are various ESDs that can meet the multi-
disciplinary needs [6,7]. It is important to analyze the current and future
status of the electrical, electrochemical, and thermal ESDs to evaluate
why and how various technologies are suitable for the different func-
tions and power applications. The role of ESDs and importance together
with their requirements that should be fullled are mentioned in
Table 1, for the various power levels, but also the interaction among
them.
The review conducted is different from previous [4,7,9] reports due
to the following reasons. The characteristics study of ESDs is performed
with thorough investigation accompanied by updated and reliable data.
List of abbreviations
ESDs Energy storage devices
EES Electric energy storage
PV Photovoltaic
WT Wind turbine
RESs Renewable energy sources
TES Thermal energy storage
EVs Electric vehicles
BNEF Bloomberg new energy nance
FBES Flow battery energy storage
VRFB Vanadium Redox ow batteries
PSB Polysulphide Bromine ow batteries
Zn Br Zinc Bromine ow batteries
SCES Supercapacitor energy storage
SMES Superconductive magnetic energy storage
STES Sensible thermal energy storage
PCM Latent-phase change material
TCS Thermochemical storage
PHS Pumped hydro storage
CAES Compressed air energy storage
FES Flywheel energy storage
R&D Research and development
PHEV Plugin hybrid electric vehicle
HEV Hybrid electric vehicle
ETES Electric Thermal Energy Storage
BTM Before the meter
FTM Front the meter
O&M Operation and maintenance
SGRE Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy
CO
2
Carbon dioxide
V2G Vehicle to grid
G2V Grid to vehicle
TRL Technology maturity
MRL Manufacturing maturity
Li-ion Lithium-ion
Pb-Acid Lead-acid
Ni–Cd Nickel-cadmium
Ni-MH Nickel-metal hydride
Na–S Sodium-sulphur
NaNiCl
2
Sodium nickel chloride
Li–S Lithium-Sulphur batteries
M-ion Metal-ion Batteries
LTO Lithium-titanate-oxide
ORB Organic radical batteries
MW Megawatt
MWh Megawatt hour
kW Kilowatt
kWh Kilowatt hour
Wh/kg Watthour per kilogram
W/kg Wattper kilogram
kWh/m
3
Kilowatt hour per cubic meter
kW/m
3
Kilowatt per cubic meter
ms Milli-second
hr Hour
Si Silicon
Sn Tin
Fig. 1. Prediction of global energy storage installation by 2040 [3].
A.A. Kebede et al.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
3
Graphic analysis and comparison are performed with efcient and
standard performance evaluation parameters considering all economic,
technical, and environmental matrices. Regarding the economic aspect,
besides the capital cost, the operating and maintenance cost analysis has
been performed which is not usually observed in previous reviews.
Moreover, advanced features of ESDs are also assessed in the review.
The contributions made include the following: Different ESDs re-
quirements for different application types are indicated and more
emphasis are given to RESs grid integration application area. The
graphical analysis of the most tting ESDs is performed for respective
services. With proper identication of the application’s requirement and
based on the economic, technical, and environmental impact in-
vestigations of storage devices, it is found that the use of the hybrid
solution of ESDs is proposed as a feasible solution for RESs and other
stationary application areas.
The remaining sections are ordered as follows: Section 2 describes
the state-of-the-art review of energy storage devices. Section 3 discussed
the graphical analysis of ESDs and their selection for typical applica-
tions. Section 4 presented the discussion part including future advances
of ESDs, and nally, the conclusion is presented in Section 5.
1.1. Methodology used for selection and categorization of ESDs
With consideration of the types of energy gathered, ESDs can be
grouped into ve major groups, i.e., electrochemical, electrical, thermal,
chemical, and mechanical energy storage systems. From the diverse type
of ESDs, electrochemical energy storage including, lithium-ion (Li-ion),
lead-acid (Pb-Acid), nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH), sodium-sulphur
(Na–S), nickel-cadmium (Ni–Cd), sodium nickel chloride (NaNiCl
2
),
and ow battery energy storage (FBES) of Polysulphide Bromine ow
batteries (PSB), Vanadium Redox ow batteries (VRFB), Zinc Bromine
ow batteries (Zn Br) are found. Capacitor, superconducting magnetic
energy storage (SMES), supercapacitor energy storage (SCES) are cate-
gorized as electric ESDs. On the other hand, sensible thermal storage
(STES), latent phase-change material (PCM), thermochemical storage
(TCS) are categorized under thermal storage devices. Flywheel energy
storage (FES), compressed air energy storage (CAES) and Pumped hydro
storage (PHS), are among the common mechanical storage devices. All
these storage devices are designated based on the convenience of tech-
nical features of the specic power and specic energy, power, and
energy density, lifespan, efciency, cost, technological maturity,
discharge time, response time, power rating, and environmental in-
uences, and capital cost in terms of power, energy costs and mainte-
nance & operating costs. Considering the RESs application requirements
related to ESDs characteristics, mainly the electrochemical, electrical,
and thermal storage technologies are focused on this review.
A review is performed to understand the pros and cons of different
ESDs and their respective potentials in grid-scale services. Therefore, the
application potentials and characteristics (mainly in terms of economic,
technical, and environmental impact) of ESDs have been evaluated by
using updated and reliable data with graphic-based comparison of ESDs
in terms of their merits and viable selection criteria. Mainly, the
following procedures are followed for the selection of the most appro-
priate type of ESDs in grid-scale RESs applications.
- Collection of the most recent and reliable characteristics data of ESDs
from journals, websites, datasheets, etc.
- Selection of reliable performance indices including specic power
and specic energy, power and energy density, lifespan, efciency,
cost, technological maturity, discharge time, response time, power
rating, and environmental inuences, and capital power and energy
costs and operating & maintenance costs.
- Use of graphical-based analysis and comparison for evaluation of
application potentials of ESDs in grid-scale applications.
- Interpretation of the result analysis
- Identication of ESDs category (application area requirement) using
graphical comparison results.
In general, a comprehensive review has been conducted with a
thorough investigation of previous studies of storage technologies and
collection of reliable and recent data. A state-of-the-art review is done
for the understanding of the status and features of each ESDs. Followed
by a graphical analysis of reliable data using the standard performance
evaluation indices. Based on the graphical analysis, result interpretation
is performed, and key ndings are summarized. Finally, the most tting
ESDs for RESs integration are identied and a hybrid combination of
ESDs is proposed as a viable solution.
For proper selection of the most tting ESDs, the type of function-
alities of each ESDs corresponding to standard requirements, which type
of services can be provided, and which type of characteristics the ESDs
should possess for every application and functionality should be clearly
dened.
The graphical analysis and characteristics of the selected ESDs pre-
sented in section 3.1 facilitate the choice of the most tting ESDs type
for a representative applications sector.
2. State of the art review on energy storage devices
The authors performed an investigation on the requirements that
several storage applications for grid support have, as well as the ESDs
that can be used to meet them. To begin with, energy storage can have
several functions in order to support the grid in all power levels. In the
transmission system, supply and demand can be balanced by using a
centralized storage system with seasonal to hourly variations and
Table 1
The energy storage role in energy supply scheme [8,9].
Energy storage role
Function Centralized
storage and
transmission
system
The
distribution
system and
regional
storage
Consumer
(building
and
residential
level)
Balance
between
supply and
demand
Seasonal/
weekly/daily/
hourly
variations
Large
geographical
imbalances
Variable
electricity
generation
resulted from
intermittent
nature of wind
(WT) and solar
(PV)
Daily/hourly
variations
Peak saving
Daily
variations
Distribution –
moving
energy
Voltage and
frequency
control
Additional peak
production to
the classic
power plants
Power market
International
market
Voltage and
frequency
control
Power market
Aggregation
of small
amounts of
stored energy
to meet
distribution
needs
(capacity
problems and
loss
reduction)
Energy
efciency
improvement
Improved
productivity in
the globe
energy mix
with time-shift
Storage and
load control
for improved
performance
in distribution
system
Augmented
value of
energy
production
and
utilization,
and alteration
in behaviors,
A.A. Kebede et al.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
4
especially can support the intermittent energy production from the
green sources. Also, centralized storage in transmission can help with
voltage and frequency regulation, and generally for efciency im-
provements with time-shift. In lower power levels, in distribution and
consumption ranges, ESDs can support with respectively lower energy
densities, for daily and hourly variations or peak shaving and improve
the system’s efciency. A brief overview of different ESDs and their
characteristics are also presented. A complete classication of various
ESDs types investigated is presented in Fig. 2.
In the review paper, various types of energy storage devices have
been investigated. However, more emphasis is given to the study of the
characteristics of electrochemical, electrical, and thermal energy storage
systems.
2.1. Electrochemical technologies
From the most utilized electrochemical sources (Table 2), Li-ion
batteries gain interest in storage installations, accounted for more than
85% of new energy storage distributions in 2016. Regardless of being
one of the most preferred storage medium, it is well recognized that a
transition to the decarbonized network is requesting more than a single
energy storage technology [5,10,11]. Li-ion batteries are accounted for
the furthermost of electrochemical storage projects. This is due to the
rapid and continuous integration of the Li-ion batteries to various
market’s power levels, from personal apparatus to electromobility and
industrial storage, which also lead to a decrease in the price of the Li-ion
battery pack over 85% in the past decade [12]. With the current R&D
and the direction of recent investments, novel technologies are about to
emerge and support in a more reliable and powerful extend the daily
demands, hence the battery pack prices are expected to further decrease
and their usage on stationary applications, proportionally, to further
increase. However, several challenges still need to be tackled consid-
ering the battery integration to energy storage such as the prolonged
duration and clean storage, for which a wide range of alternative tech-
nologies could offer a cost-effective and reliable solution. Inconse-
quence, Li-ion based storage devices are limited or overdesigned for
certain power and energy density applications. Moreover, the efcient
performance of electric and electrochemical energy storage devices are
evaluated for a certain type of applications [13]. The main technical
features of the electrochemical energy storage devices are described as
follows.
2.1.1. Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries
Li-ion batteries are commonly characterized by possessing high
energy and power density which makes it potentially suitable in both
transportation and stationary applications [14–18]. These features are
dominantly expressed in terms of different performance parameters. The
key technical features of Li-ion battery includes the specic energy of
75–250 (Wh/kg), specic power of 150–315 (W/kg), round trip ef-
ciency of 85–95 (%), service life 5–15 (years), and self-discharge rate of
0.1–0.3 (%) [19]. The Li-ion battery possesses high specic energy and
power which results in light weight property. This makes the battery
suitable in light weight applications [18,19].
2.1.2. Lead-acid (Pb-Acid) batteries
Pb-Acid batteries are characterized by moderate round trip efciency
and low cost [14,16,18]. Among the key technical characteristics of
Pb-Acid batteries, the following are commonly used measuring indices.
The specic energy of 30–50 (Wh/kg), and specic power of 75–300
(W/kg), round trip efciency of 70–80 (%), service life 5–15 (years), and
self-discharge rate of 0.1–0.3 (%) [17–19]. The Pb-Acid is found to be
comparable with Li-ion battery in relation to service life and
self-discharge rate [18,19] in addition to its low cost. This makes the
Pb-Acid battery suitable for stationary applications [14].
2.1.3. Sodium sulphur (NaS) batteries
Among the electrochemical storage devices, NaS batteries are found
to be more interesting and emerging [13,18]. There are various tech-
nical parameters used to evaluate the performance of NaS batteries.
These are specic energy of 150–240 (Wh/kg), specic power of
150–230 (W/kg), round trip efciency of 80–90 (%), service life of 15
(years), and self-discharge rate of ~0 (%) [18,19]. Among the specied
parameters, NaS has large specic energy which makes it different from
other storage devices. This makes the battery suitable in high specic
energy demanding applications [18].
2.1.4. Sodium nickel chloride (NaNiCl
2
) batteries
Electrochemical ESDs like NaNiCl
2
batteries can be used in station-
ary storage applications [15,16]. Similar to previous battery storage
technologies, the technical characteristics of NaS batteries are evaluated
by different researchers and quantied as follows. The specic energy of
100–120 (Wh/kg), specic power of 150–200 (W/kg), round trip ef-
ciency of 80–90 (%), service life of 10–15 (years), and self-discharge rate
of moderate are found [16–18].
2.1.5. Nickel metal hybrid (Ni-MH) batteries
Ni-MH storage technologies was among the popular batteries used in
the transportation sector of both plugin hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)
Fig. 2. Classication of storage devices.
A.A. Kebede et al.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
5
and hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) [13,17,19]. However, nowadays
Li-ion battery gets dominant in the transportation sector with the pro-
vision of high power and energy density characteristics as mentioned in
section 2.1.1. The technical performance of Ni-MH was investigated by
various researchers and their characteristics are summarized as: specic
energy of 70–100 (Wh/kg), specic power of 200–300 (W/kg), round
trip efciency of 70 (%), the service life of 5–10 (years), and high
self-discharge rate studied by authors [15–17].
2.1.6. Nickel–cadmium (Ni–Cd) batteries
In addition to the aforementioned storage technologies, Ni–Cd bat-
teries have their contributions in stationary energy storage applications.
Ni–Cd batteries relatively have a higher specic power, but it is known
with a higher self-discharge rate [14,15]. The 50–75 (Wh/kg) of specic
energy, and 150–300 (W/kg) of specic power, round trip efciency of
70 (%), the service life of 10–20 (years), and self-discharge rate of
0.03–0.6 [14–16].
2.1.7. Flow batteries
Next to conventional batteries, ow batteries are another type of
electrochemical energy storage devices playing a role in stationary en-
ergy storage applications [18,19]. Polysulphide bromine (PSB), Vana-
dium redox (VRFB), and Zinc bromine (Zn Br) redox ow batteries are
among the types of ow batteries [17–19] utilized as stationary energy
storage devices. The technical characteristics of these ow batteries are
provided in terms of ranges as follows. The specic energy of ow
batteries ranges from 10 to 35 (Wh/kg), specic power of 100–166
(W/kg), round trip efciency of 65–85 (%), service life of 15 (years), and
self-discharge rate of ~0 [17,19]. With these technical features, ow
batteries are considered as an advantage in stationary storage applica-
tions with low self-discharge as well as high service life and fast response
characteristics.
2.2. Thermal energy storage (TES) technologies
TES store the heat energy into insulated repositories and is a tech-
nology in the early commercialization phase. It includes several
different technologies, as thermal energy can be stored in a wide tem-
perature range from −40 ◦C to 400 ◦C, and it is categorized as low-
temperature and high-temperature TES. More precisely, the former in-
cludes aquiferous and cryogenic energy storage whereas the latter sen-
sible, latent and concrete thermal storage [19]. Cryogenic is under
consideration due to its high power and discharge time rates. In the case
of sensible heat, the specic heat of the storage medium is of main
concern and denes the storage capacity of the TES [20]. A limited
storage capacity is obtained if the storage medium is water, and a higher
capacity can be obtained if latent-phase change material (PCMs) are
used, associated with the latent heat of the PCM [21,22]. Thermo-
chemical technology accumulates and discharges heat and cold on de-
mand utilizing various chemical reactants. Sensible heat is currently
commercially available, whereas PCMs and chemicals are mostly under
development. According to different scholars’ reports, the key perfor-
mance features of TES technologies are summarized as follows. The
power capacity ranges from few to 300 MW, energy range of 20–140
MWh, discharge time of hours to more than a days, unlimited cycle life,
some seconds of response time, efciency of 30–60%, energy density of
80–250 Wh/kg, specic energy of 80–250 Wh/kg, specic power of
10–30 W/kg, service life of 10–30 years, and 0.05–1(%) of self-discharge
[5,19,23–25].
One of the most dominant TES technology achieves energy storage
by heating the molten salt by concentrating and reecting the solar
energy. Molten salt energy storage (MSES) can be used for both storage
medium and heat transfer by incorporating smaller storage tanks and
higher temperatures (up to 570 ◦C) [5]. MSES is exceptional for heat
transfer, it is a commercial technology in comparison to the early stage
of other TES, and it has a low cost. However, it deals with corrosive
molten salts which have to be preserved at specic temperatures (not
allowed to freeze) and usually are integrated into concentrating solar
power plants. In general, TES main advantage is the low self-discharge
rate and that appears as a highly economically valuable system how-
ever with a decreased cycle efciency [19,24]. TES are used in an
extensive range of applications including in electricity generation and
load shifting for heat engines cycles or support the peak energy de-
mands. TES also can signicantly improve environmental issues as it can
replace heat and cold production from fossil fuels [25]. Also, based on
the current global power capacity of TES, the main use case is installed
for energy time shift and renewable capacity rming which signies the
importance of this technology to the integration of greener sources [26].
Table 2
Present and future status of ESDs, based on [4,5,19,31–34].
Technologies Sub-technologies Use Energy
installed
capacity
Power
installed
capacity
Electrochemical Sodium-Sulphur
batteries (RT-NaS* &
NaS)
FTM <100
MWh
<10 MW
Lead acid batteries
(Pb-Acid)
FTM/
BTM
up to 10
MWh
Some MW
Sodium Nickel
Chloride batteries
(ZEBRA)
FTM 4 kWh- 10
MWh
Several MW
Lithium-ion batteries
(Li-ion) – Future Li-
ions*
FTM/
BTM
up to 100
MWh
Several MW
Lithium-Sulphur
batteries (Li–S)*
FTM/
BTM
– –
Lithium-Polymer and
Lithium-Metal-
Polymer*
FTM/
BTM
– –
Metal-Air batteries
(M-Air)*
FTM – –
Nickel–Cadmium
(Ni–Cd) batteries
– some MWh some MW
Nickel Metal hybrid
(Ni-MH) batteries
– some MWh some MW
Sodium-ion (Na-ion)
batteries*
FTM/
BTM
– –
Redox ow batteries
Zn Fe (PSB)
FTM <100
MWh
<10 MW
Redox ow batteries
Vanadium (VRFB)
FTM <100
MWh
<10 MW
Redox ow bromine
batteries (Zn Br)
FTM <100
MWh
<10 MW
Solid-state Batteries* FTM/
BTM
– –
Silicon (Si) and tin
(Sn) anode batteries*
FTM/
BTM
– –
Metal-ion Batteries
(M-ion)*
FTM/
BTM
– –
Organic radical
batteries (ORB)*
FTM/
BTM
– –
Electrical Superconducting
Magnetic Energy
Storage (SMES)
FTM 1-10 kWh 100kW-
5MW
Capacitors and
Supercapacitor
FTM 1-5 kWh 100kW-
5MW
Hybrid
Supercapacitors*
Thermal Molten salts FTM 3 GWh 300 MW
Sensible Thermal
Energy Storage
(STES)
FTM 10-50
kWh/t
0,001–10
MW
Latent- Phase Change
Material (PCM)*
FTM 50-150
kWh/t
0,001-1
MW
Thermochemical
Storage (TCS)*
FTM 12-250
kWh/t
0,01-1 MW
Electric Thermal
Energy Storage
(ETES)
FTM 130 MWh 50 MW
A.A. Kebede et al.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
6
2.3. Electrical storage
Another option for energy storage is by using electrical storage de-
vices of SMES, supercapacitors, capacitors, and hybrid supercapacitors.
2.3.1. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
With this technology, the general working principle is that at the
charging phase the electrical energy is stored in the magnetic form using
a coil and a refrigeration mechanism that maintains the coil to a certain
temperature to minimize the application’s losses. At the discharging
phase, the SMES releases the stored energy with a power converters
topology [27]. The technology is quite mature and offers a robust so-
lution with high power density. It is optimal for short-term storage and is
expected to gain a crucial role in the enhanced utility of variable
renewable energy. The pros of SMES are having high efciency, power
density, and low degradation. In contrary the cons of these ESDs types
are high cost [28], high self-discharge rate, the environmental impact
resulted from magnetics effect and high sensitivity to temperature. The
SMES device power capacity ranges from 0.1 to 10 kW, and the energy
ranges up to 100 MWh. Furthermore, the SMES power density ranges to
4000 W/L, specic power of 500–2000 (W/kg), and its service life goes
beyond 20 years [19].
2.3.2. Capacitors and supercapacitors
2.3.2.1. Capacitors. Capacitors are made of two (at least) electrical
conductors from metal foils which are separated with a thin insulator
usually made of plastic or ceramic or glass. During the charging process,
in the dielectric material energy is stored via the medium of an elec-
trostatic eld [29]. Usually, capacitors are used to store a few quantities
of energy and for high specic power applications or voltage power
correction and smoothing, while their charging time is lower compared
to the electrochemical cells. There is a wide range of capacitors with
various capacitances and nominal voltages. In recent years, capacitors
are mainly useful for frequency converters, tractions systems and drives,
while technological improvements might include more efcient heat
dissipation and increment of power levels. The pros of capacitors are fast
charging time and high power. However, because of self-discharge los-
ses, the provision of low energy, low capacity and high energy dissipa-
tions resulted are considered as cons of this type of ESDs [30].
Capacitors, in general, have a power range of 200 kW to some MW,
energy of 0.007 kWh to some kWh, the discharge time of some seconds,
life duration of 40 years, the efciency of 60–70%, energy density of
0.07 Wh/kg, specic energy of 0.05–5 Wh/kg, and specic power of
3000–10
7
W/kg [19,31–33].
2.3.2.2. Supercapacitors. Supercapacitors are referred to as electrical or
electrochemical double layer capacitors (EDLC) and ultracapacitors, are
energy storage systems comprised of two carbon electrodes, a porous
membrane acting as a separator, and an electrolyte. Supercapacitors can
be shaped into either cylindrical or prismatic enclosures, which change
the properties of the cell including energy, power, volume, weight,
respectively [19]. Also can have both aqueous and non-aqueous elec-
trolytes, and can be combined into various topologies to meet the ap-
plication’s demands. Due to their structure, supercapacitors comprises
the characteristic of electrochemical cells and capacitors [10,19].
Supercapacitors have a power range of some MW, energy of few kWh,
the discharge time of some minutes, cycle life of 10
6
cycles, life duration
of 10 years at room temperature, efciency of 95–98%, energy density of
4–7 Wh/kg, specic energy of 2.5–15 Wh/kg, specic power of 500–10
4
W/kg, and self-discharge of 20–40% [31–33].
Because of the high self-discharge rate and the cost, the super-
capacitors are not used typically for large-scale applications, but for
short-term storage and support instead. Also, supercapacitors have been
used for start/stop support of automotive applications due to its superior
cycling lifetime capabilities. Similarly, to the capacitors, EDLCs are used
in UPS to back-up short-term failures and peak demands, or short-term
safety of electronic devices and voltage smoothing of renewable energy
sources. The features of longer lifecycle, robust nature and high ef-
ciency are pros, whereas, up to 40% self-discharge rate [33] and high
cost [34] are cons of supercapacitor storage devices. Increasing demands
for large supercapacitors nowadays are continuing to drop the overall
cost of the technology. Also, development on the electrodes with new
highly porous materials are enhancing the capacitance of the cells.
Lastly, new electrolytes that enable higher voltage operation are ex-
pected to improve the technical features with the increase of the specic
energy as well. With the review paper, the available storage technolo-
gies are separated in the literature according to the type of the stored
energy and their working principles, and the summary of the present and
future advances of ESDs already installed in the grid are shown in
Table 2.
Future advances are identied with (*)
In Table 2, front the meter (FTM) refers to applications connected to
generation or transmission of the power, whereas, behind the meter
before the meter (BTM) refers to residential, commercial, and industrial
(distribution) infrastructures. Many ESDs are currently available and
installed for grid support while constant research is taking place to
improve them but also discover new possibilities. The technologies that
are currently under development for each category are highlighted with
(*). Previous studies demonstrated that, for a given energy and power
amount, the volume of storage technology is reverse proportional to the
energy, and power capabilities. More precisely, the electrical storage
devices (SMES, capacitors and supercapacitors) can feed with a certain
easiness the power demands without consuming a lot of space. Sec-
ondary electrochemical devices (Li-ion, NaS, etc) are described as a good
compromise between energy and power, whereas ow electrochemical
batteries (VRFB,PSB, and Zn Br) demand more space to meet the de-
mands [19,35–37]. The cycle efciencies of most of the technologies
have more than 60% capabilities, especially electrical and electro-
chemical devices are up to 95%, and TES stays between 30 and 60%
[38]. In addition, the energy cost is predicted by Ref. [39], and compares
several battery technologies (Na–S, Li-ion, Pb-Acid, Redox) based on
various economical aspects. Similar cost analysis can also be found in
Refs. [37,40]. The cost analysis is recent, and costs are expected to drop
further due to the high demand for electric energy storage (EES) and the
continuous efforts of R&D that can drastically improve their pro-
ciencies. Also, in these studies, the cost calculations of operation and
maintenance (O&M), and technical characteristics such as system ef-
ciencies (RTE), cycle life at a certain depth of discharge, response time,
lifetime expectancy, and system maturity as manufacturing maturity
(MRL) and technology maturity (TRL) levels [39,40] are assessed. The
main outcomes show that for an Energy/Power ratio of 4 h the Li-ion
serves the best option, both in the current status and in the future.
Li-ion might be limited in cycle life, in comparison to Redox batteries or
Na–S, however future advances indicate that this challenge will be also
surpassed.
The reviews summarized in section 2 have incorporated immense
information’s on technical and economic and other aspects of ESDs and
are considered in the review, and the respective gaps found are intended
to be lled in the critical review by using updated data and reliable
methods mentioned in section 1.1. Moreover, future advances and
emerging ESDs technologies and are indicated in the review.
3. Comparison result of the energy storage devices
The key performance characteristics of the electrochemical, electric,
thermal, and partially mechanical energy storage are included in section
3, in gures and matrices, and highlight the fact that a single only
technology cannot t the power system application requirements at
present. Usually, these requirements dene the comparison merits,
which are performed for the various cases in previous sections. To begin
A.A. Kebede et al.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
7
with, the size of the ESDs in terms of volumetric energy and power is also
drawn in the graphical comparative analysis.
3.1. Graphical result analysis and selection of ESDs
ESDs are related and investigated mainly from techno-economic and
environmental viewpoints. To properly assess the potential applications
of these ESDs in grid-scale applications, all required technical, eco-
nomic, and environmental criteria are used together with recent and
reliable data and hence graphical analysis and comparisons are pre-
sented. The following Tables and graphs are presented based on the
average value of the collected data from the recent peer-reviewed
journals, websites, and datasheets. Accordingly, the comparison be-
tween different ESDs and their respective metrices is presented. Each
graph is formulated based on the average value of data found from the
corresponding Tables. To evaluate the performance of the technical
aspect of selected ESDs, the most efcient technical characteristics
including specic energy, specic power, energy and power density,
round trip efciency, response time, discharge duration, lifetime, tech-
nology maturity level, and daily self-discharge are selected based on the
data shown from Tables 3–6. In addition, Figs. 3–5 below shows the
technical characteristics of different ESDs and are based on the average
value of parameters in Table 3.
From Fig. 3. It is shown that, SCES provides the highest specic
power compared to other ESDs. Besides, NaS, Li-ion, PCM and TCS have
a higher specic energy. Besides, PSB and thermal storage devices have
the least specic power and also SCES and SMES have the least specic
energy.
It is seen that SCES, SMES, NaNiCl
2
and Li-ion batteries have above
85% of very high round trip efciency. On the other hand, STES and Ni-
MH have a lower cycle efciency range. In addition, of their service
lifetime analysis, compared to selected ESDs, TCS has the largest average
service life of about 35 years, while electrochemical ESDs (batteries)
have a lower service life of 7.67–14 years.
Fig. 5 shows the self-discharge per day of ESDs, where, NaNiCl2, Ni-
MH, and SCES show the highest discharge rate. Whereas PSB, VRFB, and
in relation to other ESDs types, the Li-ion technology have a small daily
self-discharge ratio. Amongst the electrochemical ESDs, NaNiCl2 and
NaS have acquired a high self-discharge rate per day.
From Fig. 6, it is shown that using the power and energy density
comparison of different storage technologies it is possible to identify the
size of ESDs. The volume of ESDs is found to be decreasing with the
increasing energy and power densities and hence smaller size can be
attained (The top right corner). On the other hand, a larger volume of
ESDs is shown at the lowermost left corner. Fig. 6 shows that all thermal
ESDs and electrochemical ESDs including (Ni-MH, Na–S, Li-ion &
NaNiCl
2
) have higher energy density compared to others. On the con-
trary, the power density of SCES, SMES, and FES is higher than other
ESDs types. In addition, CAES and PHS have the least energy density and
also, CAES, PHS, VRFB, PSB, and Zn Br provide the least power density.
Therefore, it is apparent that, relative to other storage devices, Li-ion
battery possess both features of higher energy and power density and
hence possess reduced volume and smaller size. Therefore, this potential
leads Li-ion batteries to be utilized widely in different transportable
devices, transportation, and stationary grid-scale application sectors.
As shown from the bubble chart of Fig. 7. the discharge time and
power ratings of various ESDs are compared and found that Mechanical
energy storage devices (CAES and PHS) have longer discharge time and
higher power range than others. On the other hand, SCES, FES, and
SMES have very short discharge time and low power range.
Fig. 8 shows a comparison between the technology maturity level
and environmental impact of different ESDs. To measure the maturity
level of ESDs, a range of scales (1–9) is used as the initial data is collected
on qualitative criteria. Accordingly, Pb-Acid, Ni-MH, PHS, and Ni–Cd
batteries are fully commercialized and most matured ESDs. On the other
hand, TCS, PSB, and Zn Br are under the category of developing/proven
Table 3
The core technical features of different energy storage devices (ESDs).
Type of
ESDs
Specic
Energy
(Wh/kg)
Specic
Power (W/
kg)
Round trip
Efciency
(%)
Service
Life
(Years)
Daily Self
Discharge
Rate (%)
NaS 150-240
[38,41],
100-175
[42]
150-230 [38,
41,43]
75-90 [38,
43],
77 [44],
75–87
[42], 70
[45],
70–90
[41],
89 [46],
80 [47]
10-15
[38,
48],
10-20
[42],
5-15
[41],
15 [46,
47]
20 [38],
None [42],
0.05–20 [41]
NaNiCl
2
120 [43],
100-120
[38,41],
119 [49]
150 [38,43],
150-200 [38,
41],
169 [49]
85-90
[41],
92.5 [50]
10-14
[38,
41],
>8 [51]
15 [38,41],
11.887 [49]
Pb-Acid 30-50
[41–43,
52],
25-32
[53,54],
20-35
[45,55],
15-40
[56],
20 [57]
75-300 [38,
41],
180-200
[42],
25 [45],
74-415 [56]
65-80
[43],
70-90
[38],
85 [47],
72–76
[53],
70-80 [42,
45],
70-82 [41]
5-15
[38,42]
0.1–0.3 [38,
42,43],
Low [45],
0–0.6 general
battery [58],
0.033–0.3
[41]
Li-ion 200 [43],
75–200
[38,41],
90-170
[53],
80–200
[42],
100–200
[45],
207 [59],
90–200
[56]
150-315 [38,
41],
80-200 [60],
185-370
[42],
300 [57]
95 [43],
80-90
[51],
78-88
[42], 85
[61],
85-98 [41]
5-15
[38,
41],
14-16
[42],
6-20
[56]
0.1–0.3 [38,
41],
Medium [45],
0.17–0.33
[62],
0.036–0.0833
[63]
Ni–Cd 50-75
[38,41,
43],
30-80
[42],
40-60
[45,62]
150-300 [38,
41],
100-160
[42],
140-180
[45],
150 [62],
50-150 [56]
72 [42],
60-76
[53],
60-70
[41],
70-90 [62]
10-20
[38],
13-20
[42],
10
[56],
5-20
[41]
0.2–0.6 [38],
0–0.6 general
battery [58],
0.2–0.3 [42],
0.33 [62],
0.067–0.6
[41]
Ni-MH 60-80
[45],
43–70
[56],
30.13
[64], 70
[65],
89 [66],
90 [57]
200 [65],
220 [45],
177 [66],
600 [57]
50-80
[45],
66 [51,62]
5-15
[56],
>3 [66]
0–0.6 general
battery [58],
0.83 [67],
0.3 [66]
VRFB 10-20
[51],
20-29
[53],
20 [42],
25 [45],
23-35
[68]
166 [42],
80-150 [45]
80 [45,
61],
70-85
[62],
78.3 [69],
60-85 [41]
10-20
[42,
51],
5-15
[41]
Small [38],
very low [42],
0.2 [41]
PSB 20-29
[53],
10-15
[70]
1.31 [71] 72-83
[53],
60-75
[42],
75 [61]
15 [42,
72],
10-15
[41]
Small [38],
0 [41]
Zn Br 20-29
[53],
34.4–54
[51],
34.4
90-110 [74] 70 [51],
75 [43],
72-83
[53],
65-85
[42],
8-10
[42],
5-10
[41]
Small [38],
0.24 [41]
(continued on next page)
A.A. Kebede et al.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
8
ESDs. Besides, the environmental impacts of all selected ESDs are pre-
sented using the data collected expressed on a qualitative basis. There-
fore, a rating scale from 1 to 7 has been used to quantify this criterion.
Accordingly, from the result it is found that Pb-Acid, NaS, Ni Cd, Ni-MH,
PHS, have a signicant adverse impacts on the environment, on the
contrary, STES, SCES and FES have very low impacts on the
environment.
As shown from Table 6, the estimated capital, and O&M cost of ESDs
are summarized and their average values are presented graphically in
Fig. 9. From the result, compared to another type of ESDs, Pb-Acid, PCM,
TCS and NaNiCl
2
have the lower capital cost per kWh. Whereas SMES,
STES, FES has a higher capital cost per kWh. In addition, specic to
electrochemical ESDs, Li-ion and NaS batteries have a higher capital cost
per kWh. Furthermore, NaS and Pb-Acid batteries have higher O&M
costs. However, Li-ion batteries have the least O&M costs.
4. Discussion
4.1. Key ndings of the graphical analysis of ESDs
The key ndings of the graphical analysis of ESDs presented in
section 3.1 are summarized using different performance metrices. In
the review, the study on ESDs and their application potentials in grid-
scale applications level were assessed. The pros and cons, and applica-
tion potentials of different ESDs for grid integrations have been studied.
Besides, the distinct application classications of ESDs according to their
selection principles of techno-economic features, and environmental
effects of ESDs were evaluated. Therefore, to evaluate the potentials and
suitability of ESDs in grid integrated applications, all nominated criteria
of ESDs are assessed and graphically analyzed. The selected criteria are
typically categorized under technical, economical, and environmental
perspectives. The technical criteria consider the power range, the spe-
cic power & energy, round trip efciency, energy and power density,
discharge time, lifetime, response time, maturity level, and others. The
economic criteria consider both capital and operating and maintenance
costs result as shown in Table 6 and Fig. 9. Furthermore, the environ-
mental impact of ESDs is evaluated a rating scale of (1–7) as the data
collected is of qualitative type. The result of the environmental impact is
also shown in Fig. 8.
The main ndings of comparative analysis results of ESDs are sum-
marized as follows:
•It is known that the weight of energy storage devices is among the
key assessment factor, playing a crucial role in the selection of ESDs
for different application areas. So, ESDs having higher specic en-
ergy and power (both characteristics), are taken as appropriate for
light weight applications. So, from the analysis result, relative to
other ESDs Li-ion batteries possess an average of comparable specic
energy and specic power than other ESDs (Fig. 3) and are preferred
as the best solution in light weight applications.
•In terms of power and energy density, electrochemical storage sys-
tems particularly Li-ion battery possess both features of an average of
higher power density and energy density in comparison to other
ESDs. Hence, Li-ion batteries have the advantages of reduced volume
and smaller size. Therefore, this potential favors Li-ion batteries to be
utilized in different transportable devices, and stationary application
sectors. Besides, it can be used in the mitigation of power uctuation
applications.
•Among ESDs, it is found that PHS, CAES, PSB, Zn Br, TCS, VRFB, and
Li-ion are found to be promising in applications requiring a large
power range and longer discharge time. Among the electrochemical
ESDs, the Li-ion battery is the best candidate for grid integrations of
RESs applications. In addition, SCES, SMES and FES can be used in
power quality enhancement applications which require short
discharge time.
•In comparison to other ESDs types, the PSB, VRFB, and Li-ion bat-
teries are found to have a very small daily self-discharge ratio. On the
other hand, the NaNiCl2, Ni-MH, and SCES have higher self-
discharge. ESDs with very small daily self-discharge rates are
found to be more appropriate for a prolonged duration of storage
applications. On the contrary, NaNiCl
2
, Ni-MH and SCES with high
self-discharge rate is more appropriate for short-time duration ap-
plications which include the power quality and regulation
applications.
•From Fig. 4, it is observed that, TCS storage systems have the largest
average service life of 35 years, and are therefore suitable in bulk
energy applications, while electrochemical ESDs (batteries) have a
lower service life of 7.67–14 years. Accordingly, the electrochemical
ESDs are suitable for ancillary services and renewable energy grid
integrations.
•As shown from Fig. 9, the capital expenditure per kWh of PCM, TCS,
CAES, PHS, NaNiCl2, and PB-Acid are in a very small range.
Nevertheless, SMES, FES, STES and FES possess a higher capital
expenditure per kWh. For application areas requiring high power
output, TCS, NaNiCl
2
, PCM, SMES, FES, SCES are preferred since
these ESDs provide lower capital cost per kW. Besides, Fig. 9, shows
the O & M cost comparative analysis of ESDs, and provided that all
thermal ESDs, FES and Li-ion batteries have the least $/kW/year,
whereas, NaS and VRFB resulted in higher O&M cost ($/kW/year).
•From Fig. 8, it is seen that Pb-Acid, NaS, Ni–Cd, Ni-MH, PHS, have a
signicant negative adverse effects on the environment. On the
Table 3 (continued )
Type of
ESDs
Specic
Energy
(Wh/kg)
Specic
Power (W/
kg)
Round trip
Efciency
(%)
Service
Life
(Years)
Daily Self
Discharge
Rate (%)
[73],
30-50
[41]
68-73
[74],
60-75 [41]
SCES 2.5–15
[41],
0.5–1.5
[38], 11
[75],
4 [76],
15–22
[53],
0.8–10
[67],
5–15
[77],
08-20
[62],
5–10
[60]
10000 [43],
500–5000
[38,41],
2000–5000
[42],
800-2000
[77],
3500-10000
[60]
95 [43,
45],
95-99
[53],
65-90
[42],
90-98 [41]
20 [38,
41],
8-17
[42]
5-40 [43],
20-40 [38,41]
SMES 10-75
[42],
1-12
[78],
3 [78]
500-2000
[38,41]
95 [77],
80-95
[42],
90-98 [41]
20
[42],
20-30
[41,76]
10-15 [38,41]
STES 80-120
[38],
10-50
[79],
80-250
[24]
10-30 [24] 50-90
[80],
60 [77],
50-90
[79],
30-60 [24]
10-20
[38],
10-30
[24]
0.5 [38],
0.05–1 [24]
PCM 150-250
[38],
80-250
[24]
10-30 [38] 75-90
[80],
50-90
[79],
40-90 [47]
20-40
[38],
30 [47]
0.5–1 [38]
TCS 250 [79],
80-250
[24]
10-30 [24] 75-100
[80],
75-100
[79],
40-90
[47],
30-60 [24]
10-30
[24],
30 [47]
0.05–1 [24]
A.A. Kebede et al.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
9
contrary, STES, SCES and FES are found to have insignicant envi-
ronmental impact.
In general, from the summary of key ndings and the graphical result
of each ESDs, it is found that the results found are almost coherent and
even more promising as compared to the results of previous studies
presented in section 2. In addition, relative to other energy storage
technologies, electrochemical ESDs in particular, Li-ion battery tech-
nologies are found to be the best tting for RESs integration to the grid
system.
4.2. Proposed solution of hybrid approach of energy storage devices
(HESDs)
From the result analysis presented in section 3.1 and the respective
discussion part of section 4.1, the characteristics, and potentials of each
ESDs are already identied. However, from the analysis, it is identied
that the use of a single storage device for a typical application cannot be
fully a viable and permanent solution to mitigate all resulting con-
straints. Therefore, to resolve these challenges, the use of hybrid ESDs is
of current and important solution to be deployed. Hence, multiple
technologies are merged together in order to obtain their advantages,
and eliminate each other disadvantages [10]. Hybrid energy storage
systems electronically combined (at least two energy storage systems)
with complementary characteristics and to derive higher power and
energy results, such as a combined electrical-electrochemical system.
However, the complexity of HES is respectively increased as more
control and conditioning circuit is required, usually achieved by power
electronics units [45].
4.2.1. Integration of ESDs in the grid
The electrochemical devices can theoretically serve all roles, how-
ever, there are various factors as analyzed earlier (cost, scalability, etc.)
that discourage this option, whereas other storage technologies could
serve a much better solution. For example, electricity quality and power
stability can be achieved with electrical devices, whereas local energy
optimization could be handled with either lead acid, sodium-based, and
Li-ion based batteries. Bulk power management requires large power
capabilities and low discharge time, rendering TES as a favorable choice.
The integration of renewables in the grid can be supported by energy
Table 4
Power range, density, discharge and response time characteristics of different energy storage devices (ESDs).
Type of ESDs Energy Density (kWh/m3) Power Density (kW/m3) Power (MW) Discharge Time (ms to hr) Response Time (ms to hr)
NaS 150–250 [81,82],
150-250 [38,41],
180-280 [53],
150-280 [7,19]
150–250 [81,82]
3.5–50 [42],
150–300 [54]
0.05–34 [54],
0.05–8 [38],
<10 [83,84]
≤6 h [47],
1–24 h [54,85]
1–2min [81],
sec-min [54]
NaNiCl
2
150–180 [38,41,82],
100–190 [42],
181 [49]
220–300 [41,82],
54–500 [38],
257 [49]
0–3 [82],
0–0.3 [38]
sec–hr [82],
seconds [19,38]
<sec [86]
Pb-Acid 50–80 [38,81],
25–100 [53],
50–90 [19]
10–400 [38,81],
10–700 [54]
0–40 [54],
0–20 [38,81]
≤4 h [47],
sec-hr [38,54]
milli sec [47],
5-10 milli sec [54]
Li-ion 200–500 [38,82],
200-500 [53],
170–300 [42],
150 -400 [19]
50–800 [30],
1000–5000 [38],
>5000 [41]
0–100 [54],
0-3 [53],
27-40 [19]
min–hr [54,82],
≤1 h [47]
20 milli sec-sec [54]
Ni–Cd 60–150 [38,54],
30-150 [56],
15 -140 [62]
150–300 [54],
100 - 450 [19]
0–40 [38,54],
45 [42]
sec-hrs [81],
sec-hrs [19]
20 ms-sec [54]
Ni-MH 189.9 [87],
83-170 [56],
294 [66],
170 - 320 [19]
588 [66],
7.8–580 [87]
0.01–3 [53],
0.04–0.8 [19]
– –
VRFB 16–33 [81],
20–70 [86],
10–70 [43]
0.5–2 [86],
1–34 [43]
0.3–3 [81],
0.05–0.5 [19]
≤8hr [47],
sec-10 h [81]
≤10 min [47],
Sec [81]
PSB 20-30 [53],
16-60 [41],
10 - 60 [38]
4.16 [68],
1.35 [51],
2–3.5 [51]
8-12 [53],
1-15 [19,38],
0.1–15 [42]
– –
Zn Br 20-30 [53],
25-30 [63],
30-60 [41]
4-6 [63],
2.58 [73]
0.1–6 [53],
0.1–15 [42],
1 [74],
0.003–0.5 [19]
– –
SCES 2.5–15 [82],
1–35 [57]
1000–5000 [82]
4000–5000 [19]
0–0.3 [38,81],
0.02–10 [19]
1 min [47], ms–hr [54] ≤10 millisec [47],
8 ms [54]
SMES 0.2–2.5 [82],
0.2–13.8 [42]
1000–4000 [82],
300–4000 [19]
10 [47],
0.1–10 [19,38,81]
1 min [47], ms–8 sec [54],
<1 min [19]
≤10millisec [47],
<100 ms [54]
STES 80-120 [38] – 0.001–10 [80] ≤10 min [47] days-months [80],
Short to long term [80]
PCM 150-250 [38],
80-250 [21,22],
120-500 [88]
– 0.001–1 [80] Hours -days [80] ≤10 min [47]
TCS 250 [79],
80-250 [21,22]
– 0.01–1 [80] Hours -days [23] ≤10 min [47]
CAES 3–6 [81,82],
0.4–20 [19,38]
0.5–2 [81]
0.5–10 [7,19]
5–300 [81,82],
5–1000 [54]
≤20 h [47],
1-24+[54,82]
≤15 min [47,54],
1–2 min [81]
PHS 0.5–1.5 [81,82],
0.05–1 [38],
1–2 [19]
0.5–1.5 [89],
1 [19,61]
10–5000 [54,81,82],
100–5000 [19]
6–24 h [47],
1-24+[38,82]
sec – min [47],
sec-min [54],
1–2 min [81]
FES 20–80 [19,82],
20–80 [19,82]
1000–2000 [19,82],
800–2000 [38]
0–0.25 [81,82],
0.1–20 [54]
≤1 h [47], millisec–15 min [82,85] ≤10 millisec [47],
<4 ms-sec [54]
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storage in various aspects, such as voltage control and the off-peak
storage, and the rapid support of the demands. For these various roles,
the corresponding sizing, operation, and lifetime requirements that the
ESDs must comply with are shown in Table 7.
Electrochemical storage, e.g. Li-ion cells can offer a wide range in
energy and power capabilities. An application with nickel-manganese-
based chemistry can meet the sizing and theoretically the duration of
certain WT and PV applications, whereas a lithium-titanate-oxide (LTO)
based chemistry can offer improvements in the cycle lifetime however,
with an increased cost due to its lower capacity levels. On the other
hand, electric devices can meet the rapid power requirements for the PV
integration offering a remarkable lifetime and cycling capabilities as
well. Thermal storage and ow batteries can be used for off-peak WT
integration for high discharge capabilities and superior lifetime-
scalability, however with decreased efciency and response time.
Other technologies like lead-acid and nickel-cadmium can be a good
candidate for black start services. Methods that encourage the decen-
tralization of the storage systems and hence the self-production/
consumption are taking place. Based on economic plans and benets,
PV systems designed for self-consumption are already built. This can
help the low-voltage distribution network, which is currently reaching
its performance limits because of the growing quantity of PV systems.
The energy storage for household levels has an important role in the
penetration of renewables [35]. Several projects have been constructed
or being under development to support green energy and its easier
integration to the grid. A 51 MW facility of WT is supported by a 34 MW
NaS storage to smooth the total power and regulate the peak output
[35].
Also, large-scale renewable sources penetration sets new re-
quirements and grid codes on the low voltage ride-through capability,
frequency and voltage regulations, and active/reactive power control,
along with other control functions which can be handled by the energy
storage integration [101–103]. So far, for projects related to large-scale
PVs integration, the Li-ion technology is the most popular solution uti-
lized for energy storage, with a maximum installed energy storage rating
at 100 MWh, used for capacity rming and time-shift [101,104]. In the
case of WT, energy storage could be used for various applications of
wind power plants, grid personnel’s and consumers, as a viable solution
to enhance the stability and consistency in future power systems [37].
According to green energy park infrastructure and power ratings, Li-ion
technology and supercapacitors are seen as a good candidate, imple-
mented as a hybrid solution.
Additional key ndings important to identify the application’s suit-
ability and characteristics of ESDs are stated below [100]: s.
Table 5
Technology maturity and Environmental impact characteristics of ESDs.
Type of
ESDs
Technological Maturity Environmental
Impact
Storage
Period (Short
– Long term)
NaS Commercialized/proven [47,
54,81,90]
High [81] Long term
[37]
NaNiCl
2
Proven/Commercializing [82] Medium/low
[91]
Mid-long term
[37]
Pb-Acid Mature [90],
Fully Commercialized [85]
High [81] Short-mid-
term [37]
Li-ion Demonstration [47,90],
Proven/Commercializing [81]
Medium/Low
[81]
Short-mid-
term [37]
Ni–Cd Commercialized [81,90] High [81] Short-long
term [37]
VRFB Early commercialized [90],
Proven/Commercializing [91]
Medium/Low
[81]
Long term
[37]
PSB Developing [90] Medium [47] Long term
[37]
Zn Br Demonstration [90] Medium [47] Long term
[37]
SCES Demonstration [90],
Commercial [47,91]
Very low [81] Short term
[37]
SMES Early Commercialized [90],
Commercializing [54]
Low [81] Short term
[37]
STES Mature [47],
Commercialized [90]
Very low [80] days-months
[80],
Short to long
term [37]
PCM Mature [47],
Commercialized [90]
Low [80] Hours-months
[80],
Short to long
term [37]
TCS Mature [47],
Commercialized [90]
Low [80] hours-days
[80],
Short to long
term [37]
CAES Commercializing [91] Medium/Low
[54,81]
Mid-long term
[92,93]
PHS Commercialized [19,85],
Matured [47]
High/Medium
[54,81]
Mid-long term
[92,93]
FES Matured [47],
Mature/Commercializing [19,
85]
Very low [54,
81]
Seconds,
short-term
[92,93]
Table 6
Capital, and operating & maintenance cost comparison of ESDs.
Type of
ESDs
Energy Cost ($/kWh) Power Cost
($/kW)
Operating and
Maintenance (O &M)
cost ($/kW/year)
NaS 300–500 [38,54],
326–543 [94]
380–3256 [94],
1000–3000 [54]
80 [19],
7-15 [40]
NaNiCl
2
100–345 [91],
100–200 [82]
150–300 [82] –
Pb-Acid 120–150 [54],
54–337 [94],
200–400 [54,95]
300–600 [54],
326–651 [94],
200–300 [81]
50 [19],
7-15 [40]
Li-ion 600–2500 [89],
300–1300 [81]
1303–4342
[94],
1200–4000
[81],
900–4000 [54]
10 (for large scale
application(>1 MW))
[96],
6-12 [40]
Ni–Cd 800–1500 [19],
400–2400 [54]
500–1500 [54] 20 [19]
VRFB 190–1085 [94],
150–1000 [81]
651–1628 [94],
600–1500 [81]
70 [19],
7-12 [40]
PSB 150-2000 [53],
110-130 [58],
450 [42], 120–1000
[41]
494.35–1373.2 [42],
800-2900 [53],
1100-4500 [58,
97],
1000-1200 [62],
330-2500 [41]
7-16 [40]
Zn Br 150-1000 [41],
150-2000 [53],
500 [42],
200-400 [41]
800-2900 [53],
1100-4500 [58,
97],
640-1500 [42],
175-2500 [41]
6 (for large scale
application(>1 MW))
[96],
7-16 [40]
SCES 300–2000 [54] 271–480 [94],
100–450 [54]
6 [19]
SMES 1085–10854 [94] 217–326 [94],
200–489 [54]
18.5 [19]
STES 0.14–13.65 [79],
0.040–0.150
hydrothermal [42],
0.12–11.78 [80]
3650
hydrothermal
[42],
7900 ocean
thermal [42]
5 [19]
PCM 13.65–68.26 [79],
88.73 calcium chloride
[79],
11.78–58.92 [80]
200-300
cryogenic [38]
5 [19]
TCS 10.92–136.56 [79],
9.43–117.84 [80]
– 5 [19]
CAES 217–271 [94],
2–120 [54]
400–800 [82],
1411–1628 [94]
16.7 [98],
18.9 [40]
PHS 217–271 [94],
5–100 [81,89]
2500–4300
[19],
500–2000 [85],
2171–4342 [94]
15.9 [98],
6.2–43.3 [40]
FES 1085–5427 [94],
1000–5000 [82],
1000–14,000 [54],
500–1000 [81]
271–380 [94],
250–350 [81,
82]
5.6 [98],
5.8 [40]
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
11
•Identify the purpose of the storage
•Estimate power and energy requirements
•Estimate discharge duration and frequency
•Size and site of the application (extra cost on thermal management
etc)
•Interconnection with other systems
•Communication and control interfaces
•Data monitor and reporting
Hybrid solutions can also support the integration of renewables by
targeting each in different requirements, such as electrochemical solu-
tions for intra-day energy time shift and inter-week energy shift by
thermal and other solutions [105]. It can be observed that based on a
study [106] and the comprehensive review performed, all storage
technologies are capable of supporting green energy generation, in a
horizon of the next 10–20 years, as shown in Table 8. Based on the
current maturity and future perspectives, electrochemical could be
suitable for all levels in the network, whereas other options would
mostly be suited to certain of them. The study focused on various
characteristics of each technology including energy/power densities,
responses, efciency, lifetime, cost, environmental issues, safety, etc.
In the comprehensive review, a scenario with multiple storages for a
certain application is proposed as a solution to enhance the storage
application’s capabilities, as for instance, thermal storage is promising
for seasonal storage for which electrical and electrochemical are not so
favorable and this conclusion is similar with the result concluded in
Ref. [5]. The last remarks include the several projects related to energy
storage which are carried out around the globe, with various applica-
tions of ESDs, and can be found in Refs. [107–113]. Also, planning on
the construction, safe operation, and maintenance issues must be
considered to avoid undesirable faults [114].
4.3. Future advances
The efforts to decarbonize the electricity grid, the rapid increase in
energy demands, and the utility of intermittent renewable energy led to
currently being carried out a lot of research in all the energy storage
technologies. Particularly in battery storage technologies, recent in-
vestigations focus on tting the higher demand of energy density with
the future advanced technologies such as Lithium Sulphur (LiS), Lithium
Fig. 3. Specic energy and Specic power Comparison of ESDs based on average value of data collected in Table 3.
Fig. 4. Round trip efciency and service life of ESDs based on average value of data collected in Table 3.
A.A. Kebede et al.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
12
oxide (LiO
2
), future Li-ion, Metal-Air, Lithium-Air (Li-Air), solid-state
batteries, etc. [115]. With respect to Li-ion cells, challenges with en-
ergy densities, power capabilities, lifetime, and thermal operation are
discovered with new chemistries and materials. Future advanced Li-ion
cells are anticipated to enhanced temperature margin and be safer and
more consistent throughout their lifespan with lower cost and improved
fast charging capabilities [116]. Furthermore, a wide range of materials
and interconnections are being researched, beyond Li-ion chemistries,
such as lithium-Sulphur, the various option on Metal-Air batteries that
all show signicant improvements on the specic energy and capacities.
Also, solid-state batteries are expected to ourish by replacing the un-
stable liquid electrolytes with a solid one and ameliorate the cycling
performance of the cells. Silicon and Tin batteries are also investigated
providing much better theoretical capacities than the current
chemistries, while also Metal-ion batteries such as Zinc-ion and
Sodium-ion can deal with the economic, availability and recyclability
concerns of lithium, which would rise problems if Li-ions are used in
large scale stationary applications. Flow batteries offer numerous ben-
ets for energy storage such as scalability, low self-discharge, good
power densities as well as high service life and fast response. The most
important is that ow batteries decouple the energy and power capa-
bilities in comparison to the other technologies that have them inher-
ently connected. A lot of research is taking place for both redox and
hybrid ow batteries by investigating new materials for electrodes,
separators and electrolytes to raise the low volumetric energy which is
the main limiting factor at the moment [117]. Batteries based on organic
radicals serve the most eco-friendliness solution to energy storage, as
seen from material abundance, the efciency of synthesis and recycling
Fig. 5. Daily self-discharge of ESDs based on average value of data collected from Table 3.
Fig. 6. Ragone chart for the average power and energy density comparison of ESDs based on average value of data collected in Table 4.
A.A. Kebede et al.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
13
processes, life-cycle analysis and scalability [118]. In the aforemen-
tioned technology, the charging and discharging rates are superior as
compared to li-ion, and also it is safer during operation as thermal
runaways are prevented. On the other hand, resulted in decreased
gravimetric and volumetric energy capabilities than the future batteries
(e.g. Metal-Air) and operated in lower voltage which would require a
higher amount of ORBs to meet the application demands [119]. Con-
cerning the high temperature operation of the Sodium-Sulphur (NaS)
can raise safety issues and might trigger obstacles on increasing the
usage of NaS with the respectively increased power consumption rates
and self-discharge rates that it brings [120]. Studies are taking place to
drop the temperature operation window at room temperature which can
potentially further increase the capacity of such batteries [121,122].
In the eld of electrical storage, hybrid supercapacitors have
emerged as the hybrid solution of ESDs that combines the Li-ion cell’s
storage capability and the power capabilities of EDLCs. This device is
known as Li-ion capacitors (LiCs) and incorporates the advantages of
both technologies [123]. It consists of a li-ion anode material (car-
bon-based [124] or titanium-based [125]) and an EDLC cathode and
provides a longer lifetime, high power compared to Li-ion, high nominal
voltage and energy density compared to EDLC, but lower than Li-ion
[125]. Currently, LiCs are used for similar applications as capacitors
and supercapacitors. Various types of hybrid supercapacitors under R&D
in order to increase the energy densities [126].
Lastly, high temperature TES that include concrete storage, PCMs,
standard temperature ionic liquids, and molten salt is currently in use
and under constant development, as it plays a decisive role in the RESs
integration [127]. PCMs can change their phase from liquid to solid and
exchange the latent heat during this transition. During accumulation,
the PCM changes from solid to liquid whereas the heat transfer is ach-
ieved through a heat transfer uid. The advantage of this technology is
that a latent heat storage gives the possibility of gathering a large
quantity of energy in a limited volume efciently. Another type of TES
that is currently at the early R&D phase is thermochemical heat storage
(TCS). It is a form of storage by which heat is deposited during an
endothermal reaction and released during an exothermal step of a
reversible chemical reaction. The heat that is released is used as an
energy source [82]. This technology has higher specic energy
compared to sensitive or latent heat TES and better efciency,
nevertheless, it comes with a higher cost and complexity. Molten salts
are expected to continue to dominate the market of TES for large-scale
applications. For the sensible heat TES, most R&D is placed on activ-
ities to nd new materials and topologies to increase the specic energy,
as well as to nd efcient thermal insulations [128]. TES systems can be
integrated into various application elds. District heat applications, i.e
buffer and seasonal storage are already utilized around the globe
whereas improvements on several technical and economic issues are
currently in progress. For non-residential buildings, the
low-temperature latent heat with PCM storage can be used for buffer
storage, where developments on the materials are carried out to further
optimize the process, with several real and early-stage concepts. For
industrial applications, both sensible, latent and thermochemical solu-
tions are under concern, as these ESDs can be used for buffer storage and
backup systems [23]. Research is taking place on improving their sta-
bility and storage performance with extra focus being placed on the
latent PCM TES as several applications are in development: cold storage
integration in ofce buildings, PCM storage with the chilled water sys-
tem, a PCM-air heat exchanger for peak and demand shifting in build-
ings are some cases, but also other TES are under research such as
plate-based latent heat thermal energy storage system and latent heat
storage for low-temperature heat including solar cooling and domestic
hot water [23,129]. A new technology called Electric Thermal Energy
Storage (ETES) is recently presented which is environmentally friendly
and scalable to GWh energy ranges. ETES is planned to be used for grid
stability and complement renewable power generation and is commis-
sioned in Hamburg-Altenwerder, Germany in 2019 by Siemens Gamesa
Renewable Energy (SGRE) [130].
5. Conclusions
Energy storage is a crucial element of the future electricity network,
for meeting the 70% target of the generation produced by renewable
energy sources (RESs). It can provide exibility between supply and
demand and it can support fast and efcient integration of the RESs.
Consequently, it is expected that the capacity of energy storage will be
increased and for this, a broad range of electric and thermal power
technologies are built and are under development, to meet all possible
operational and economical characteristics. From this comprehensive
Fig. 7. Discharge time and power rating comparison of ESDs based on average value of data collected in Table 4.
A.A. Kebede et al.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
14
Very Mature
Very Mature
Mature
Mature
Mature
Proven
Proven
Proven
Research
Fig. 8. Technology maturity and environmental impact comparison of ESDs based on average value of data collected in Table 5.
Fig. 9. Power, energy, and O&M cost of ESDs based on average value of data collected in Table 6.
A.A. Kebede et al.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
15
review, the maturity of each storage technologies, the present status as
well as future directions are discussed, with the main focus on the
electrical, electrochemical and thermal storage technologies. The main
ndings of the review on ESDs are summarized as follows.
•The source availability, access, and eco-friendliness of electro-
chemical energy storage systems should be considered for the life
cycle analysis and environmental impact assessment. It is estimated
that making 1 kWh of li-ion battery consumes around 400 kWh of
energy and produces 75 kg of CO
2
, whereas a coal-red plant emits
1kg/1 kWh instead. This instantly requests at least 400 cycles of the
Li-ion system to pay back the energy it consumed, and a long life-
time/service life, to have a positive impact on the environment
[102]. From electrochemical ESDs, Li-ion batteries are found to have
higher power and energy density, higher round trip efciency, low
environmental impact, light weight etc., and therefore, taken as a
promising option for grid-scale stationary application area, espe-
cially in RESs grid integration.
•Availability of lithium and cobalt make vulnerable the current
technology of Li-ion cells to cost and scalability. Toxic elements such
Fig. 10. A hybrid concept of electrical and electrochemical devices [99].
Table 7
General requirements of energy storage for RESs integration to grid [6,100].
Application Description Size Duration Cycles Target
lifetime
Storage Technology
requirements
Candidate ESDs
Renewable energy
integration
ramp and voltage support 1–10 MW
distributed
10–400 MW
centralized
15min 5000cyc to
10000cyc per year
20 years •Medium-high
power
•Medium discharge
•Thermal
off-peak storage 100–400 MW 5 h–10 h 300cyc to 500cyc
per year
20 years •High power
•Very Slow discharge
•Thermal
•Redox ow batteries
•Sodium-Sulphur
time-shift, voltage sag,
rapid demand support
1–2 MW 15min to
4 h
>4000 cycle per
year
15 years •Medium power
•Slow discharge
•Redox ow
•Li-ion
•NaS
Black starts 5–50 MW 15min-1h N/A N/A •Medium-high power
•Slow discharge
•Li-ion
•Lead Acid
•Hybrid-supercapacitors
Power oscillation
damping
10–100 MW 5sec-2h N/A N/A •Medium-high power
•Slow -fast discharge
•SMES
•Li-ion
Wind power gradient
reduction
1–50 MW Sec-min N/A N/A •Medium-high power
•Fast discharge
•Thermal
•Electrical
•Li-ion
Peak shaving 1–500 MW 1 h–6h N/A N/A •Medium-high power
•Slow discharge
•Thermal
Frequency regulation/
stability
Of weak grids
1–50 MW Sec-min N/A N/A •Medium-high power
•Fast discharge
•Flow, Sodium-based, Li-
ion, Lead Acid
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16
as lead, cadmium and mercury are found in many electrodes which
raise health and environmental concerns. Recycling, second life and
new concepts like V2G/G2V and network storage are important to
that extent, since it can help overcome these limitations [131].
•Li-ion batteries are preferred so far for storage solutions for low and
medium-range applications. This is due to the drop in cost, but also
their good performance compared to other batteries (response times,
energy/power ratio, and maturity). Second-life batteries, a.k.a.
reconditioned EV batteries, are going to have a crucial role in the
residential and distributed storage system. In addition to the capital
cost for Li-ion storage, the narrow electrical and thermal operation
window requires an extra cost for the control and insurance of safe
and reliable operation. Regarding the economic aspect, nowadays
few researchers offered the economic viability of Li-ion batteries
integrated with grid-connected RESs systems [132].
•Thermal energy storage from renewable sources can help reduce the
CO
2
emissions both in residential, non-residential, and industrial
sectors by saving large amounts of energy. However, TES faces with
cost and stability barriers, especially new technologies like TCS and
PCMs. Like other energy storage technologies, a specic design to t
the boundaries and requirements of a certain application has to be
made.
•In electrical, electrochemical, and thermal energy storage, research
is placed on the improvement of the properties and capabilities of the
materials. Electrode optimization, stable and more powerful elec-
trolytes and novel membranes and separators, to enhance the per-
formance of the electric and electrochemical cells are taking place.
Most promising solutions include the Li–S, the M-Air, and the solid-
state cells as well as new ow batteries and hybrid capacitors. In TES,
storage mediums for various temperature ranges, containers, and
thermal insulation issues, as well as system design and integration
into the processes are being investigated.
•In addition, each technology offers its unique set of benets in terms
of cycle efciency, service lifetime, capital and O&M cost, self-
discharge time, and of course gravimetric and volumetric energy
and power values, and hence it can be a cost-effective solution after
mapping its performance and cost to the desired applications’.
•Future advances in storage might include increased capacity to
promote the integration of greener energy, with higher cycle lifetime
and efciency, and for higher discharge time capabilities.
Table 8
Summary of state-of-the-art repartition of ESDs (Technologies Vs. Applications) based on graphical results of section 3.1 and Table 7 (storage
technology requirements).
A.A. Kebede et al.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 159 (2022) 112213
17
•Most importantly, hybrid solution that combines more than one
technology to meet the demands is also investigated, which can give
signicant and unique benets to achieve various applications
compared to a single energy storage approach (e.g. battery-
supercapacitor, battery-SMES, etc).
With proper identication of the application’s requirement and
based on the techno-economic, and environmental impact investigations
of energy storage devices, it is found that the use of the hybrid solution is
proposed as a viable solution for the RESs application sectors.
Finally, to support the increased penetration of renewables, it is
important to plan the installation of the ESDs along with the green en-
ergy source, set the characteristics and functionalities of the ESDs, and
make sure that it can comply with the standards requirements and the
services that it should also provide (beyond the standards). Following
these workows and procedures are found as crucial to select the most
appropriate type of ESDs for the respective application sector.
Authorship contribution statement
Abraham Alem Kebede: Formal analysis, Methodology, Resources,
Writing. Theodoros Kalogiannis: Investigation, data curing, Writing –
review & editing. Joeri Van Mierlo: Visualizations and guidance.
Maitane Berecibar: Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to inuence
the work reported in this paper.
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