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India subcontinent in the continental drift of plate tectonics. aThe Triassic period, 200 million years before; b The Cretaceous period, 140 million years before; c The Eocene epoch, 50 million years before
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![Table 1 Distribution of the 19 species of lac insect worldwide [5]](profile/Hang-Chen-6/publication/257206226/figure/tbl1/AS:667617450786818@1536183812592/Distribution-of-the-19-species-of-lac-insect-worldwide-5_Q320.jpg)
Lac insects are commercial scale insects with high economic value. The combined molecular phylogeny of 20 lac insect populations was generated using elongation factor 1 alpha, mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene loci. The 20 populations of lac insects clustered into four distinct clades supported by...
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... the Indian sub- continent formed at a very high speed (18-20 cm year -1 ), during the late Cretaceous period, subsequent to its breakup from Gondwanaland, and then slowed to 5 cm year -1 after the collision with Asia 50 Ma ago [33]. In conclusion, there was possibly at least 90 Ma for the Indian subcontinent to drift into the Eurasian Continent (Fig. 3). Evidence from existing fossil record indicates that scale insects were already present globally before the break-up of the major land masses in the Jurassic [34][35][36]. During this long period of drift, scale insects in the Indian sub- continent lived on a large land mass (an island). Since there was a long-term separation between ...
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... The quick-growing lac hosts are Cajanus cajan (Figure 7), Flemingia semialata, F. macrophylla, Acacia nilotica, A. catechu, A. auriculiformis, and Ziziphus mauritiana, and they are capable of sustaining a lac crop over one generation (Table 2) [27]. [86,87] Indian wild ber serves as a host plant for lac insects in different agro-climatic zones of Punjab, India [84]. In India, peepal (Ficus religiosa), ber (Ziziphus mauritiana), litchi (Litchi chinensis), kikar (Acacia nilotica), and sirin (Albizia spp.) are known as major host plants of lac insects [84,88,89], whereas Acacia nilotica, A. catechu, Samanea saman, Butea monosperma, and Ziziphus mauritiana are common lac host plants in Bangladesh [90]. ...
In the current era, products made from organic materials enjoy a privileged position because of their inherent safety. The eco-friendly properties of natural lac resins have increased their demand in many industries. It is secreted by sucking insects (Hemiptera, Kerriidae) and comprises three major components, viz., resin, dye, and wax. Lac insects are generally bivoltine in nature and are distributed in tropical and sub-tropical regions with complex multi-trophic habitats. Because of their sedentary habits, lac insects are more vulnerable to predators, parasitoids, squirrels, and rats, leading to a more than 50% reduction in production yield. To increase lac production, advanced-level molecular research is required to figure out the mechanism behind lac synthesis and secretion to improve lac yield and quality. The present review highlights metamorphosis, sexual dimorphism, multi-trophic habitat, host plants, and natural enemies of lac insects, lac composition, and applications, emphasizing the role of microbes, potential lac genes, and lac synthesis mechanisms in enhancing lac quality and production. The information provided here might be useful for lac researchers and for stakeholders aiming to make their products more eco-friendly.
... Lac insects are members of the genus Kerria (Hemiptera, Kerriidae) [10], with 29 species worldwide [11], of which K. lacca species is most widely cultivated for commercial lac production [12]. Kerria lacca is well distributed in China, India, Pakistan, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Georgia, Guyana, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and reported on more than one hundred host plants [13,14]. Females and males of K. lacca showed sexual dimorphism [15], and both produce and secrete remarkably different proportions of lac during their life cycle [4]. ...
... These markers (SNPs and InDels) are associated with protein-coding genes and their pertinent translated regions [20], and are expedited to understand their link to gene function [21]. Several studies were carried out on lac insects in the terms of ecology, biology, genetic diversity, microbial diversity, host plants, molecular phylogeny, biogeography, and transcriptome [1,4,14,22,23]. However, K. lacca is also genomically understudied insect, and there are no data available on SNPs and InDels of lac insects. ...
Kerria lacca (Kerr) is an important lac insect extensively used in industrial products in the form of resin, wax and dye. The scarce knowledge on molecular markers for K. lacca is a barrier in elucidating genetic information. Our study identified a total of 16,921 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and 6231 insertions and deletions (InDels)—of which, intergenic variation accounted for 41.22% and 56.30%, and exonic variation accounted for 39.10% and 17.46%, of SNPs and InDels, respectively. Observation of SNPs suggested that nucleotide substitution frequency and transition to transversion (Ts/Tv) ratio were highest at the late adult stage, 3.97, compared to at the other stages, with a genome-wide Ts/Tv ratio of 2.95. The maximum number of SNPs, 2853 (16.86%), was identified in chromosome 8, while the lowest, 1126 (6.65%), was identified in chromosome 7. The maximum and minimum numbers of InDels were located on chromosome 1 and 7, with 834 (13.38%) and 519 (8.33%), respectively. Annotation showed that highest numbers of exonic and intergenic SNPs were present at the late adult stage, whereas the maximum number of InDels was found at the larval stage. On the basis of gene function, 47 gene variations were screened and 23 candidate genes were identified in associations with lac production. Concluding work will enhance knowledge on molecular markers to facilitate an increase in lac production in K. lacca as well as other lac insects.
... Even though, molecular characterization of lac insects through various types of molecular markers has been reported by earlier workers (Chen et al., 2011;Saha et al., 2011;Chen et al., 2013;Thamilarasi et al., 2018), molecular studies on lac resin biosynthesis is limited. Shamim et al. (2014) had proposed a crude pathway for lac resin biosynthesis in K. lacca and Wang et al. (2019) had made an attempt to study the biochemical pathways of lac resin through transcriptome analysis in Chinese lac insect, Kerria chinensis. ...
Biosynthesis mechanism of the only animal resin, lac resin remains elusive to the scientific community. An attempt to identify the genes of resin biosynthesis in lac insects was made through SSH (Suppression Subtraction Hybridization) library by subtracting genes of resin non secreting stage (neonate nymphs) from the resin secreting stage (adult female) of the lac insect. SSH library yielded 107 non redundant clones with 61 clones having sequences homologous with known functions (defence, development, metabolism, regulation, transport, cell division, respiration, structural role), 7 clones having hypothetical proteins or uncharacterized proteins and 39 clones did not find any matches. Among the differentially expressed genes, few putative genes of terpene biosynthesis, fatty acid biosynthesis and transcriptional regulation were identified. Out of them, an IDS (Isopentenyl Diphosphate Synthase) type decaprenyl diphosphate synthase and a desaturase gene, acyl-CoA delta desaturase were cloned from lac insects and sequenced. Their expression levels were found to be more in lac resin synthesis stages such as settled nymphs and fertilized female insects in comparison with resin non secreting stage, crawlers (neonate nymphs). It gives a clear indication of their role in lac resin biosynthesis due to the correlation of their expression level with resin biosynthesis in lac insects.
... More than 20 species of Kerria have been described and recorded from India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, and Thailand. So far, 11 species of the genus Kerria have been reported from China (Varshney 1976;Chen et al. 2011), with K. ruralis (Wang, Yao, Teui & Liang) and K. yunnanensis (Ou & Hong) being endemic species (Chen et al. 2013). ...
... We also provide a key to the 12 Chinese species of Kerria. Kerria ebrachiata (Chamberlin, 1923) India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan Varshney 1976Chen et al. 201310 Kerria fici (Green, 1903 China, India, Pakistan, Thailand Varshney and Sharma 2020 11 Kerria greeni (Chamberlin, 1923) China, Philippine, Thailand Chen et al. 201312 Kerria indicola (Kapur, 1958 India Varshney 1976 13 Kerria javana (Chamberlin, 1925) India ...
... We also provide a key to the 12 Chinese species of Kerria. Kerria ebrachiata (Chamberlin, 1923) India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan Varshney 1976Chen et al. 201310 Kerria fici (Green, 1903 China, India, Pakistan, Thailand Varshney and Sharma 2020 11 Kerria greeni (Chamberlin, 1923) China, Philippine, Thailand Chen et al. 201312 Kerria indicola (Kapur, 1958 India Varshney 1976 13 Kerria javana (Chamberlin, 1925) India ...
Lac insects include astonishing species responsible for lac production. Lac is composed of resins, dyes, and shellac wax with significant economic importance. Previously, 11 species of the genus Kerria were reported from China, with the highest species diversity in Yunnan province. Another lac-producing species of the genus Kerria , namely Kerria nepalensis Varshney, is recorded for the first time in Yunnan province, China, on Dalbergia cochinchinensis Pierre ex Laness. (Fabaceae), a new host plant. In addition, a key to the 12 Kerria species recorded in China is also given.
... (Gullan & Cook, 2007;Hodgson & Hardy, 2013), were used in analyses (Table S1). Among them, sequenced data for 28 samples were downloaded from NCBI (Deng et al., 2012;Chen et al., 2013;Lin et al., 2013;Sethusa et al., 2014;Wang et al., 2015;Amouroux et al., 2017;Lin et al., 2017a,c). In addition, an 18S sequence of Coccus pseudomagnoliarum (Kuwana) was downloaded from NCBI because we were unable to obtain this gene fragment. ...
Coccidae is one of the major families of scale insects, with many species considered to be serious agricultural or horticultural pests. However, the phylogenetic relationships among coccid subfamilies, tribes and genera are poorly understood because existing hypotheses are based on morphological characters and cladistic analyses. Here, we present the first molecular phylogeny of the family Coccidae based on DNA fragments of a mitochondrial gene (COI), nuclear ribosomal RNA genes (18S and 28S), and elongation factor-1𝛼 (EF-1𝛼). We found that some genera (Coccus Linnaeus and Pulvinaria Targioni Tozzetti), tribes (Coccini, Paralecaniini, Pulvinariini and Saissetiini) and subfamilies (Coccinae and Filippiinae) within the family are nonmonophyletic. Formation of a waxy ovisac and the distribution and structures of ventral tubular ducts have been used to define the tribe Pulvinariini morphologically; however, these were found to be homoplastic traits based on ancestral state reconstruction. Accordingly, we propose a new classification of certain groups as follows: (i) the Paralecaniini is raised to subfamily rank, Paralecaniinae stat.n., except that Neosaissetia Tao, Wong & Chang is retained as a member of Coccinae; (ii) Megapulvinaria Yang and Pulvinarisca Borchsenius are transferred from Coccinae to Pulvinariscinae stat.n.; and (iii) Metaceronema Takahashi is transferred from Filippiinae to Pulvinariscinae stat.n. We provide amended diagnoses for the newly proposed subfamilies.
... In the past few decades, scientists have made progress on revealing the polymerization and resin composition of lac produced by K. chinensis. Several studies were also carried out to characterize biology, ecological adaptability, host plants, and genetic diversity of lac insect [8][9][10][11][12]. However, the molecular mechanisms and biochemical pathways for lac synthesis and secretion are not yet known. ...
Lac is a type of natural resin secreted by lac insects and is widely used in the military and other industries because of its excellent adhesion and insulation properties. The main ingredients of lac are lactones and lactides, which are formed from hydroxy fatty acids and sesquiterpene esters. In this study, we measured lac secretion rates by the insect Kerria chinensis at different developmental stages and identified lac secretion-minimum and lac secretion-active stages of the insect. We then analyzed transcriptomes of lac secretion-minimum and lac secretion-active stages of the insect. Based on expression profiles of genes in different stages of the insect, we identified pathways and genes that are potentially involved in lac synthesis and secretion in K. chinensis. Our study lays a foundation for future studies to reveal the molecular mechanisms and pathways of lac synthesis and secretion in this beneficial insect.
... The estimated transition to transversion ratio was (R=0.315). In contrast to that molecular study of 20 populations of lac insect using combined sequences of mitochondrial cytochrome C oxidase sub unit I, small subunit ribosomal RNA gene loci, Elongation factor 1 alpha reveals that tamura-Nei distance 9.8 % within group taxa and an excess of AT rich (62%) and transition and trans version bias was 1.05 [27] . ...
Pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella is one of the most important pests of cotton. Since 2015 onwards this pest is causing havoc in the Bt cotton growing regions of India. To find out genetic variation in the seven populations of P. gossypiella, present study was carried out using the nuclear protein coding gene, elongation factor 1 alpha (EF-1α). Phylogeographical pattern clearly indicates that there is low genetic variation among the P. gossypiella populations. Nucleotide diversity and overall mean distances were 0.0063 and 0.004. Negative Tajima’s D value indicates that the presence of low frequency polymorphism reflected as population expansion. Neighbor joining tree constructed based on the EF-1α sequences generated two clusters separating populations Lab, Dharwad, New Delhi in to one cluster, while Adilabad, Guntur, Gujrat-manglor, akola in to another cluster.
... Members copy, Not for commercial Sale entosocindia.org K. lacca could be the most primitive of lac insect and K. chinensis could be the recently evolved one (Chen et al., 2013). Kerria chinensis always fall in a separate branch compared to others based on morphology, cytology and molecular differences (Chen et al., 2011). ...
... Therefore, identification of genes important for reproduction or survival of aphids is a prerequisite for increasing potency of the RNAi technology. In this context, extensive basic research aimed at correlating gene-function with aphid biology had been undertaken through analysis of aphid transcriptome (Wang et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2013). Transcriptome analysis led to the identification of several thousand unigenes expressed in alimentary canal of wheat aphid Sitobion avenae while feeding on wheat (Zhang et al., 2013). ...
... In this context, extensive basic research aimed at correlating gene-function with aphid biology had been undertaken through analysis of aphid transcriptome (Wang et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2013). Transcriptome analysis led to the identification of several thousand unigenes expressed in alimentary canal of wheat aphid Sitobion avenae while feeding on wheat (Zhang et al., 2013). From annotated unigenes, 16 highly up-regulated or down-regulated genes were further validated for their differential expression. ...
... Twenty individuals were chosen randomly from each population for isolation of total genomic DNA using a standard proteinase K, phenol/chloroform extraction technique (Marchant, 1988;Chen et al., 2013). In brief, insects were individually homogenized in TNES extraction buffer (40 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5; 80 mM NaCl; 80 mM EDTA, pH 8.0; 0.5% sodium dodecyl sulfate) and the homogenate was incubated with 200 μg/mL proteinase K at 65°C for 1 h. ...
The white wax insect Ericerus pela Chavannes (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) is an economically valuable insect species that has been used for over a thousand years in China. The present study focuses on assessing the genetic variability in different populations of E. pela collected from seven Chinese provinces. The amplified fragment length polymorphism technique was used to generate DNA fingerprints of individuals from each population using nine primer combinations (EcoRI-MseI). A total of 435 polymorphic loci were generated; fragment sizes ranged from 200 to 1000 bp. The percentage of polymorphic loci was 85.29%. Nei’s genetic diversity and Shannon index indicated consistency in the results, which showed that the Sichuan population had the highest diversity, followed by Yunnan and Zhejiang populations. Dendrogram analysis showed the shortest genetic distance between the Sichuan and Yunnan populations, suggesting that they probably form sister groups. High genetic differentiation between population values among all sampled populations indicated a low degree of genetic variability within each population (40.85%) and higher variation among populations (59.15%). Gene flow estimate values were low in all samples, suggesting low gene flow from events such as interbreeding and migration. Low gene flow values also suggested that populations among species of E. pela might become genetically heterogeneous, due to counteracting forces such as strong differential selection. Our data support the probability that E. pela will remain localized, and has a low potential to spread beyond current habitats.
