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![Fig. 3 Actual climatic zones of Lebanon. the country [28], climatic...](profile/Mohamad-Awad/publication/264553985/figure/fig5/AS:668572649005069@1536411549582/Actual-climatic-zones-of-Lebanon-the-country-28-climatic-zones-follow-the-direction_Q320.jpg)
Desertification caused by land degradation and overexploitation of natural resources is threatening large parts of eastern and southern Mediterranean. The actual state of desertification sensitivity in Lebanon was spatially assessed using site specific environmental bio-physical indicators, demographic pressure and socioeconomic conditions. Bio-phy...
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... vegetation cover was classified by its contribution to protect or expose the soil to land degradation. Lower quality vegetation occupies the km middle and high peaks of Mount Lebanon as well as the lower and middle heights of the eastern chain of Anti-Lebanon with some dispersed patches in the south (Fig. 4). This can be explained by the important mixture of grasslands and field crops with low resistance to desertification and low protection from erosion, beside the occurrence of wooded land with high risk of forest ...
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... Each index is computed using sub-indicators, which are further classified and assigned weight values. Based on a detailed literature review, each factor of desertification has been assigned a weight ranging from 1.0 (indicating low sensitivity) to 2.0 (indicating high sensitivity) for each class [34][35][36]. The final environmentally sensitive areas index (ESAI) map is generated through geometric mean calculations within a GIS. ...
Desertification processes in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid conditions have been enhanced in recent decades. The geospatial database and associated satellite data can be effectively employed for regional planning to address desertification and land degradation. In this study, the Mediterranean Desertification and Land Use (MEDALUS) model has been used to map environmentally sensitive areas due to desertification in the Satara and Sangli districts of Maharashtra, India. This was achieved by combining Landsat-8 multispectral data, Census data, soil data, and climatic variables like temperature, rainfall, and evapotranspiration. The algorithm of MEDALUS is the geometric mean of four indicators, namely soil quality index (SQI), climate quality index (CQI), vegetation quality index (VQI), and socio-economic quality index (SEQI). The findings indicated that the majority of the study area comes under the potential category of desertification (60.32%) followed by fragile (27.87%) and critical (11.81%). Areas with a high propensity for desertification were found over the low to very low climatic quality and moderate to high soil quality including lower socio-economic quality. The lower socio-economic quality is mainly due to high to very high population density (>100 people/km2), low to moderate illiteracy rate (<16%), and low to moderate work participation rate (<50%) that incentivize unsustainable land use practices. The study provides a valuable tool for understanding and managing natural resources. It offers a detailed analysis of the environmental sensitivity of the study area, taking into account various factors like land use, vegetation cover, slope, and soil erosion potential. The developed comprehensive map of the area helps in identifying the most sensitive regions and developing appropriate conservation strategies. The information obtained from the study can be utilized to develop and implement successful measures to prevent or alleviate desertification, which is crucial for sustaining the health of ecosystems and the welfare of local residents.
... Previous research in Lebanon studied the effects of climate change on the growth rate of Cedrus libani, Abies cilicica, Juniperus drupacea, and Quercus spp. [9,31,32] and examined the best knowledge of tree species requirements for survival [18,[33][34][35][36]. However, to our knowledge, there are no studies on the impact of climate change on forest land suitability for different forest species in Lebanon. ...
Along with the concept of improving reforestation efforts in Lebanon, this study aimed to provide a land suitability analysis for forest species in Lebanon while considering the effect of climate change. Herein, the soil evaluation criteria developed by FAO (The Food and Agriculture Organization) for land suitability classification were implemented through the weighted overlay method to produce suitability maps based on natural variables (soil, climate, and topography) influencing the presence of the species on the land. Cedrus libani, Quercus calliprinos, Ceratonia siliqua, Eucalyptus globulus, and Pinus halepensis are the species considered in this study. The results of this study provide useful information to inform reforestation activities in Lebanon, considering the expected climate change projections for medium- (2050) and long-term (2070) periods, according to two different scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) and three General Circulation Models: CCSM4, GFDL-CM3, and HadGEM2-ES. The suitability maps showed a generally critical situation for the spatial distribution of forest species under future climate change compared to the current situation (1970–2000). The distribution of thermophilic species, which tolerate high temperatures (over 20 °C), was projected to expand compared to the current situation. In contrast, the expansion of cold-adapted species may be limited by future climate change conditions. It is crucial to consider the expected effects of climate change to better select species for reforestation and, therefore, to maintain forest cover in Lebanon.
... Given the several listed LDN challenges and the need for tapping the concept's potential in the Arab region, this study addresses the application of the concept in Lebanon. Despite being an exception in terms of lands and climate within Middle Eastern countries (Al Sayah et al. 2019), 40% of Lebanon is under the risk of desertification., while the remaining 60% is under serious risks of land degradation (Darwish et al. , 2012. According to the World Bank (2019), Lebanon is the country where most arable lands were lost in the MENA region. ...
The land degradation neutrality (LDN) concept is key for safeguarding land resources. As part of the Arab region, Lebanon’s geographical and climatic properties make it particularly vulnerable to land degradation, hence its need for LDN. However, despite its efficiency, LDN is limited by the absence of clear representations of land degradation and the lack of natural hazard-related indicators. In response to these gaps, a land-health state classification of eight classes was proposed based on the intersection of land cover and land capability layers. The latter reflect the productive capacities of lands based on soil physical attributes. The objective of this classification is to extend beyond the dichotomous separation of lands into degraded or not, hence providing more comprehensive insights. As a second step, wildfires were integrated to determine potentialities of land degradation by fire. Potentialities were derived from the spatial intersection of land capability and wildfire layers. Land health states were found to be distributed as 5.03% adequately used, 1.03% adequately used/at risk of degradation, 0.71% at risk of degradation, 21.14% lightly used, 2.51% lightly used/at risk of degradation, 11.51% overused, 0.07% overused/at risk of degradation, and 8% degraded. Almost one-third of Lebanon was found to have moderate-very high potentialities of degradation by fire. To address the situation, the LDN avoid reduce and reverse strategy was applied via land use planning. Subsequently, 36.97% of lands shifted to the adequately used class while simultaneously reducing potentialities of degradation by fire. Accordingly, the multi-beneficial nature of LDN was highlighted.
... The latter are major outbursts driving forces [30]. According to Darwish et al. (2012) [31], the region is considered as a desertification hotspot (high and very high categories) with various forms of land degradation. The area covered by the Assi has witnessed many floods in the past : 1987, 2003, 2014, 2017, and 2019. ...
... The latter are major outbursts driving forces [30]. According to Darwish et al. (2012) [31], the region is considered as a desertification hotspot (high and very high categories) with various forms of land degradation. The area covered by the Assi has witnessed many floods in the past : 1987, 2003, 2014, 2017, and 2019. ...
Land use planning for flood risk reduction has been significantly addressed in literature. However, a clear methodology for flood mitigation oriented land-use planning and its implementation , particularly in developing countries like Lebanon, is still missing. Knowledge on land use planning is still in its earliest stages in Lebanon. A lack of hazard-informed land use planning coupled to random land cover pattern evolution characterize the country. In response, this study fo-cuses on the opportunities, challenges and uncertainties resulting from the integration of land use planning into efficient Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR). For this purpose, GIS-based analyses were first conducted on the current land use/land cover (LU/LC) of the Assi floodplain. Then, the areas land cover was retraced and its evolution after several flood occurrences was assessed. Subsequently , a flood hazard-informed LU/LC plan was proposed. The latter is mainly based on the spatial allocation of land-uses with respect to different flood hazard levels. This approach resulted in the production of a land use planning matrix for flood risk reduction. The matrix approach can serve as a tool for designing sustainable and resilient land cover patterns in other similar contexts while simultaneously providing robust contributions to decision-making and risk communication.
... The lower this percentage is, the easier the manual work in the field will be and will take less time. The stoniness was calculated from the soil map of Lebanon at 1:50 000, extracted from the "Soil Map of Lebanon" [30]. The classification of soil pity was made on 5 classes, each assigned a coefficient (0 to 4). ...
Agricultural zonal migrations and altitudinal shifts of high chill requirements fruit trees such as apple trees is considered a way of adaptation to climate change in mountain agriculture. This study examines near and far future options (2050-2070) of this local adaptation method in four village clusters in Mount-Lebanon, involving the expansion of agricultural lands to suitable regions under different degrees of climate change scenarios of temperature increase and precipitations regime fluctuation. A Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping calculation model was established for agricultural land evaluation which aims to locate spaces where the agriculture development indicators such as soil type, slope, future temperatures, and future precipitations will be suitable for cultivation under different climate change scenarios and models. The model does not seek the exact delineation of plots as much as the location of areas with a trend of agricultural relevance in the next 30 to 50 years. This classification is a tool to help Mount-Lebanon farmers and apple growers in adapting locally to climate change by choosing the best future spots to migrate their crops to. Results showed that most lands in which agricultural development is viable, are already in use for apple production (mainly) in the 4 clusters, leaving small parcels of land with variable agro-potentials to be developed in the future under favorable climate conditions. The agriculture potential of plots of altitude exceeding 2000 meters is to be validated in the studied area, especially since the climatic and irrigation conditions of there can present serious challenges.
... According to Darwish et al (2012), areas prone to desertification represent 57% of Lebanese national territory. While climate conditions combined with demographic pressure and mismanagement of land resources proliferate the severity and extent of land degradation (Salvati and Zitti 2009), the pressure on land resources is exacerbated by land use change (Masri et al 2002) and overgrazing of marginal lands (Darwish and Faour 2008), among others. ...
... The country has a Mediterranean climate categorized by dry and hot summers, rainy and cool winters, dry to moderately dry fall and spring. The Bekaa Valley is characterized by a semi-arid to continental climate comprising recurrent drought events (Darwish et al 2012). Most of the Rachaya district is pasture, rangeland and bare land. ...
Monitoring grazing behavior, livestock movement and grazing intensity is essential for developing and implementing sustainable rangeland management plans and avoid problems associated with over-grazing (i.e., land degradation). This work aimed at investigating the spatio-temporal characteristics of grazing behavior and intensity of small ruminants in order to be incorporated into rangelands management strategies for a specific area. The specific objectives were to 1) monitor daily movement of livestock, 2) analyze existing transhumance routes, 3) investigate the relationship of grazing behavior and intensity with seasonal variation and 4) evaluate the association between grazing intensity and exposure to land degradation. Those objectives were achieved by using remotely-sensed (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) data. Seasonal movements of small ruminants (i.e., goats and sheep) were monitored in lowlands and highlands and throughout transhumance. Collars mounted with a Global Positioning System were employed for use in continuous monitoring of animal movement. Daily trajectories of animals were recorded during grazing/transhumance, in addition to the daily traveled distance, total spent duration in rangelands and average movement speed in rangelands, in order to evaluate their seasonal variability. Eventually, the grazing intensity of selected herds was computed in order to assess its association with exposure to land degradation. As the daily traveled distance and the total spent duration in rangelands were significantly different in each season, the highest average grazing intensity was in forests (i.e., lower exposure to degradation) and the lowest grazing intensity was in croplands (i.e., highest exposure to degradation).
... In terms of demographics and socioeconomic characteristics, the basin corresponds to the Jbeil district that houses around 98041 inhabitants with an increasing rate of 2.81% per year (Brinkhoff 2017). According to Darwish et al. (2012), the area is characterized by high to very high living conditions that exert moderate, yet significant pressure on land and water resources. ...
Given the absence of soil loss indicators within the Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) framework, this study integrates
land cover suitability, soil erosion and sediment transport as complementary Mediterranean-tailored indicators. The
309 km2 Lebanese Nahr Ibrahim basin was chosen for this purpose. Land cover suitability was determined by combining
land capability-land cover maps, while soil erosion and sediment transport were assessed using the CORINE and SWAT
models, respectively. Under current conditions, the following was found: a 34.84% land cover suitability; 4% low,
39.55% moderate and 56.45% high soil erosion risks zones, and 2.85% low, 26% moderate and 68.15% high sediment
yields zones. Through the LDN response strategy based land use plan, land cover suitability increased by 26.54%, while
soil erosion risks changed by: +3.1% low, +10.85% moderate and −18% high risk zones. For sediment transport, changes
were: 0% low, +10.85% moderate and −18% high risk zones, hence the multi-effectiveness of LDN.
... A point-grided GIS database for 15 indicators and three indices has been prepare from geospatial layers and other accessible data. Classes were designated to all indicators and sensitivity weights to desertification in the range of 1.0 (sensitive areas) to 4.0 (critical sensitivity areas) using Analytical Hierarchical Processes (AHP) (Kosmas et al., 1999(Kosmas et al., , 2013Sepehr et al., 2007;Afifi and Gad, 2011;Darwish et al., 2012;Vieira et al., 2015;Shihab et al., 2019). The AHP method is a simple, flexible, and powerful way in a situation where conflicting criteria complicates decision-making in the presence of several alternatives and parameter's influence and contribution to desertification (Crouvi et al., 2012;Pishyar et al., 2019). ...
Globally, desertification is a challenging issue today. As per United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), it has been altering the quality of life of several people across the world. The study deals with temporal monitoring and mapping land degradation and desertification over the Thar Desert, which occupies the northwestern part of Rajasthan, India, with arid climatic conditions. It is necessary to control desertification by taking a few safety steps to create an early warning system based on scientific facts and satellite and secondary data. The current study has focused on integrating different data (i.e., climate, vegetation, and socio-economic), primary and secondary, as per their availability at a spatial scale for evaluating Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESA), prone to desertification. It also provides temporal observation of various ESA indicators to measure the intensity and severity of land degradation in desertification. The weightage of ESA indicators was assigned based on Analytical Hierarchical Processes (AHP) to quantifying the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI). Overall, current research can guide authorities in proceeding with appropriate measures for addressing the process of land degradation. It would help the concerned authorities to execute suitable actions for combating desertification as apprised in COP-14 meeting under UNCCD framework, lately held in New Delhi (India) in 2019.
... As a Mediterranean country, Lebanon suffers from land degradation and soil erosion . Nearly 40.5% of the country is under the risk of desertification (Darwish et al., 2012), 60% under anthropogenic induced land degradation (Darwish et al., 2004), and national soil erosion rates have exceeded that of the Mediterranean's climate pedogenesis . In more recent studies, Abdallah et al. (2018) reported a 74 million US dollar loss per year in the Lebanese agricultural sector as a result of erosion and mass movements. ...
This study aims to implement the Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) concept on a test site: the 309 km 2 Nahr Ibrahim watershed Lebanon, by integrating soil erosion as an LDN indicator given its status as a land degradation driver and common concern of the Mediterranean region. Land degradation was mapped, and erosion risk maps were also established. Through LDN's response strategy, an alternative LDN based land use/land cover (LU/LC) scenario was obtained. The LDN scenario was then tested for adoption as a counter-erosion measure. Under current land occupation conditions, a 63.54% (194 km 2), 4.20% (12.82 km 2) and 32.32% (98.7 km 2) distribution of lands being underutilized, managed within their capability, and being used in a manner that exceeds their capability, respectively, was found. Soil erosion risks under current conditions were distributed as 3.88%, 38.19% and 54.48% low, moderate and high erosion risks, respectively. Following the proposed LDN scenario, 86.7 km 2 (28% of the basin) were restored, while erosion risks shifted to 5.19%, 45.66% and 45.71% for low, moderate, and high erosion risks, respectively. The presented approach revealed the efficiency of LDN not only as a land restoration tool, but also as a powerful counter-erosion measure.
... The progression of droughts in the Nahr Ibrahim watershed for the time being can be considered as minor, and is not particularly alarming. These observations are concurrent with Darwish et al. (2012) observations that reported the Nahr Ibrahim watershed to be one of the least vulnerable regions of country to desertification. The use of remote sensing indicators not only provided insights regarding climatic evolution, but can also serve as an early drought warning system (AghaKouchak et al. 2015), capable of highlighting hotspots that should be integrated in drought preparedness and management plans (Ioras et al. 2014). ...
This study aims to propose a framework for assessing climate change in Mediterranean data-sparse contexts. For that purpose, the 309-km 2 Lebanese Nahr Ibrahim watershed, extending over 3% of Lebanon's surface, was chosen as a representative of the targeted settings. Generally, holistic climate change assessments encompass both climate trend analysis and future forecasting. According to the World Meteorological Organization, a continuous, homogenous, and uninterrupted climatic record for at least 30 years is needed to fulfill these tasks. Often, some Mediterranean watersheds lack such data and are hence characterized by climatic data scarcity. Such is the case of Lebanon where 30 years of wars have considerably disrupted the country's climatic record. In an effort to overcome this state of data scarcity, remote sensing-derived drought indicators were used to determine the climate's evolution during the last 28 years. For that purpose, several remote sensing indices were extracted from LANDSAT imageries for the period 1990-2018 at a 3-year interval, and were coupled to meteorological indicators. Forecasting was then performed using autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models. Meteorological indices showed increased variability of precipitations and aridity periods, while remote sensing indicators collectively revealed slight shifts towards increasing droughts. Projections using ARIMA models forecasted increases of 0.9°C, 0.7°C, and 0.8°C for average, maximal, minimal temperatures, and an average 6 mm decrease of precipitations at the 95% confidence level for the year 2030. The presented approach can serve as a tool for proactive climate change mitigation or adaptation plans.
