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Nowadays friction stir processing (FSP) has been used as a surface modification technology. The FSP improves the surface properties of the material by intense plastic deformation, mixing and breaking the base material through stirring action alongside the heat generated by friction to achieve dense and homogenized microstructure. Moreover, FSP is a...
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... applications of FSP include obtaining ultra-fine grains [43,44], surface hardening [45,46], hybrid reinforcement and in-situ surface composites [28,47], and fabrication of various MMCs [48,49]. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram and the different zones formed during FSP. These zones are divided into four regions: stirring zone (SZ), thermomechanical affected zone (TMAZ), heat-affected zone (HAZ), and base material (BM) [50]. ...
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... focused on cooling method after FSP on AZ91 alloy. The Vickers hardness distribution of the processing area is shown in Fig. 10. The highest hardness was recorded for the jet nozzle cooling samples ranging from 90 to 100 HV0.1. At about 1 mm below the surface, the hardness decreased to 85e94 HV0.1. These results showed that the hardness of the material decreased with the increase of the grain size, which was consistent with the HallePetch ...
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... wear mechanism tended to be abrasive wear. Figure 11 displays the size of the fragments and wear debris was inconsistent. It is shown that fragments resulted from the processed samples was smaller than that from BM. ...
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... studied the influence of different TS on the tribological properties of Ti6Al4V. Figure 13 shows the wear surface morphology observed by SEM. The wear surface morphology of the BM was characterized by deep groove wear, Fig. 13(a). ...
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... studied the influence of different TS on the tribological properties of Ti6Al4V. Figure 13 shows the wear surface morphology observed by SEM. The wear surface morphology of the BM was characterized by deep groove wear, Fig. 13(a). Severe plough and irregular tear pits were observed, o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 2 0 : 1 9 4 0 e1 9 7 5 indicating poor friction performance of the BM. The coefficient of friction (COF) was 0.56 and the wear rate reached the highest value (3.96 Â 10 À4 mm 3 /N.m). The authors ...
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... et al. [76] examined the corrosion behavior of pure titanium before and after FSP by using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in phosphate buffer solution, Fig. 14. All the workpieces showed imperfect depressed semicircles. It was observed that the FSP of pure titanium with three passes had the highest corrosion resistance compared with the BM and single-pass FSP. The possible reason behind this is that crystal grains were rapidly refined the and dynamically recrystallized. So, the increase in ...
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... et al. [77] investigated the corrosion properties of magnesium ZE41. Figure 15 shows the polarization curves obtained. Before FSP, the corrosion rate was 3.15 mm/year, while the corrosion rate was 3.01 mm/year after FSP. ...
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... et al. [78] conducted electrochemical corrosion tests on AE42 alloy under different FSP parameters, Fig. 16. When the grain size difference was slight, the proportion of oxide layer formed on the surface was not significantly different. For the samples with small particles, surface energy increased surface dissolution and corrosion rate. Because the oxide layer connected fine particles, the oxide layer became stronger and broader, and the ...
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... particles can be embedded into the BM in various strategies during FSP, Fig. 17 and Table 2. Figure 17(a) shows the simplest way by laying a layer on the surface of BM. As long as the preplaced layer is uniform everywhere, but within the FSP, the high-speed rotating tool will seriously affect the uniformity of the particles [56]. To overcome this effect, many researchers have tried to drill grooves or holes to ...
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... particles can be embedded into the BM in various strategies during FSP, Fig. 17 and Table 2. Figure 17(a) shows the simplest way by laying a layer on the surface of BM. As long as the preplaced layer is uniform everywhere, but within the FSP, the high-speed rotating tool will seriously affect the uniformity of the particles [56]. ...
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... 17(a) shows the simplest way by laying a layer on the surface of BM. As long as the preplaced layer is uniform everywhere, but within the FSP, the high-speed rotating tool will seriously affect the uniformity of the particles [56]. To overcome this effect, many researchers have tried to drill grooves or holes to introduce reinforcement particles, Fig. 17(bed). Drilling holes into the surface of the BM requires consideration of the holes size, depth, and spacing, which will affect whether the coating can be evenly distributed in the SZ and requires multiple FSP passes [99]. The formation of grooves on the surface of the BM is also a helpful way such as straight lines and curves, Fig. ...
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... particles, Fig. 17(bed). Drilling holes into the surface of the BM requires consideration of the holes size, depth, and spacing, which will affect whether the coating can be evenly distributed in the SZ and requires multiple FSP passes [99]. The formation of grooves on the surface of the BM is also a helpful way such as straight lines and curves, Fig. 17(e, f). Most of the articles investigated straight lines within FSP [100,101]. Most of the articles preferred to choose along the traverse direction. However, some authors recently chose the groove direction to be perpendicular to the traverse direction, ensuring that the coating material is not extruded and can better combine the ...
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... parameters of FSP directly affect the uniformity of nanoparticles distribution. The authors found that reinforcement nanoparticles were almost uniformly distributed throughout the SZ in all samples after FSP. Three different microstructure zones were observed: SZ, TMAZ, and HAZ, Fig. 18. They observed that different nanoparticles exhibit different grain refinement effects. In the absence of nanoparticles, the average grain size in SZ was 81.1 mm, while the grain sizes of the workpiece processed with BN, SiC, Al 2 O 3 , and VC were in a range of 3.5e5 ...
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... et al. [83] used FSP to prepare Ti6Al4V reinforcement particles for AZ31 magnesium-based alloy by changing the volume content of Ti6Al4V particles from 0 to 27%, Fig. 19. When the content of reinforcing particles increased, the grain size continued to decrease, and the grain structure refined more, Fig. 19(bed). It can be observed that Ti6Al4V particles were evenly distributed and firmly bonded to the matrix alloy and interface, without diffusion layer, reaction layer and porosity. They also reported ...
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... et al. [83] used FSP to prepare Ti6Al4V reinforcement particles for AZ31 magnesium-based alloy by changing the volume content of Ti6Al4V particles from 0 to 27%, Fig. 19. When the content of reinforcing particles increased, the grain size continued to decrease, and the grain structure refined more, Fig. 19(bed). It can be observed that Ti6Al4V particles were evenly distributed and firmly bonded to the matrix alloy and interface, without diffusion layer, reaction layer and porosity. They also reported that Ti6Al4V particles were beneficial in enhancing the composites and produced sufficient plastic flow before fracture. Wang et al. [107] ...
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... The Vickers hardness was measured at different regions, Fig. 31. The average indentation hardness of the base material was 61 HV0.1, and the hardness of the FSP sample without adding any enhanced particles increased to 70 HV0.1. By comparing Fig. 31(a, b), it was found that the TiB 2 particles had a more substantial strengthening effect and higher hardness in the SZ. When the mass fraction of TiB 2 ...
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... The Vickers hardness was measured at different regions, Fig. 31. The average indentation hardness of the base material was 61 HV0.1, and the hardness of the FSP sample without adding any enhanced particles increased to 70 HV0.1. By comparing Fig. 31(a, b), it was found that the TiB 2 particles had a more substantial strengthening effect and higher hardness in the SZ. When the mass fraction of TiB 2 particles increased to 30% (Fig. 31(a)), the average hardness value increased to 90 HV0.1 and When the mass fraction of Gr nanoparticles increased to 2% (Fig. 31(b)), the average hardness ...
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... hardness of the base material was 61 HV0.1, and the hardness of the FSP sample without adding any enhanced particles increased to 70 HV0.1. By comparing Fig. 31(a, b), it was found that the TiB 2 particles had a more substantial strengthening effect and higher hardness in the SZ. When the mass fraction of TiB 2 particles increased to 30% (Fig. 31(a)), the average hardness value increased to 90 HV0.1 and When the mass fraction of Gr nanoparticles increased to 2% (Fig. 31(b)), the average hardness value increased to 84 HV0.1. In the AA6061-Gr-TiB 2 hybrid nanocomposites, it was found that the hardness of 1 wt % Gr-20 wt% TiB 2 was increased 67% (to 102 HV0.1, Fig. 31(c). The ...
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... increased to 70 HV0.1. By comparing Fig. 31(a, b), it was found that the TiB 2 particles had a more substantial strengthening effect and higher hardness in the SZ. When the mass fraction of TiB 2 particles increased to 30% (Fig. 31(a)), the average hardness value increased to 90 HV0.1 and When the mass fraction of Gr nanoparticles increased to 2% (Fig. 31(b)), the average hardness value increased to 84 HV0.1. In the AA6061-Gr-TiB 2 hybrid nanocomposites, it was found that the hardness of 1 wt % Gr-20 wt% TiB 2 was increased 67% (to 102 HV0.1, Fig. 31(c). The increase in hardness was due to grain refinement. The other aspect was the addition of multi-reinforcement particles at the ...
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... increased to 30% (Fig. 31(a)), the average hardness value increased to 90 HV0.1 and When the mass fraction of Gr nanoparticles increased to 2% (Fig. 31(b)), the average hardness value increased to 84 HV0.1. In the AA6061-Gr-TiB 2 hybrid nanocomposites, it was found that the hardness of 1 wt % Gr-20 wt% TiB 2 was increased 67% (to 102 HV0.1, Fig. 31(c). The increase in hardness was due to grain refinement. The other aspect was the addition of multi-reinforcement particles at the appropriate proportion. At this ratio, the yield strength was also significantly increased, reaching 225 MPa, with an increase of 300% and a decrease of elongation of about ...
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In present work, friction stir processing (FSP) has been used to fabricate hybrid aluminium composite (HAMC) using a mixture of 6% ZrO2 and 6% Ni as reinforcement particles. Four different passes (1, 2, 4, and 6) were used to study the influence of multipass FSP on tensile properties, residual stresses, and fatigue performance of HAMCs. Six pass FS...
Citations
... Friction Stir Welding (FSW) has been invented for more than three decades and quickly applied to the joining of many materials, [1][2][3][4][5] for example, aluminum alloys, 6-11 magnesium alloys, [11][12][13] steels, [14][15][16][17] titanium alloys, [18][19][20] and even dissimilar metals. [21][22][23][24][25][26] Based on FSW, different new processing technologies are developed, including friction stir processing, 27 friction stir spot welding, 28,29 friction stir additive manufacturing, [30][31][32] etc. Friction Stir Additive Manufacturing (FSAM) is a solid state technology. In FSAM, the problems occurring in solidification processes in general additive manufacturing technology with liquidsolid transformations can be avoided. ...
Both recrystallization and solid state phase transformation take key role for the determination of final mechanical properties in friction stir additive manufacturing (FSAM) of titanium alloy. Monte Carlo model is developed to simulate the microstructural changes and a two scale strategy is used to simulate both the recrystallization and the solid state phase transformation in FSAM of duplex titanium alloy. Results indicate that the selection of the building direction can lead to different temperature variations in FSAM due to the different heat accumulations. Lower temperature leads to lower cooling rate in FSAM. This is the reason that the volume fraction of a phase is decreased when the process temperature is decreased. Higher temperature leads to the formation of bigger grains when the rotating speed is increased or the transverse speed is decreased.
... The FSW is a solid-state welding process that has demonstrated its effectiveness in joining materials that are both similar and different [34][35][36][37][38][39][40]. A significant amount of research has been conducted on the application of FSW for dissimilar materials joining. ...
... The first information about the use of the FSP method for the production of composites appeared in the works of the creators of this method [19]. The results presented by the authors of the paper initiated a new important trend and direction in the development of the FSP method and paved the way for further methodological solutions enabling the production of a wide range of composite surface layers with various chemical compositions and purposes [20][21][22][23][24]. ...
The article presents an assessment of the possibility of using ashes from the combustion of coal and biomass as a reinforcing phase in metal matrix composites. The composite surface layer was produced by means of the FSP (friction stir processing) method, using an original hole solution with a shifted working zone of the pin. The composite matrix was AA7075 alloy. The obtained composite was subjected to microscopic observations, tribological tests, and hardness measurements. The microscopic examinations revealed favorable changes in the microstructure, in particular, strong refinement of the grains, uniform distribution of the reinforcing phase, and good bonding of the particles of this phase with the matrix material. Changes in the microstructure resulted in a significant increase in the hardness (from 36 to 41% depending on the type of reinforcing phase) and wear resistance (from 24.1 to 32.9%), despite partial dissolution of the intermetallic phases. It was found that the effect of strengthening the matrix and the uniformity of the distribution of the reinforcing phase depend on the physicochemical properties of the used powders, especially on the shape and size of the particles. The research shows that the use of ashes as a reinforcing phase in composites is fully justified.
... Automotive, aerospace, and marine industries require materials with high corrosion resistance and good mechanical properties [5]. Friction stir processing (FSP) is a novel solid-state technique that enables the production of MMCs with a refined microstructure and uniform reinforcement distribution [6,7]. The role of refinement depends on additional powder (metal or ceramic) in the total metal matrix or modification of only the metal surface that is exposed to loads [8][9][10][11]. ...
The utilization of Al 2 O 3 nanopowder to reinforce AA5754 aluminum alloy through blind holes employing the friction stir processing (FSP) technique to produce an aluminum matrix nanocom-posite is explored in this paper. Motivated by the necessity to enhance the strength and ductility of welded joints, the impacts of varying the tool rotational speed (rpm) and blind hole diameter on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the joints are investigated. Experimental characterization techniques including SEM, optical microscopy, microhardness, and tensile tests were employed to analyze the welded joints produced under different processing parameters (tool rotational speeds of 910, 1280, and 1700 rpm, and blind hole diameters of 0, 1, 1.5, and 2 mm). Comparative analyses were conducted against base metal properties and joints without reinforcement powder. It was found that the addition of nanopowder resulted in a decrease in the maximum generated heat during FSP, while also reducing the stir zone size compared to samples without nanopowder. Moreover, enhancements in both the strength and ductility of the joints were observed with the incorporation of Al 2 O 3 nanoparticles. The optimal combination of welding conditions, observed at 1280 rpm rotational speed and 1.5 mm hole diameter, yielded a remarkable ultimate tensile strength of 567 MPa, accompanied by a hardness of 45 HV. These results underscore the potential of nano-Al 2 O 3 reinforcement in significantly improving the mechanical properties of the produced nanocomposite, with implications for advancing the performance of welded structures in various engineering applications.
... The middle area features heavily fragmented and rotated dendrites, indicating the thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ). Lastly, a wide area at the bottom shows no noticeable microstructural changes and is referred as the heataffected zone (HAZ) [45]. ...
The present study aims to investigate the effect of friction stir processing (FSP) on the microstructural evolutions and mechanical properties of a nonequiatomic interstitial high‐entropy alloy (HEA). To achieve this, an as‐cast FeMnCoCrN interstitial HEA undergoes FSP to modify the as‐cast microstructure and investigate the resulting effects on mechanical properties. The grain size, sub‐boundaries, martensite fraction, and accommodated strain exhibit a gradient from the base metal (BM) to the stir zone (SZ). As a result of FSP, the average grain size in the upper SZ is significantly decreased from ≈700 μm in BM to 1.5 μm, which is around 500 times finer than that of the BM. Furthermore, the martensitic transformation in a single metastable face‐centered‐cubic phase specifically occurs in the thermomechanical‐affected and heat‐affected zones. Continuous and geometric dynamic recrystallizations triggered by FSP lead to the development of a refined equiaxed microstructure. This gradient microstructure, in turn, plays a pivotal role in achieving significantly improved mechanical properties when compared to the as‐cast microstructure. Remarkably, the yield strength doubles, the ultimate tensile strength increases from 548 to 852 MPa, and ductility increases by 16%.
... Also, the study of MMCs is constantly broadening due to the fact that such materials can be fabricated through the incorporation of a huge mix of reinforcements that are added to the matrix with the possibility of varying not only their type, but also their size, shape and content [3]. Further, it was observed that such variations tend to tune the final composite properties and provide the designer with innumerable options to come up with a material which suits the targeted application [4][5][6]. Amongst the innumerable types of reinforcement, ceramic reinforcements, in both micro and nano scales, have attracted the highest interest [7]. MMCs, due to the merging of the properties of the base alloy and the ceramic reinforcements, possess a superior combination of properties such as ductility coupled with improved toughness and reduced weight with high strength [8]. ...
In the present work, a metal–matrix composite was casted using the LM13 aluminum alloy, which is most widely used for casting automotive components. Such applications require materials to withstand high operating temperatures and perform reliably without compromising their properties. In this regard, particulate-reinforced composites have gained widespread adaptability. The particulate reinforcements used comprise of one of the widely available industrial by-products. which is fly ash, along with the abundantly available quartz. Hybrid composites are fabricated through the economical liquid route that is widely used in mass production. Though there are numerous published research articles investigating the mechanical properties of metal–matrix composites, very few investigated the thermal properties of the composites. In the present work, thermal properties such as thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of cast hybrid composites were evaluated. The particulate reinforcements were added in varied weight percentages to the molten LM13 alloy and were dispersed uniformly using a power-driven stirrer. The melt with the dispersed particulate reinforcements was then poured into a thoroughly dried sand mold, and the melt was allowed to solidify. The quality of the castings was ascertained through density evaluation followed by a microstructural examination. It was found that the composites with only the fly ash particles as a reinforcement were less dense in comparison to the composites cast with the quartz particulate reinforcement. However, the hybrid composite, with both particulate reinforcements were dense. The microstructure revealed a refined grain structure. The thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity values were lower for the composites cast with only the fly ash reinforcement. On the other hand, the composites cast with only quartz as the particulate reinforcement exhibited higher thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity. The specific heat capacity was found to be lower for the fly ash-reinforced composites and higher for the quartz-reinforced composites in comparison to the LM13 base matrix alloy. However, the highest value of thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity were reported for the hybrid composites with a 10 wt.% inclusion of both fly ash and quartz particulate reinforcements.
... Additionally, friction stir processing is an eco-friendly method of processing that is energy-efficient. It is a completely automated process that offers excellent dimensional stability [13][14][15]. ...
Excellent strength and corrosion resistance make dissimilar AA6061-T6/AA7075-T6 aluminium welding a popular choice in the aviation and automobile industries. Fusion welding may lead to defects like voids, thermal cracks, residual stresses, and coarse grains, which can affect the integrity of the joints. To address these problems, friction stir processing (FSP) was commonly employed to increase the microstructural and mechanical features. This study examined the influence of tool spindle speeds on tungsten inert gas (TIG) welded joints, as well as the microstructural features and their relationship to tensile strength, impact toughness, and wear resistance. As the spindle speed of the tool increased, the dendritic coarse grain structure of TIG-welded joints in the fusion area transformed into equiaxed ultrafine structures in the stir region. For the TIG + FSP welded sample at 1300 rpm, the average grain size decreased by 83.10% and the tensile strength and impact toughness increased by 74.84 and 88.89%, respectively, while the wear rate decreased by 46.87%. The TIG + FSP joint had a high tensile strength of 278 MPa, a good impact toughness of 17 J, and a low wear rate of 86 µm at a tool spindle speed of 1300 rpm, while the TIG welded joint had a lower tensile strength of 159 MPa, an impact toughness of 9 J, and a higher wear rate of 132 µm. The tensile fractured surface of TIG joints showed rough cleavage facets, coarse dimples with some voids, while the TIG + FSP joints showed a fine equiaxed dimples with no voids.
... In the process of FSP, similar to FSW, the motion of the rotating nonconsumable tool is utilized to modify the structure [2]. According to Bo Wu et al. [3], FSP enhances the surface properties of materials through intense plastic deformation, mixing, and fracturing of the base materials via stirring action, along with the heat generated by friction, to achieve a dense and uniform microstructure. The severe deformation and rise in temperature during FSP result in microstructural alterations in the desired location [4,5]. ...
Friction Stir processing is an emerging technique that can be utilized to modify the microstructure and mechanical properties of materials, thereby serving as an effective method for fabricating surface composites. This investigation employed the earlier process to produce a surface composite of 6061AA alloy integrated with Al203, WC, and SiC reinforcement particles, each with an average particle size of 10 ± 4 µm. Initially, linear and rotational speeds were implemented on the specimens. Subsequently, the optimal model was selected based on the microstructure outcomes and the highest microhardness value. As a result, the optimal sample was determined to have a rotational speed of 1000 rpm and a linear velocity of 40 mm/min and underwent four passes. A thorough examination of the microstructure of the produced surface composite was conducted through optical microscopy. Furthermore, the mechanical and microstructural properties between the manufactured composite and the base metal were compared comprehensively. The outcomes of the microhardness test revealed a significant improvement in the composite sample compared to the base metal. Specifically, the base metal exhibited a Vickers hardness value of 44, while the four-pass processed specimens displayed 61. The tests above determined that the samples processed at a rotational speed to linear ratio 25 demonstrated acceptable surface quality.
... The principal challenge is their poor corrosion resistance and rapid degradation in biological medium. Furthermore, the rapid degradation rate can result in a loss of strength, and possibility failure before the bone has sufficiently healed [4] . The uncontrollable degradation rate in biological environment restrains their medical application as implant materials. ...
Nowadays, magnesium alloys are emerging in biomedical implants for their similar properties to natural bones. However, the rapid degradation of magnesium alloys in biological media hinders successful implantation. Refinement of microstructure, as well as reinforcement particles can significantly improve the degradation rate. In this work, multi-pass friction stir processing (FSP) was proposed to synthesize WE43/nano-hydroxyapatite (nHA) surface composite, the microstructure, reinforced particle distribution, micro-hardness, corrosion behavior and in-vitro bioactivity were studied. The subsequent FSP passes of WE43 alloy and WE43/nHA composite refined the grain size which was reduced by 94.29 % and 95.92 % (2.63 and 1.88 µm, respectively) compared to base metal after three passes. This resulted in increasing the microhardness by 120 % (90.86 HV0.1) and 135 % (105.59 HV0.1) for the WE43 and WE43-nHA, respectively. It is found that increasing FSP passes improved the uniform distribution of nHA particles within the composite matrix which led to improved corrosion resistance and less degradation rate. The corrosion rate of the FSPed WE43/nHA composite after three passes was reduced by 38.2 % (4.13 mm/year) and the degradation rate was reduced by 69.7 % (2.87 mm/y). This is attributed to secondary phase (Mg24Y5 and Mg41Nd5) particle fragmentation and redistribution, as well as a homogeneous distribution of nHA. Additionally, the growing Ca-P and Mg(OH)2 layer formed on the surface represented a protective layer that reduced the degradation rate. The wettability test revealed a relatively hydrophilic surface with water contact angle of 49.1 ± 2.2° compared to 71.2 ± 2.1° for base metal. Also, biomineralization test showed that apatite layer grew after immersion 7d in simulated body fluid with atomic ratio of Ca/P 1.60 approaching the stoichiometric ratio (1.67) indicating superior bioactivity of FSPed WE43/nHA composite after three passes. These results raise that the grain refinement by FSP and introduction of nHA particles significantly improved the degradation rate and in-vitro bioactivity of WE43 alloy for biomedical applications.
... As mentioned earlier, the investigation demonstrates that incorporating BN ceramic particles into aluminum-based composites notably enhances their mechanical properties [24]. The observed enhancement can be ascribed to the reinforcing influence of the BN particles, which contribute to heightened strength and stiffness inside the composite matrix [25]. R. Palanivel et al. [26] investigated the effects of boron nitride nanoparticles on the microstructure and wear properties of AA6082/TiB 2 hybrid aluminum composites fabricated through friction stir processing. ...
This present study investigated the impact of incorporating boron nitride (BN) and vanadium carbide (VC) reinforcements on various properties of friction stir processed (FSP) AA6061 alloy composites, focusing specifically on grain structure, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, and compressive strength. The findings indicate that VC more effectively refines the grain structure of the AA6061 alloy during FSP compared to BN. The inclusion of BN particles in the metal matrix composites resulted in a decrease in both thermal and electrical conductivity. In contrast, the addition of VC particles led to an increase in both thermal and electrical conductivity. The AA6061/VC composite material exhibited the highest thermal conductivity among all composites tested. The electrical conductivity of the hybrid-composite AA6061/30%BN+70%VC showed a slight reduction, measuring only 2.8% lower than the base alloy AA6061. The mono-composite AA6061/VC exhibited a marginal decrease in thermal conductivity, with a measured value only 7.5% lower than the conventional alloy AA6061. However, the mono-composite AA6061/BN displayed a more significant decline, exhibiting a loss of 14.7% and 13.9% in electrical and thermal conductivity, respectively. The composite material comprising 30% BN and 70% VC reinforcement demonstrated the highest compressive strength compared to all other tested composites. The observed percentage enhancement in the mechanical properties of mono and hybrid composites, compared to the parent AA6061 alloy, ranged from 17.1% to 31.5%.
