Fig 10 - uploaded by Dianna Theadora Kenny
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aÁ/b. (a) The Mozart task: mean fundamental frequency distribution for all six singers showing the histogram distribution on the ordinate from 0 Á/0.2 occurrences at frequencies from 200Á/900Hz on the abscissa in optimal, sub-optimal and loud sub-optimal conditions. (b) The Schubert Task, in the three musical keys used by the six singers.
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In the third of a series of studies on open throat technique, we compared long term average spectra (LTAS) of six advanced singing students under three conditions: 'optimal' (O), representing maximal open throat, 'sub-optimal' (SO), using reduced open throat, and loud sub-optimal (LSO) to control for the effect of loudness. Using a series of univar...
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Citations
... Singing demands extensive co-ordination of the motor system to exercise such aspects like fine laryngeal control, vocal tract tuning, and breath management (Watson & Hixon, 1985). Acoustic and perceptual methods have been used in previous research to investigate pedagogical instructions for the voice, such as forward/backward vocal placement (Vurma & Ross, 2002 and open throat technique (Mitchell et al., 2003;Mitchell & Kenny, 2004a, 2004b. However, aside from Kleber and colleagues' (2007) study on overt and imagined singing, only a limited number of studies have explored imagery's role in singing. ...
Previous sport research has demonstrated that athletes of higher levels employ imagery more than low-level athletes. Because there is currently little research on imagery’s application in singers, the purpose of the present study was to investigate whether this finding is reflected in low-level and high-level singers. A study-specific questionnaire was developed that examined singers’ imagery use. The questionnaire consisted of four subscales that assessed vocal technique, performance anxiety regulation, goals, and characterization. It was found that singers used imagery most for characterization (i.e., portraying a character or feeling), followed by goals, vocal technique, and performance anxiety regulation. No differences existed between professional and student singers’ imagery use. There was a significant difference between males and females on the characterization subscale, suggesting that female singers may use imagery for characterization more so than males. Introducing this approach to imagery to singers and teachers of singing has the potential to influence music education in school settings and impact curriculum development.
... Exercises to produce an open throat have been one of the most used tools to produce freedom or lack of tension in the area of the throat, resulting in a lack of constriction and a better voice quality in both normal and pathological voices. 13,23,24 Most teachers include the use of the open throat technique as an important feature in singing training, especially in classical singing. The purpose of these types of exercises is described by voice trainers to be a way of maximizing pharyngeal space and/or achieving abduction of the ventricular folds. ...
High vertical laryngeal position (VLP), pharyngeal constriction, and laryngeal compression are common features associated with hyperfunctional voice disorders. The present study aimed to observe the effect on these variables of different semioccluded vocal tract postures in 20 subjects diagnosed with hyperfunctional dysphonia. During observation with flexible endoscope, each participant was asked to produce eight different semioccluded exercises: lip trills, hand-over-mouth technique, phonation into four different tubes, and tube phonation into water using two different depth levels. Participants were required to produce each exercise at three loudness levels: habitual, soft, and loud. To determine the VLP, anterior-to-posterior (A-P) compression, and pharyngeal width, a human evaluation test with three blinded laryngologists was conducted. Judges rated the three endoscopic variables using a five-point Likert scale. An intraclass correlation coefficient to assess intrarater and interrater agreement was performed. A multivariate linear regression model considering VLP, pharyngeal width, and A-P laryngeal compression as outcomes and phonatory tasks and intensity levels as predictive variables were carried out. Correlation analysis between variables was also conducted. Results indicate that all variables differ significantly. Therefore, VLP, A-P constriction, and pharyngeal width changed differently throughout the eight semioccluded postures. All semioccluded techniques produced a lower VLP, narrower aryepiglottic opening, and a wider pharynx than resting position. More prominent changes were obtained with a tube into the water and narrow tube into the air. VLP significantly correlated with pharyngeal width and A-P laryngeal compression. Moreover, pharyngeal width significantly correlated with A-P laryngeal compression.
... Different exercises to promote an open throat sensation have been one of the most used tools to produce freedom or lack of excessive tension in the area of the throat and a better tone quality in both normal and pathologic voices. [71][72][73] From our finding, it is possible to state that straw phonation might be an option to produce the same effect. Results from other CT and MRI studies support our findings related to the modification of the pharyngeal area with tube or straw exercises [37][38][39] The increased oral pressure during straw may push the pharyngeal tissues and maybe it also then has the possibility to aid muscle relaxation in the pharyngeal area. ...
Objective:
The present study aimed to investigate the vocal tract and glottal function during and after phonation into a tube and a stirring straw.
Methods:
A male classically trained singer was assessed. Computerized tomography (CT) was performed when the subject produced [a:] at comfortable speaking pitch, phonated into the resonance tube and when repeating [a:] after the exercise. Similar procedure was performed with a narrow straw after 15 minutes silence. Anatomic distances and area measures were obtained from CT midsagittal and transversal images. Acoustic, perceptual, electroglottographic (EGG), and subglottic pressure measures were also obtained.
Results:
During and after phonation into the tube or straw, the velum closed the nasal passage better, the larynx position lowered, and hypopharynx area widened. Moreover, the ratio between the inlet of the lower pharynx and the outlet of the epilaryngeal tube became larger during and after tube/straw phonation. Acoustic results revealed a stronger spectral prominence in the singer/speaker's formant cluster region after exercising. Listening test demonstrated better voice quality after straw/tube than before. Contact quotient derived from EGG decreased during both tube and straw and remained lower after exercising. Subglottic pressure increased during straw and remained somewhat higher after it.
Conclusion:
CT and acoustic results indicated that vocal exercises with increased vocal tract impedance lead to increased vocal efficiency and economy. One of the major changes was the more prominent singer's/speaker's formant cluster. Vocal tract and glottal modifications were more prominent during and after straw exercising compared with tube phonation.
... In spite of the considerable advances that have been made in voice science and voice analysis software over the last two decades, perceptual tests and the human ear remain a good guide to voice production and use (Killian and Wayman 2010;Mitchell and Kenny 2004). The human ear should not be underestimated as the most highly refined analytical tool of human vocal behaviour (Howard 2005;Ma andYiu 2006, cited in Williams 2010). ...
Between the approximate ages of 10 and 15, boys undergo a protracted phase of staged voice change that coincides with other changes in secondary sexual characteristics associated with puberty. A number of researchers, particularly John Cooksey in the United States, have described this. Tensions, however, remain between the theoretical model described in the research and the singing practices boys encounter through choral work in the UK. The age of 13 seems pivotal with regard to the singing range for boys. Cultural and social factors influence this and it is suggested that staged developmental models such as Cooksey's pay inadequate attention to these. This paper reports on the ability of young adolescent boys with good experience of singing to discern differences in vocal timbre and technique in age peers through perceptual tests. It concludes that such boys have surprisingly good discriminatory powers and that more attention should be paid to develop the listening skills of other boys as part of a programme to encourage better understanding of the young male voice.
... The last four phrases of the Ave Maria (phonation only) were extracted and the two takes concatenated to form one.wav file of eight phrases per condition per singer. A long-term average spectrum (LTAS) was generated from each file (Praat v. 4.6.20 (44); 25 Hz bandwidth), then the equivalent sound level (Leq) was calculated by linear-sum-log (45,46) and normalized to the maximum Leq across all singers. ...
Breath management training in classical singing is becoming increasingly physiologically focused, despite evidence that directives focusing on chest-wall kinematic (ribcage and abdominal) behavior effect minimal change in acoustical measures of singing. A direct and proportionate relationship between breathing behavior and vocal quality is important in singing training because singing teachers rely primarily on changes in sound quality to assess the efficacy of breath management modification. Pedagogical opinion is also strongly divided over whether the strategy of retarding the reduction in abdominal dimension during singing has a negative effect on vocal quality. This study investigated whether changes in abdominal kinematic strategy were perceptible and whether listeners preferred a particular strategy. Fourteen experienced singing teachers and vocal coaches assessed audio samples of five female classical singers whose respiratory kinematic patterns during singing had been recorded habitually and under two simple, dichotomous directives: Gradually drawing the abdomen inward and gradually expanding the abdomen, during each phrase. Listeners rated the singers on standard of singing and of breath management. Ratings analysis took into consideration changes in kinematic behavior under each directive determined from the respiratory recordings. Listener ratings for two singers were unaffected by directive. For three singers, ratings were lower when the directive opposed habitual kinematic behavior. The results did not support the pedagogical assumption of a direct and proportional link between respiratory behavior and standard of singing or that the abdomen-outward strategy was deleterious to vocal quality. The findings demonstrate the importance of considering habitual breathing behavior in both research and pedagogical contexts.
... The last four phrases of the Ave Maria (phonation only) were extracted and the two takes concatenated to form one.wav file of eight phrases per condition per singer. A long-term average spectrum (LTAS) was generated from each file (Praat v. 4.6.20 (44); 25 Hz bandwidth), then the equivalent sound level (Leq) was calculated by linear-sum-log (45,46) and normalized to the maximum Leq across all singers. ...
Breathing instruction for classical singing is becoming more physiologically focused, yet the effect of chest-wall kinematic directives on breathing behaviour is largely unexplored. Five female classical singers sang Caccini's Ave Maria without directive and under two directives: 'steadily pull the abdomen inward' and 'steadily expand the abdomen' through each phrase. The directives had a statistically significant effect on chest-wall dimension at initiation of phrase and on excursion, but dimension at termination of each phrase reverted to habitual behaviour. Rib-cage dimensional change counteracted abdominal change so that lung volume measures were consistent within singer across all breathing conditions. The results have implications for the distinction between consciously controlled and innate respiratory behaviours in singing. Implications for singing pedagogy are discussed.
... 15 It has also commonly been used in analysis in artistic and musical contexts with both voices and musical instruments. [16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] Once dependent on use of multiple filter-banks, the long-term spectrum can now be created speedily and with ease by the modern computer. ...
This paper forms part of a larger study into the nature of singing development in children. The focus here is on an investigation of age-related changes in long-term average spectra (LTAS). Three hundred and twenty children in age groups 4-11 years learned a song. Each child was then digitally recorded singing alone. LTAS curves were calculated from the recordings of each voice and perceived age was estimated by a panel of independent judges. Progressive statistically significant changes were observed in the LTAS as a function of increasing age of the children. These took the form of increases in spectral energy in all frequencies below 5.75 kHz, with concomitant reductions of energy in frequency regions above this point. Increases with age were also found in overall intensity levels of the vocal products. Four experienced listeners audited the voice samples and made estimates of the children's ages. The level of accuracy of age-estimates was remarkably high for children in the youngest age groups, but was reduced with voice samples from older children. Maturation and developing competence of the vocal system, both in growth of lung capacity and at a laryngeal level, are implicated in the generation of age-related spectral changes. Perceived child singer age appears to be less closely related to spectral characteristics (as defined within LTAS) with increasing age of children.
... 2,3,23 We reduced the information in LTAS to a single number to make it possible to compare intersinger differences across pairs of LTAS as well as intrasinger differences across pairs of LTAS. 12,13,20,33 Neither ER nor SPR measurements were corroborated by the perceptual ratings of overall quality. LTAS may successfully differentiate between different qualities (opera versus country, pop, or speech), but this does not identify the timbral subtleties that may be contained in LTAS. ...
... 12,48,49 An LTAS plot, like an extended listening sample, provides an overall impression of the most regular features of the sound of a singer. Given the advantages of LTAS, in that it stabilizes to a regular pattern over time 10,33 while retaining the individuality generated by its musical stimuli and the individual singer, one would expect the final LTAS curves to show a positive relationship with perceptual ratings. This result was not confirmed in this study. ...
Long-term average spectra (LTAS) have identified features in the sounds of singers and have compared different vocal qualities based on energy changes that occur during different vocal tasks. In this study, we compared the perceptual ratings of vocal quality of expert pedagogues with acoustic measures performed on LTAS. Fifteen expert judges rated 24 samples with six repeats of six advanced singing students under two conditions: "optimal" (O), which represented the application of the maximal open throat technique; and "suboptimal" (SO), which represented the application of the reduced open throat technique. LTAS were performed on each singing sample, and two conventional assessments of peak energy height [singing power ratio (SPR)] and peak area [energy ratio (ER)] were calculated on each LTAS. Perceptual scores, SPR, and ER were rank ordered. We then compared perceptual rankings with rankings of acoustic measures (SPR and ER) to assess whether these acoustic measurements matched the perceptual judgments of vocal quality. Although we found the expected significant relationship between SPR and ER, there was no relationship between perceptual ratings of vocal samples or singers based on SPR or ER. These findings suggest that because LTAS measures are not consistent with perceptual ratings of vocal quality, such measurements cannot define a voice of quality. Future research with LTAS to assess vocal quality should consider alternative measures that are more sensitive to subtle differences in vocal parameters.
... 'Sub-optimal' (SO) condition involved the use of a reduced (open throat) technique but still with an acceptable singing technique and without consciously altering any other aspect of their technique. The loudFigure 1a sub-optimal condition provided additional acoustic information discussed in earlier papers (Kenny & Mitchell, in press; Mitchell & Kenny, 2004a, 2004b). Each task was performed twice in the O and SO conditions. ...
Singing pedagogues have identified "open throat" as a widely used pedagogical tool in the singing studio and a critical technique to achieve good classical vocal quality. This study is the first to assess the perceptual validity of open throat. Fifteen expert singing pedagogues assessed 48 messa di voce and 24 song samples with six repeats of six advanced singing students under two conditions: "optimal" (O), representing use of maximal open throat technique and "sub-optimal" (SO), representing reduced open throat. Correctly identified responses were counted by condition (O/SO), by judge and by singer. Data were analyzed using Cohen's Kappa. Hypotheses that correct identification would be greater than chance were confirmed for both messa di voce and the song samples, with thirteen of the fifteen judges correctly identifying 82.7% of song samples as O or SO. Singers' self-ratings attributed their best singing to maximal use of open throat technique. These results indicate that listeners are consistent in making a dichotomous choice in identifying use of a singing technique through auditory-perceptual evaluation. The findings from this study suggest that there is a sound quality associated with the use of open throat technique, which is a perceptual reality to singing pedagogues and singers and that the specific vocal quality in classical singing that it produces can be reliably identified by expert listeners. If singers and expert listeners' of singing accord, focusing future research on specific singing techniques could enhance singing pedagogy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract).
... 2,3,23 We reduced the information in LTAS to a single number to make it possible to compare intersinger differences across pairs of LTAS as well as intrasinger differences across pairs of LTAS. 12,13,20,33 Neither ER nor SPR measurements were corroborated by the perceptual ratings of overall quality. LTAS may successfully differentiate between different qualities (opera versus country, pop, or speech), but this does not identify the timbral subtleties that may be contained in LTAS. ...
... 12,48,49 An LTAS plot, like an extended listening sample, provides an overall impression of the most regular features of the sound of a singer. Given the advantages of LTAS, in that it stabilizes to a regular pattern over time 10,33 while retaining the individuality generated by its musical stimuli and the individual singer, one would expect the final LTAS curves to show a positive relationship with perceptual ratings. This result was not confirmed in this study. ...
Long-term average spectra (LTAS) have identified features in the sounds of singers and have compared different vocal qualities based on energy changes that occur during different vocal tasks. In this study, we compared the perceptual ratings of vocal quality of expert pedagogues with acoustic measures performed on LTAS. Fifteen expert judges rated 24 samples with six repeats of six advanced singing students under two conditions: “optimal” (O), which represented the application of the maximal open throat technique; and “suboptimal” (SO), which represented the application of the reduced open throat technique. LTAS were performed on each singing sample, and two conventional assessments of peak energy height [singing power ratio (SPR)] and peak area [energy ratio (ER)] were calculated on each LTAS. Perceptual scores, SPR, and ER were rank ordered. We then compared perceptual rankings with rankings of acoustic measures (SPR and ER) to assess whether these acoustic measurements matched the perceptual judgments of vocal quality. Although we found the expected significant relationship between SPR and ER, there was no relationship between perceptual ratings of vocal samples or singers based on SPR or ER. These findings suggest that because LTAS measures are not consistent with perceptual ratings of vocal quality, such measurements cannot define a voice of quality. Future research with LTAS to assess vocal quality should consider alternative measures that are more sensitive to subtle differences in vocal parameters.
